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00 - Review On Thermodynamic Analysis - Cycles
00 - Review On Thermodynamic Analysis - Cycles
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ﻣﺮوري ﺑﺮ ﺗﺮﻣﻮدﯾﻨﺎﻣﯿﮏ ﮐﻼﺳﯿﮏ
1
References:
Bejan A., Advanced engineering thermodynamics-Wiley (2016)
Bejan A., Thermal design and optimization (1996)
Wark K., Advanced Thermodynamics for Engineers (1994)
Dincer, I. Exergy, Energy, Environment and Sustainable
Development (2004)
Callen, Thermodynamics and an introduction to thermostatics
(1985)
Extended References:
Van Wylen - Fundamentals of Thermodynamics (8th Edition)
Van Wylen, John Wiley & Sons, Fundamentals of Statistical
Thermodynamics, R.E. Sonntag, G.J.
J.S.Hsieh, Principles of Thermodynamics,, McGraw Hill
J. Hatsopoulos and H.J. keenan, Principles of General
Thermodynamics
Table of Contents:
Single-phase Systems
Exergy Analysis
Multiphase Systems
Power Generation
Refrigeration
4
© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,1998
9-2
Rankine Cycle: Actual Vapor Power Deviation
and Pump and Turbine Irreversibilities
(a) Deviation of actual vapor power cycle from the ideal Rankine cycle.
(b) The effect of pump and turbine irreversibilities on the ideal Rankine cycle.
• (Fig. 9-4)
5
9-3
Effect of Lowering Condenser Pressure
on the Ideal Rankine cycle
6
9-4
Effect of Increasing Boiler Pressure on the
Ideal Rankine cycle
7
9-5
8
9-6
Ideal Regenerative Rankine Cycle
with Open Feedwater Heater
9
9-9
12
9-10
(Fig. 9-23)
13
9-9
12
9-10
(Fig. 9-23)
13
A supercritical Rankine cycle.
14
9-11
15
9-12
16
Brayton Cycle
Our study of gas power cycles will involve the study of those heat engines in which
the working fluid remains in the gaseous state throughout the cycle. We often study
the ideal cycle in which internal irreversibilities and complexities (the actual intake of
air and fuel, the actual combustion process, and the exhaust of products of
combustion among others) are removed.
We will be concerned with how the major parameters of the cycle affect the
performance of heat engines. The performance is often measured in terms of the
cycle efficiency.
Wnet
th
Qin
17
Air-Standard Assumptions
In our study of gas power cycles, we assume that the working fluid is air, and the air
undergoes a thermodynamic cycle even though the working fluid in the actual power
system does not undergo a cycle.
To simplify the analysis, we approximate the cycles with the following assumptions:
•The air continuously circulates in a closed loop and always behaves as an ideal gas.
•All the processes that make up the cycle are internally reversible.
•A heat rejection process that restores the working fluid to its initial state replaces the
exhaust process.
•The cold-air-standard assumptions apply when the working fluid is air and has
constant specific heat evaluated at room temperature (25oC or 77oF).
18
The closed cycle gas-turbine engine
19
The T-s and P-v diagrams for the
Closed Brayton Cycle
Process Description
1-2 Isentropic compression (in a
compressor)
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection
20
Recall processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, so
21
Since P3 = P2 and P4 = P1, we see that
( k 1) / k
T4 1
T3 rp
( k 1) / k (1.4 1) /1.4
1 1
T4 T3 1100 K 659.1 K
r 6
p
kJ
wturb C p ( T3 T4 ) 1005
. (1100 659.1) K
kg K
kJ
442.5
kg
We have already shown the heat supplied to the cycle per unit mass flow in process
2-3 is m 2 m 3 m
m 2 h2 Q in m 3h3
Q in
qin h3 h2
m
kJ
C p (T3 T2 ) 1005
. (1100 492.5) K
kg K
kJ 26
609.6
kg
Example
The ideal air-standard Brayton cycle operates with air entering the compressor at 95
kPa, 22oC. The pressure ratio rp is 6:1 and the air leaves the heat addition process at
1100 K. Determine the compressor work and the turbine work per unit mass flow,
the cycle efficiency, the back work ratio, and compare the compressor exit
temperature to the turbine exit temperature. Assume constant properties.
Apply the conservation of energy for steady-flow and neglect changes in kinetic and
potential energies to process 1-2 for the compressor. Note that the compressor is
isentropic.
E in E out
m 1h1 Wcomp m 2 h2
The conservation of mass gives
m in m out
m 1 m 2 m
23
Note that the net work is zero when
k /( k 1)
T3
rp 1 and rp
T1
For fixed T3 and T1, the pressure ratio that makes the work a maximum is obtained
from:
dwnet
0
drp
This is easier to do if we let X = rp(k-1)/k
1
wnet C p T3 (1 ) C p T1 ( X 1)
X
dwnet
C p T3[0 ( 1) X 2 ] C p T1[1 0] 0
dX
Solving for X
30
Then, the rp that makes the work a maximum for the constant property case and fixed
T3 and T1 is
For the ideal Brayton cycle, show that the following results are true.
•When rp = rp, max work, T4 = T2
•When rp < rp, max work, T4 > T2
•When rp > rp, max work, T4 < T2
The following is a plot of net work per unit mass and the efficiency for the above
example as a function of the pressure ratio.
280 0.60
260 0.55
0.50
240
0.45
220
0.40
wnet kJ/kg
th,Brayton
200 T1 = 22C
0.35
180 P1 = 95 kPa
0.30
T3 = 1100 K
160
t = c = 100% 0.25
140 0.20
r p,max
120 0.15
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
31
Pratio
Since P3 = P2 and P4 = P1, we see that
( k 1) / k
T4 1
T3 rp
( k 1) / k (1.4 1) /1.4
1 1
T4 T3 1100 K 659.1 K
r 6
p
kJ
wturb C p ( T3 T4 ) 1005
. (1100 659.1) K
kg K
kJ
442.5
kg
We have already shown the heat supplied to the cycle per unit mass flow in process
2-3 is m 2 m 3 m
m 2 h2 Q in m 3h3
Q in
qin h3 h2
m
kJ
C p (T3 T2 ) 1005
. (1100 492.5) K
kg K
kJ 26
609.6
kg
The net work done by the cycle is
wnet wturb wcomp
kJ
(442.5 19815
. )
kg
kJ
244.3
kg
The cycle efficiency becomes
wnet
th , Brayton
qin
kJ
244.3
kg
0.40 or 40%
kJ
609.6
kg
27
The back work ratio is defined as
win wcomp
BWR
wout wturb
kJ
19815.
kg
0.448
kJ
442.5
kg
Note that T4 = 659.1 K > T2 = 492.5 K, or the turbine outlet temperature is greater
than the compressor exit temperature. Can this result be used to improve the cycle
efficiency?
What happens to th, win /wout, and wnet as the pressure ratio rp is increased?
Consider the T-s diagram for the cycle and note that the area enclosed by the cycle is
the net heat added to the cycle. By the first law applied to the cycle, the net heat
added to the cycle is equal to the net work done by the cycle. Thus, the area
enclosed by the cycle on the T-s diagram also represents the net work done by the
cycle.
28
We define the regenerator effectiveness regen as the ratio of the heat transferred to
the compressor gases in the regenerator to the maximum possible heat transfer to
the compressor gases.
qregen , act h5 h2
qregen , max h5' h2 h4 h2
qregen , act h5 h2
regen
qregen , max h4 h2
33
For ideal gases using the cold-air-standard assumption with constant specific heats,
the regenerator effectiveness becomes
T5 T2
regen
T4 T2
Using the closed cycle analysis and treating the heat addition and heat rejection as
steady-flow processes, the regenerative cycle thermal efficiency is
qout
th , regen 1
qin
h h
1 6 1
h3 h5
Notice that the heat transfer occurring within the regenerator is not included in the
efficiency calculation because this energy is not heat transferred across the cycle
boundary.
Assuming an ideal regenerator regen = 1 and constant specific heats, the thermal
efficiency becomes (take the time to show this on your own)
34
Then, the rp that makes the work a maximum for the constant property case and fixed
T3 and T1 is
For the ideal Brayton cycle, show that the following results are true.
•When rp = rp, max work, T4 = T2
•When rp < rp, max work, T4 > T2
•When rp > rp, max work, T4 < T2
The following is a plot of net work per unit mass and the efficiency for the above
example as a function of the pressure ratio.
280 0.60
260 0.55
0.50
240
0.45
220
0.40
wnet kJ/kg
th,Brayton
200 T1 = 22C
0.35
180 P1 = 95 kPa
0.30
T3 = 1100 K
160
t = c = 100% 0.25
140 0.20
r p,max
120 0.15
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
31
Pratio
Regenerative Brayton Cycle
For the Brayton cycle, the turbine exhaust temperature is greater than the
compressor exit temperature. Therefore, a heat exchanger can be placed between
the hot gases leaving the turbine and the cooler gases leaving the compressor. This
heat exchanger is called a regenerator or recuperator. The sketch of the
regenerative Brayton cycle is shown below.
32
We define the regenerator effectiveness regen as the ratio of the heat transferred to
the compressor gases in the regenerator to the maximum possible heat transfer to
the compressor gases.
qregen , act h5 h2
qregen , max h5' h2 h4 h2
qregen , act h5 h2
regen
qregen , max h4 h2
33
For ideal gases using the cold-air-standard assumption with constant specific heats,
the regenerator effectiveness becomes
T5 T2
regen
T4 T2
Using the closed cycle analysis and treating the heat addition and heat rejection as
steady-flow processes, the regenerative cycle thermal efficiency is
qout
th , regen 1
qin
h h
1 6 1
h3 h5
Notice that the heat transfer occurring within the regenerator is not included in the
efficiency calculation because this energy is not heat transferred across the cycle
boundary.
Assuming an ideal regenerator regen = 1 and constant specific heats, the thermal
efficiency becomes (take the time to show this on your own)
34
When does the efficiency of the air-standard Brayton cycle equal the efficiency of the
air-standard regenerative Brayton cycle? If we set th,Brayton = th,regen then
Recall that this is the pressure ratio that maximizes the net work for the simple
Brayton cycle and makes T4 = T2. What happens if the regenerative Brayton cycle
operates at a pressure ratio larger than this value?
35
For fixed T3 and T1, pressure ratios greater than this value cause T4 to be less than
T2, and the regenerator is not effective.
The following shows a plot of the regenerative Brayton cycle efficiency as a function
of the pressure ratio and minimum to maximum temperature ratio, T1/T3.
36
Using qregen, we can determine the turbine exhaust gas temperature at the
regenerator exit.
m 4 a h4 a Q regen m 6 h6
m 4 a m 6 m
Q regen
qregen h4 a h6 C p (T4 a T6 )
m
kJ
73.9
qregen kg
T6 T4 a 737.7 K
Cp kJ
1.005
kg K
664.2 K
46
Heat supplied to cycle
Apply the steady-flow conservation of energy to the heat exchanger for process 5-3.
We obtain a result similar to that for the simple Brayton cycle.
qin h3 h5 C p (T3 T5 )
kJ
1005
. (1200 698.1) K
kg K
kJ
504.4
kg
Cycle thermal efficiency
39
Compressor analysis
The conservation of energy for the turbine, process 3-4, yields for constant specific
heats (let’s take a minute for you to get the following result)
Wturb m (h3 h4 a )
Wturb mC
p (T3 T4 a )
Wturb
wturb C p (T3 T4 a )
m
41
Since P3 = P2 and P4 = P1, we can find the isentropic temperature at the turbine exit.
( k 1) / k
T4 s P4
T3 P3
( k 1) / k
P4 100kPa (1.41) /1.4
T4 s T3 1200 K ( ) 662.5 K
P3 800kPa
To find the actual temperature at turbine exit, T4a, we apply the turbine efficiency.
wact , turb h3 h4 a T3 T4 a
turb
wisen , turb h3 h4 s T3 T4 s
T4 a T3 turb (T3 T4 s )
1200 K 0.86(1200 662.5) K
737.7 K T2 a
42
The turbine work becomes
wturb h3 h4 a C p (T3 T4 a )
kJ
1.005 (1200 737.7) K
kg K
kJ
464.6
kg
The back work ratio is defined as
win wcomp
BWR
wout wturb
kJ
326.2
kg
0.70
kJ
464.6
kg
43
Regenerator analysis
44
To find the heat transferred from the turbine exhaust gas to the compressor exit gas,
apply the steady-flow conservation of energy to the compressor gas side of the
regenerator.
m 2 a h2 a Q regen m 5h5
m 2 a m 5 m
Q regen
qregen h5 h2 a
m
C p (T5 T2 a )
kJ
1005
. . 624.6) K
(6981
kg K
kJ
73.9
kg
45
Using qregen, we can determine the turbine exhaust gas temperature at the
regenerator exit.
m 4 a h4 a Q regen m 6 h6
m 4 a m 6 m
Q regen
qregen h4 a h6 C p (T4 a T6 )
m
kJ
73.9
qregen kg
T6 T4 a 737.7 K
Cp kJ
1.005
kg K
664.2 K
46
Heat supplied to cycle
Apply the steady-flow conservation of energy to the heat exchanger for process 5-3.
We obtain a result similar to that for the simple Brayton cycle.
qin h3 h5 C p (T3 T5 )
kJ
1005
. (1200 698.1) K
kg K
kJ
504.4
kg
Cycle thermal efficiency
48
Other Ways to Improve Brayton Cycle Performance
Intercooling and reheating are two important ways to improve the performance of the
Brayton cycle with regeneration.
49
The T-s diagram for this cycle is shown below.
50
Intercooling
When using multistage compression, cooling the working fluid between the stages
will reduce the amount of compressor work required. The compressor work is
reduced because cooling the working fluid reduces the average specific volume of
the fluid and thus reduces the amount of work on the fluid to achieve the given
pressure rise.
For the adiabatic, steady-flow compression process, the work input to the compressor
per unit mass is
4 3 0
2 4
wcomp = v dP = v dP v dP v dP
1 3
1 2
51
For the isentropic compression process
k k
wcomp = ( P2 v2 Pv1 1) ( P4 v4 P3v3 )
k -1 k -1
k kR
R(T2 T1 ) (T4 T3 )
k -1 k -1
k
R T1 (T2 / T1 1) T3 (T4 / T3 1)
k -1
( k 1) / k ( k 1) / k
k P2 P4
R T1 1 T3 1
k -1 P1 P3
Notice that the fraction kR/(k-1) = Cp.
Can you obtain this relation another way? Hint: apply the first law to processes 1-4.
52
The air-standard Otto cycle is the ideal cycle that approximates the spark-ignition
combustion engine.
Process Description
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant volume heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant volume heat rejection 60
The P-v and T-s
diagrams are
61
Reheating
The optimum intermediate pressure for reheating is the one that maximizes the
turbine work. Following the development given above for intercooling and assuming
reheating to the high-pressure turbine inlet temperature in a constant pressure
steady-flow process, we can show the optimum reheat pressure to be
P7 P6 P9
or the pressure ratios across the two turbines are equal.
P6 P7 P8
P7 P9 P9
55
Terminology for Reciprocating Devices
56
The compression ratio r of an engine is the ratio of the maximum volume to the
minimum volume formed in the cylinder.
V max VBDC
r
V min VTDC
The mean effective pressure (MEP) is a fictitious pressure that, if it operated on the
piston during the entire power stroke, would produce the same amount of net work as
that produced during the actual cycle.
Wnet wnet
MEP
Vmax Vmin vmax v min
57
The Otto cycle efficiency becomes
T1
th , Otto 1
T2
Is this the same as the Carnot cycle efficiency?
1
th , Otto 1 k 1
r 65
Otto Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Spark-Ignition Engines
Processes
Intake stroke
Compression stroke
Power (expansion) stroke
Exhaust stroke
Often the ignition and combustion process begins before the completion of the
compression stroke. The number of crank angle degrees before the piston reaches
TDC on the number one piston at which the spark occurs is called the engine timing.
What are the compression ratio and timing of your engine in your car, truck, or
motorcycle?
59
The air-standard Otto cycle is the ideal cycle that approximates the spark-ignition
combustion engine.
Process Description
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant volume heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant volume heat rejection 60
The P-v and T-s
diagrams are
61
Thermal Efficiency of the Otto cycle:
62
Apply first law closed system to process 4-1, V = constant.
Qnet , 41 U 41
Qnet , 41 Qout mCv ( T1 T4 )
Qout mCv ( T1 T4 ) mCv (T4 T1 )
The thermal efficiency becomes
Qout
th , Otto 1
Qin
mCv ( T4 T1 )
1
mCv ( T3 T2 ) 63
( T4 T1 )
th , Otto 1
( T3 T2 )
T1 ( T4 / T1 1)
1
T2 (T3 / T2 1)
Recall processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, so
T2 T3
Since V3 = V2 and V4 = V1, we
see that T1 T4
or
T4 T3
T1 T2 64
The Otto cycle efficiency becomes
T1
th , Otto 1
T2
Is this the same as the Carnot cycle efficiency?
1
th , Otto 1 k 1
r 65
We see that increasing the compression ratio increases the thermal efficiency.
However, there is a limit on r depending upon the fuel. Fuels under high temperature
resulting from high compression ratios will prematurely ignite, causing knock.
66
Example
An Otto cycle having a compression ratio of 9:1 uses air as the working fluid. Initially
P1 = 95 kPa, T1 = 17oC, and V1 = 3.8 liters. During the heat addition process, 7.5 kJ
of heat are added. Determine all T's, P's, th, the back work ratio, and the mean
effective pressure.
Process Diagrams: Review the P-v and T-s diagrams given above for the Otto cycle.
67
The first law closed system for process 2-3 was shown to reduce to (your homework
solutions must be complete; that is, develop your equations from the application of
the first law for each process as we did in obtaining the Otto cycle efficiency
equation)
Qin mCv ( T3 T2 )
Let qin = Qin / m and m = V1/v1
RT1
v1
P1
kJ
0.287 ( 290 K ) 3
kg K m kPa
95 kPa kJ
m3 68
0.875
kg
Qin v1
qin Qin
m V1
m3
0.875
kg
7.5kJ
. 10 3 m3
38
kJ
1727
kg
Then, qin
T3 T2
Cv
kJ
1727
kg
698.4 K
kJ
0.718
kg K
3103.7 K 69
Using the combined gas law (V3 = V2)
T3
P3 P2 9.15 MPa
T2
Process 3-4 is isentropic; therefore,
k 1 k 1 1.4 1
V3 1 1
T4 T3 T3 (3103.7) K
V4 r 9
1288.8 K
70
Process 4-1 is constant volume. So the first law for the closed system gives, on a
mass basis,
Qout mCv ( T4 T1 )
Qout
qout Cv (T4 T1 )
m
kJ
0.718 (1288.8 290) K
kg K
kJ
717.1
kg
The first law applied to the cycle gives (Recall ucycle = 0)
81
The vapor compression refrigeration cycle is a common method for transferring heat
from a low temperature to a high temperature.
The above figure shows the objectives of refrigerators and heat pumps. The purpose
of a refrigerator is the removal of heat, called the cooling load, from a low-
temperature medium. The purpose of a heat pump is the transfer of heat to a high-
temperature medium, called the heating load. When we are interested in the heat
energy removed from a low-temperature space, the device is called a refrigerator.
When we are interested in the heat energy supplied to the high-temperature space,
the device is called a heat pump. In general, the term heat pump is used to describe
the cycle as heat energy is removed from the low-temperature space and rejected82 to
the high-temperature space.
74
Thermal efficiency of the Diesel cycle
Wnet Qout
th , Diesel 1
Qin Qin
Now to find Qin and Qout.
Qnet , 23 U 23 P2 (V3 V2 )
Qnet , 23 Qin mCv (T3 T2 ) mR (T3 T2 )
Qin mC p ( T3 T2 ) 75
The Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
86
Cv ( T4 T1 )
th , Diesel 1
C p ( T3 T2 )
1 T1 (T4 / T1 1)
1
What is T3/T2 ?
k T2 (T3 / T2 1)
PV
3 3 PV
2 2 where P3 P2
T3 T2
T3 V3
rc
T2 V2
where rc is called the cutoff ratio, defined as V3 /V2, and is a measure of the
duration of the heat addition at constant pressure. Since the fuel is injected
directly into the cylinder, the cutoff ratio can be related to the number of degrees
that the crank rotated during the fuel injection into the cylinder.
77
What is T4/T1 ?
PV
4 4 PV
1 1 where V4 V1
T4 T1
T4 P4
T1 P1
Recall processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, so
k k k k
PV PV
1 1 2 2 and PV PV4 4 3 3
Since V4 = V1 and P3 = P2, we divide the second equation by the first equation and
obtain
78
1 T1 (T4 / T1 1)
th , Diesel 1
Therefore, k T2 ( T3 / T2 1)
1 T1 rck 1
1
k T2 (rc 1)
k
1 r 1
c
1 k 1
r k (rc 1)
79
When rc > 1 for a fixed r, th , Diesel th , Otto .
80
Q&L m&(h1 h4 ) h1 h4
COPR &
W net , in m&(h2 h1 ) h2 h1
kJ
(238.41 101.61)
kg
kJ
(278.23 238.41)
kg
3.44
The tons of refrigeration, often called the cooling load or refrigeration effect, are
Q&L m&(h1 h4 )
kg kJ 1Ton
3 (238.41 101.61)
min kg 211 kJ
min
1.94Ton
TL
COPR , Carnot
TH TL
(20 273) K
(43.79 (20)) K
3.97 90
Another measure of the effectiveness of the refrigeration cycle is how much input
power to the compressor, in horsepower, is required for each ton of cooling.
W&net , in 4.715
QL& COPR
4.715 hp
3.44 Ton
hp
1.37
Ton
91
The performance of refrigerators and heat pumps is expressed in terms of coefficient
of performance (COP), defined as
Desired output Cooling effect QL
COPR
Required input Work input Wnet ,in
Desired output Heating effect Q
COPHP H
Required input Work input Wnet ,in
Both COPR and COPHP can be larger than 1. Under the same operating conditions,
the COPs are related by
COPHP COPR 1
Refrigerators, air conditioners, and heat pumps are rated with a SEER number or
seasonal adjusted energy efficiency ratio. The SEER is defined as the Btu/hr of heat
transferred per watt of work energy input. The Btu is the British thermal unit and is
equivalent to 778 ft-lbf of work (1 W = 3.4122 Btu/hr
Refrigeration systems are also rated in terms of tons of refrigeration. One ton of
refrigeration is equivalent to 12,000 Btu/hr or 211 kJ/min. How did the term “ton of
cooling” originate?
83
Reversed Carnot Refrigerator and Heat Pump
Shown below are the cyclic refrigeration device operating between two constant
temperature reservoirs and the T-s diagram for the working fluid when the reversed
Carnot cycle is used. Recall that in the Carnot cycle heat transfers take place at
constant temperature. If our interest is the cooling load, the cycle is called the Carnot
refrigerator. If our interest is the heat load, the cycle is called the Carnot heat pump.
84
The standard of comparison for refrigeration cycles is the reversed Carnot cycle. A
refrigerator or heat pump that operates on the reversed Carnot cycle is called a
Carnot refrigerator or a Carnot heat pump, and their COPs are
1 TL
COPR , Carnot
TH / TL 1 TH TL
1 TH
COPHP , Carnot
1 TL / TH TH TL
Notice that a turbine is used for the expansion process between the high and low-
temperatures. While the work interactions for the cycle are not indicated on the
figure, the work produced by the turbine helps supply some of the work required by
the compressor from external sources.
85
The Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
86
Other Refrigeration Cycles
94
The ordinary household refrigerator is a good example of the application of this cycle.
Q L h h
COPR 1 4
Wnet ,in h2 h1
Q H h h
COPHP 2 3
Wnet ,in h2 h1
88
Example
State 2
State1 kJ
h 238.41 Compressor exit kJ
Compressor inlet 1
kg h2 s 278.23
P2 s P2 900 kPa kg
T1 20o C s 0.9456 kJ kJ T2 s 43.79 C
o
x1 1.0 1 kg K s2 s s1 0.9456
kg K
State 3 kJ State 4
h 101.61 x4 0.358
Condenser exit 3
kg Throttle exit
kJ
P3 900 kPa kJ T4 T1 20o C s4 0.4053
s3 0.3738 kg K
x3 0.0 kg K h4 h3
89
Q&L m&(h1 h4 ) h1 h4
COPR &
W net , in m&(h2 h1 ) h2 h1
kJ
(238.41 101.61)
kg
kJ
(278.23 238.41)
kg
3.44
The tons of refrigeration, often called the cooling load or refrigeration effect, are
Q&L m&(h1 h4 )
kg kJ 1Ton
3 (238.41 101.61)
min kg 211 kJ
min
1.94Ton
TL
COPR , Carnot
TH TL
(20 273) K
(43.79 (20)) K
3.97 90
Another measure of the effectiveness of the refrigeration cycle is how much input
power to the compressor, in horsepower, is required for each ton of cooling.
W&net , in 4.715
QL& COPR
4.715 hp
3.44 Ton
hp
1.37
Ton
91
Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
92
Heat Pump Systems
93
Other Refrigeration Cycles
94
ﺷﺮﮐﺘﻬﺎي ﻓﻌﺎل در زﻣﯿﻨﻪ ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ LNGدر ﻣﻘﯿﺎس ﮐﻮﭼﮏ ﺗﺎ ﻣﺘﻮﺳﻂ
ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻫﺎي ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ در زﻣﯿﻨﻪ اﯾﺴﺘﮕﺎه ﻫﺎي ﻣﻘﯿﺎس ﮐﻮﭼﮏ
ﻧﻤﻮﻧﻪ ﻫﺎﯾﯽ از ﭼﻨﺪ اﯾﺴﺘﮕﺎه ﻣﻘﯿﺎس ﮐﻮﭼﮏ
اﺳﺘﺎﻧﺪارد ﺳﺎزي ﻣﺎژوﻟﻬﺎ
اﺳﺘﺎﻧﺪاردﻫﺎ و ﮐﺪﻫﺎي ﻣﻄﺮح در زﻣﯿﻨﻪ ﻃﺮاﺣﯽ
ﺗﺠﻬﯿﺰات ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻣﺎﯾﻊ ﺳﺎزي
ﺑﺮآورد ﻫﺰﯾﻨﻪ ﻫﺎ از ﭼﻨﺪ ﻣﺮﺟﻊ ﺑﺮاي اﯾﺴﺘﮕﺎه ﻫﺎي ﻣﻘﯿﺎس ﮐﻮﭼﮏ
ﺷﮑﺴﺖ ﭘﺮوژه و زﻣﺎن ﺑﻨﺪي ﺑﺮاي راه اﻧﺪازي اﯾﺴﺘﮕﺎه ﻧﻤﻮﻧﻪ
102
Multipurpose refrigeration systems
96
Liquefaction of gases
97
Gas Refrigeration Systems
The power cycles can be used as refrigeration cycles by simply reversing them. Of
these, the reversed Brayton cycle, which is also known as the gas refrigeration cycle,
is used to cool aircraft and to obtain very low (cryogenic) temperatures after it is
modified with regeneration. The work output of the turbine can be used to reduce the
work input requirements to the compressor. Thus, the COP of a gas refrigeration
cycle is
qL qL
COPR
wnet , in wcomp , in wturb , out
98
Absorption Refrigeration Systems
99
Thermoelectric Refrigeration Systems
A refrigeration effect can also be achieved without using any moving parts by simply
passing a small current through a closed circuit made up of two dissimilar materials.
This effect is called the Peltier effect, and a refrigerator that works on this principle is
called a thermoelectric refrigerator.
100
liquefaction Process
101
ﺷﺮﮐﺘﻬﺎي ﻓﻌﺎل در زﻣﯿﻨﻪ ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ LNGدر ﻣﻘﯿﺎس ﮐﻮﭼﮏ ﺗﺎ ﻣﺘﻮﺳﻂ
ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻫﺎي ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ در زﻣﯿﻨﻪ اﯾﺴﺘﮕﺎه ﻫﺎي ﻣﻘﯿﺎس ﮐﻮﭼﮏ
ﻧﻤﻮﻧﻪ ﻫﺎﯾﯽ از ﭼﻨﺪ اﯾﺴﺘﮕﺎه ﻣﻘﯿﺎس ﮐﻮﭼﮏ
اﺳﺘﺎﻧﺪارد ﺳﺎزي ﻣﺎژوﻟﻬﺎ
اﺳﺘﺎﻧﺪاردﻫﺎ و ﮐﺪﻫﺎي ﻣﻄﺮح در زﻣﯿﻨﻪ ﻃﺮاﺣﯽ
ﺗﺠﻬﯿﺰات ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻣﺎﯾﻊ ﺳﺎزي
ﺑﺮآورد ﻫﺰﯾﻨﻪ ﻫﺎ از ﭼﻨﺪ ﻣﺮﺟﻊ ﺑﺮاي اﯾﺴﺘﮕﺎه ﻫﺎي ﻣﻘﯿﺎس ﮐﻮﭼﮏ
ﺷﮑﺴﺖ ﭘﺮوژه و زﻣﺎن ﺑﻨﺪي ﺑﺮاي راه اﻧﺪازي اﯾﺴﺘﮕﺎه ﻧﻤﻮﻧﻪ
102
ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﻪ ﻓﻦ آوري ﻫﺎي ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ LNG
105
ﺷﺒﯿﻪ ﺳﺎزي ﺑﺎ ﻧﺮم اﻓﺰار Hysys
113
ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﻪ ﻓﻦ آوري ﻫﺎي ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ LNG
105
)Single Mixed Refrigerant (SMR
106
Extensions of Single Mixed
Refrigerant
اﯾﻦ ﻓﺮاﯾﻨﺪ ﻧﺮخ ﺳﺮﻣﺎﯾﺶ زﯾﺎدي اﯾﺠﺎد ﻣﯽ ﮐﻨﺪ ﮐﻪ ﻣﻨﺠﺮ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺼﺮف ﺗﻮان ﺑﺎﻻي ﮐﻤﭙﺮﺳﻮر ﺧﻮاﻫﺪ ﺷﺪ.
اﻟﺒﺘﻪ دو ﻣﺮﺣﻠﻪ اي ﮐﺮدن ﻓﺮاﯾﻨﺪ ﺗﺮاﮐﻢ و اﺳﺘﻔﺎده از ﺳﺮد ﮐﺮدن ﻣﯿﺎﻧﯽ ﻣﯽ ﺗﻮاﻧﺪ ﮐﺎر ﻣﺼﺮﻓﯽ ﺟﻬﺖ ﺗﺮاﮐﻢ را ﮐﺎﻫﺶ دﻫﺪ.
ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺗﺮاﮐﻢ در ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﭼﺮﺧﻪ Niche LNGﮐﻤﺘﺮ ﺧﻮاﻫﺪ ﺑﻮد.
ﺑﻪ ﻣﻨﻈﻮر اﻓﺰاﯾﺶ ﺑﺎزدﻫﯽ ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻣﯽ ﺗﻮان از ﯾﮏ ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﭘﯿﺶ ﺳﺮد ﮐﻦ اوﻟﯿﻪ ﻫﻢ اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﻧﻤﻮد ﮐﻪ اﯾﻦ اﻣﺮي ﻣﺘﺪاول
اﺳﺖ .ﻣﺒﺮد ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﭘﯿﺶ ﺳﺮدﮐﻦ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﺎ ﭘﺮوﭘﺎن اﺳﺖ ﺗﺎ ﻃﯽ آن دﻣﺎي ﮔﺎز ﺑﻪ ﺣﺪود -35ﺳﺎﻧﺘﯿﮕﺮاد ﻗﺒﻞ از ﭼﺮﺧﻪ
ﺳﺮﻣﺎﯾﺶ اﺻﻠﯽ ﻣﯽ رﺳﺪ.
107
ﺷﺒﯿﻪ ﺳﺎزي ﺑﺎ ﻧﺮم اﻓﺰار Hysysو ﺑﻬﯿﻨﻪ ﺳﺎزي در MATLAB
APCI
116
Dual nitrogen refrigerant
109
Niche LNG
110
ﻣﻌﯿﺎرﻫﺎي اﻧﺘﺨﺎب ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﺑﺮ ﺣﺴﺐ ﻇﺮﻓﯿﺖ
ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ
119
ﺷﺒﯿﻪ ﺳﺎزي ﻫﺎي ﻋﺪدي ﭼﺮﺧﻪ
ﺗﺮﻣﻮدﯾﻨﺎﻣﯿﮑﯽ
112
ﻣﯿﺰان ﺳﺮﻣﺎﯾﻪ ﮔﺬاري ﻣﻮرد ﻧﯿﺎز ﺑﺮاي ﺑﺨﺸﻬﺎي
ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ
123
Dual N2 وNicheLNG ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﻪ ﭼﺮﺧﻪ
114
ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﺗﻮان ﻣﺼﺮﻓﯽ در ﭼﺮﺧﻪ N2ﻣﺪل ﺷﺮﮐﺖ TOTAL
126
ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﺗﻮان ﻣﺼﺮﻓﯽ در ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻣﺨﻠﻮط ﻣﺒﺮدﻫﺎ ﻣﺪل APCI
127
ﻧﻤﻮدار ﻣﯿﺰان ﺳﺮﻣﺎﯾﺶ ﺑﺮ ﺣﺴﺐ ﮐﺎﻫﺶ دﻣﺎ در دو ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ
128
ﻣﻌﯿﺎرﻫﺎي اﻧﺘﺨﺎب ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺐ
118
ﻣﻌﯿﺎرﻫﺎي اﻧﺘﺨﺎب ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﺑﺮ ﺣﺴﺐ ﻇﺮﻓﯿﺖ
ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ
119
130
ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﻪ ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻫﺎي ﺗﺒﺮﯾﺪ ﺗﺮاﮐﻤﯽ و ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻣﺨﻠﻮط ﻣﺒﺮدﻫﺎ
در ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻣﺨﻠﻮط ﻣﺒﺮدﻫﺎ ﻓﻀﺎي ﺑﯿﺸﺘﺮي ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻧﯿﺘﺮوژن ﻧﯿﺎز ﻣﯽ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ .ﻓﺸﺎر
Compact در ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻧﯿﺘﺮوژن ﺑﺎﻻﺗﺮ اﺳﺖ و ﻫﻤﭽﻨﯿﻦ ﺑﺮ ﺧﻼف ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻣﺨﻠﻮط ﻣﺒﺮدﻫﺎ ،اﺷﺘﻌﺎل ﭘﺬﯾﺮ
ﻧﯿﺴﺖ.
ﺗﻌﺪاد ﺑﺎﻻي ﺗﺠﻬﯿﺰات و ﭘﯿﭽﯿﺪﮔﯽ در ﻣﺒﺮد ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻣﺨﻠﻮط ﻣﺒﺮدﻫﺎ ،ﻫﻤﭽﻨﯿﻦ Start up
Operation ﮐُﻨﺪ و ﻧﯿﺎز ﺑﻪ flare
Safety اﯾﻤﻦ ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﺑﺮ اﺳﺎس ﻧﻮع ﻣﺒﺮد ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻧﯿﺘﺮوژن ﻣﯽ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﮐﻪ ﻣﺒﺮد ﻗﺎﺑﻠﯿﺖ اﺣﺘﺮاق ﻧﺪارد.
121
Liquefaction processes
Specifications
122
ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﻪ ﺑﯿﻦ ﺳﺮﻣﺎﯾﻪ ﮔﺬاري در ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻫﺎي ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺑﺮاي اﯾﺴﺘﮕﺎه ﻫﺎي ﻇﺮﻓﯿﺖ ﮐﻢ
132
اﻃﻼﻋﺎت ﮐﻠﯽ راﺟﻊ ﺑﻪ ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻫﺎ در اﯾﺴﺘﮕﺎه
ﻫﺎي MINI LNG
124
ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﻪ ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻫﺎي ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻣﺎﯾﻊ ﺳﺎزي LNGﺑﺎ ﻇﺮﻓﯿﺖ 50ﺗﻦ در
روز
ﻇﺮﻓﯿﺖ ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ :روزاﻧﻪ 50ﺗﻦ LNG
در اﯾﻦ ﺧﺼﻮص روﺷﻬﺎي ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﯽ ﭘﯿﺸﻨﻬﺎد ﺷﺪه اﺳﺖ وﻟﯽ ﺷﺎﺧﺼﺘﺮﯾﻦ آﻧﻬﺎ ﻋﺒﺎرﺗﻨﺪ از:
SMR
C3/MR
N2 Expander
125
ﻣﺸﺨﺼﺎت ﺗﺮﮐﯿﺐ ﻣﺒﺮدﻫﺎي اﺣﺘﻤﺎﻟﯽ
134
ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﺗﻮان ﻣﺼﺮﻓﯽ در ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻣﺨﻠﻮط ﻣﺒﺮدﻫﺎ ﻣﺪل APCI
127
ﻧﻤﻮدار ﻣﯿﺰان ﺳﺮﻣﺎﯾﺶ ﺑﺮ ﺣﺴﺐ ﮐﺎﻫﺶ دﻣﺎ در دو ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ
128
ﻧﻤﺎﯾﯽ از ﯾﮏ ﻣﺨﺰن ذﺧﯿﺮه
137
130
ﻣﺒﺪل ﺣﺮارﺗﯽ دﻣﺎ ﭘﺎﯾﯿﻦ
140
ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﻪ ﺑﯿﻦ ﺳﺮﻣﺎﯾﻪ ﮔﺬاري در ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻫﺎي ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺑﺮاي اﯾﺴﺘﮕﺎه ﻫﺎي ﻇﺮﻓﯿﺖ ﮐﻢ
132
142
ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻫﺎي ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ روش ﺗﺒﺮﯾﺪ ﻣﺨﻠﻮط ﻣﺒﺮدﻫﺎ ﺑﺪون ﭘﯿﺶ ﺳﺮﻣﺎﯾﺶ ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﺑﺮاي اﯾﺴﺘﮕﺎه
ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ LNGدر ﻣﻘﯿﺎس ﮐﻮﭼﮏ
143
ﻧﺤﻮه ذﺧﯿﺮه ﺳﺎزي LNG
ﻣﻨﺎﺑﻊ ذﺧﯿﺮه ﺑﺮاي اﯾﻦ ﮐﺎر ﻋﺒﺎرﺗﻨﺪ از:
-1ﻣﺨﺎزن ذﺧﯿﺮه ﺑﺎ ﺳﻄﻮح ﻓﻮﻻدي داﺧﻞ و ﺧﺎرج و ﻋﺎﯾﻖ ﭘﺮﻟﯿﺖ ﻣﻨﺒﺴﻂ ﺷﺪه ﺑﻌﻨﻮان ﻋﺎﯾﻖ و ﮐﻒ
ﮐﺎﻣﻼ ﻋﺎﯾﻖ ﺷﺪه
-2ﻣﺨﺎزن ﺑﺎ دﯾﻮاره داﺧﻠﯽ ﻓﻠﺰي ﺧﺎرﺟﯽ ﺑﺘﻮﻧﯽ
ﺑﺎ ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺠﻢ ﮐﻢ ﻣﻮرد ﻧﻈﺮ ) 200-100ﻣﺘﺮ ﻣﮑﻌﺐ( ﻣﺨﺎزن ذﺧﯿﺮه ﻧﻮع اول ﭘﯿﺶ ﺑﯿﻨﯽ ﻣﯽ ﺷﻮد
ﺑﺎ ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺎﯾﻊ ﺑﺎ دﻣﺎي ﺣﺪود -160 Cدر ﻻﯾﻪ داﺧﻠﯽ و ﮐﻒ ﻣﺨﺰن از ﻓﻮﻻد 9% Niﺑﺎ اﺳﺘﺎﻧﺪارد
ASTM A553ﯾﺎ ﻣﻌﺎدل آن اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﻣﯿﺸﻮد .اﻟﮑﺘﺮود ﺟﻮﺷﮑﺎري ﻧﯿﺰ ﯾﮑﯽ از ﮔﺮﯾﺪﻫﺎي
INCONELاﺳﺖ .ﺑﺎ ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻧﯿﺎز ﺑﻪ ﻣﻘﺎوﻣﺖ ﺑﻪ ﺿﺮﺑﻪ در دﻣﺎي ﺑﺴﯿﺎر ﭘﺎﯾﯿﻦ ،اﯾﻦ ﺗﺴﺖ در دﻣﺎي -
196Cدر اﯾﺮان ﻗﺎﺑﻞ اﻧﺠﺎم ﻣﯽ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ.
135
اﺳﺘﺎﻧﺪارد ﺗﺴﺖ ﻣﺨﺎزن ذﺧﯿﺮه
136
146
اﺳﺘﺎﻧﺪاردﻫﺎي ﻣﺮﺗﺒﻂ
اﺳﺘﺎﻧﺪاردﻫﺎي ﻣﻮﺟﻮد در راﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﺎ ﻓﺮاﯾﻨﺪ LNGﻣﺮﺑﻮط ﺑﻪ اﻟﻤﺎﻧﻬﺎي ﭘﺮوﺳﻪ ﻣﯽ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ و ﺑﻌﻀﯽ •
از آﻧﻬﺎ ﻋﺒﺎرﺗﻨﺪ از:
ﻣﺨﺎزن ذﺧﯿﺮه LNG API 625و BS EN14620 part 1,2
ﻧﺼﺐ و راه اﻧﺪازي ﭘﻠﻨﺘﻬﺎي LNGدر BS EN 1473
ﺧﺸﮑﯽ
ﻣﺸﺨﺼﺎت ﮐﻠﯽ LNG EN 1160
ﻋﺎﯾﻘﮑﺎري و ﺗﺴﺘﻬﺎي آب ﺑﻨﺪي EN 12066
ﻃﺮاﺣﯽ PIPING EN 13480
ﭘﺮﻟﯿﺖ ﻋﺎﯾﻘﮑﺎري ﻣﺨﺎزن ASTM C549
ﺗﺴﺘﻬﺎي ﺿﺮﺑﻪ در دﻣﺎي ﺑﺴﯿﺎر ﮐﻢ EN 10045و EN875
138
ﺗﺠﻬﯿﺰات اﺻﻠﯽ ﻣﻮرد ﻧﯿﺎز و ﭼﺎﻟﺸﻬﺎي ﭘﯿﺶ رو
Kind of Mixture
Screw Cryogenic Heat
Special Pumps Refrigerant
Compressor Exchanger
Components
Special
Storage Tanks Materials
Welding
139
ﻣﺒﺪل ﺣﺮارﺗﯽ دﻣﺎ ﭘﺎﯾﯿﻦ
140
Small Scale
Liquefiers,
Operating and
Planned
147
142
ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻫﺎي ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ روش ﺗﺒﺮﯾﺪ ﻣﺨﻠﻮط ﻣﺒﺮدﻫﺎ ﺑﺪون ﭘﯿﺶ ﺳﺮﻣﺎﯾﺶ ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﺑﺮاي اﯾﺴﺘﮕﺎه
ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ LNGدر ﻣﻘﯿﺎس ﮐﻮﭼﮏ
143
ﭼﻨﺪ اﯾﺴﺘﮕﺎه ﻧﻤﻮﻧﻪ
ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﺮاه ﭼﺮﺧﻪ و
ﻇﺮﻓﯿﺖ ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ
144
Small Scale
Liquefiers,
Operating and
Planned
145
146
Small Scale
Liquefiers,
Operating and
Planned
147
ﺷﺮﮐﺖ Linde
148
اﺳﺘﺎﻧﺪارد ﺳﺎزي ﻣﺎژوﻟﻬﺎ در ﺷﺮﮐﺖ Linde
149
156
روﻧﺪ اﻓﺰاﯾﺶ ﻣﯿﺰان ﺗﻘﺎﺿﺎ ﺑﺮاي ﻣﻨﺎﺑﻊ ﻫﯿﺪروﮐﺮﺑﻮري
ﻣﺴﯿﺮ ﻫﺎي ﺣﻤﻞ درﯾﺎﯾﯽ LNG
157
152
ﻣﺤﺪوده ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ اﯾﺴﺘﮕﺎه ﻣﻘﯿﺎس ﮐﻮﭼﮏ اﯾﻦ ﺷﺮﮐﺖ
5ﺗﺎ 400ﺗﻦ LNGدر روز
153
154
Hamaworthy ﺷﺮﮐﺖ
155
156
روﻧﺪ اﻓﺰاﯾﺶ ﻣﯿﺰان ﺗﻘﺎﺿﺎ ﺑﺮاي ﻣﻨﺎﺑﻊ ﻫﯿﺪروﮐﺮﺑﻮري
ﻣﺴﯿﺮ ﻫﺎي ﺣﻤﻞ درﯾﺎﯾﯽ LNG
157
ﭘﺮاﮐﻨﺪﮔﯽ ﻣﻨﺎﺑﻊ ﻋﻤﺪه ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ
ﭘﺮاﮐﻨﺪﮔﯽ ﺑﺎزارﻫﺎي ﻋﻤﺪه ﻣﺼﺮف
158
159