Journal of Manufacturing Processes 37 (2019) 212–219

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Journal of Manufacturing Processes

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Technical Paper

Effect of beam wobbling on laser welding of aluminum and magnesium alloy T

with nickel interlayer
L.H. Shaha,b, , F. Khodabakhshic, , A. Gerlicha
⁎ ⁎⁎

a
Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1,
Canada
b
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, 26600, Pekan, Pahang, Malaysia
c
School of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Tehran, P.O. Box, 11155-4563, Tehran, Iran

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: The influence of conventional laser keyhole welding and beam wobbling was evaluated at two weld travel speeds
Aluminum and power settings. Fracture in linear lap welds would occur during specimen preparation due to the presence of
Magnesium Al-rich brittle fusion zone, unless one utilizes a circular laser wobbling path (at 1000 Hz). Wobbling provided
Laser welding better integrity due to the presence of a Mg-rich ductile fusion zone and a larger bonded width. It can be
Beam wobbling
concluded that laser beam wobbling enhances joint quality by widening the joint area and mitigating formation
Microstructure
Interlayer
of brittle secondary phases at the joint fusion zone.

1. Introduction interlayers such as Ni foil as a cost-effective and simple method to

Laser welding is a reliable process utilized in several industrial
sectors to weld dissimilar metallic materials with high speed and ac-
curacy. Laser welding greatly increases design flexibility and mechan-
ical properties in dissimilar joints [1]. However, laser welding between
metals such as aluminum and magnesium always involves challenges
due to cracking and formation of brittle intermetallic compounds
(IMCs). This stems from the drastic differences in thermo-physical
properties, such as melting temperature and thermal expansion coeffi-
cient, along with a limited solubility between these metals. To mitigate
this phenomenon, several suggestions have been put forth, namely; (i)
hybrid laser welding with a secondary heat source, (ii) the addition of
adhesive, also known as laser weld bonding (LWB) and (iii) laser
welding with addition of metallic interlayer or filler metal.
Chang et al. [2] and Liu et al. [3] experimented with hybrid laser-
friction stir welding and hybrid laser-tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding,
respectively, to produce Al-Mg joints with better integrity. Further-
more, Liu et al. [4,5] and Wang et al. [6,7] conducted Al-Mg dissimilar
welding using the LWB method and reported better properties because
of the synergy between laser welding and adhesive bonding. However,
both methods are costly and require complex setup.
On the other hand, several works have suggested the use of metallic
improve Al-Mg dissimilar welding [2,3,8–11]. For example, Chang et al.
[2] reported an increase in transverse tensile strength of a dissimilar Al-
Mg joint with the addition of Ni foil interlayer due to the presence of
less brittle Ni-based intermetallic compounds (IMCs) instead of
Al12Mg17. Similarly, Wang et al. [12] experimented with laser-arc-ad-
hesive hybrid dissimilar welding of Al to Mg using a Ni interlayer. It
was reported that the transition zone between Mg and Al is composed of
the Mg-Mg2Ni eutectic and Al-Al3Ni peritectic which resulted in an
increase in joint strength. However, both of these methods required a
secondary heat source to enhance the joint integrity.
The common laser welding defects such as porosity and underfilling
coupled with the formation of brittle IMCs will significantly constrict
the processing window for dissimilar welding using laser technology.
Recent developments in the laser industry have introduced a novel
technique to broaden the applications for lasers through utilization of
fast oscillation of the laser beam, also known as laser beam wobbling.
This ‘wobble effect’ is produced by high frequency wobbling rotation of
the laser lens, which in turn produces a beam that moves in a circular
fashion superimposed on the laser head’s translational motion across
the workpiece. Kuryntsew and Gilmutdinov [13] conducted a series of
trials using constant laser beam trajectory as the first laser welding pass
and wobbling trajectory as the second pass on various structural steels.

Corresponding author at: Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West,
⁎

Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada.

⁎⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: lhahmads@uwaterloo.ca (L.H. Shah), fkhodabakhshi@ut.ac.ir (F. Khodabakhshi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2018.11.028
Received 13 May 2018; Received in revised form 21 November 2018; Accepted 29 November 2018
1526-6125/ © 2018 Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of The Society of Manufacturing Engineers.
L.H. Shah et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 37 (2019) 212–219

It was reported that the wobbling trajectory is associated with lower Table 1
cooling rates and minimizes the number of detrimental phases which Fixed parameter setup for Al-Mg dissimilar welding.
provided greater ductility of the weld metal and guarantees less Parameter Value/type
shrinkage. Vakili-Farahani et al. [14] performed process parameter
optimization for wobbling laser spot welding on Ti6Al4V alloy. It was Laser mode Keyhole mode
Process fiber diameter (μm) 100
found that the wobbling frequency has the most influence on the weld
Focal length (mm) 200
geometry features within the design space, but its effect on the weld Spot size at focus (μm) 200
microhardness is not significant. Shield gas Argon
In addition, Kraetzsch et al. [15] successfully demonstrated that a Beam tilt angle (º) 5
crack-free dissimilar weld between Al and Cu was possible using a Wobble frequency (Hz) 1000
Wobble amplitude (μm) 400
2500 Hz beam oscillation for both lap joint and butt joint configuration.
Wobble pattern Circular
The butt joint configuration achieved a tensile strength of up to ap-
proximately 80% of the Al alloy base metal. However, to the best of the
authors’ knowledge, no other dissimilar laser welding study have been Table 2
reported utilizing the beam wobble method. It is therefore imperative Varied parameters for linear and wobble laser welding setup.
to explore the feasibility of this technique on other dissimilar metals to
Sample number Laser method Power (W) Weld speed (m/min)
expand this technique in forming alternative dissimilar welds.
The present feasibility study evaluates the ability to suppress the 1 Linear 1225 2
brittle phases and cracking in dissimilar laser welding of aluminum and 2 Linear 1450 4
magnesium when using a thin foil of Ni as an interlayer at the interface 3 Wobble 1225 2
4 Wobble 1450 4
of a lap weld. The role of the laser beam wobbling technique is eval-
uated by comparing the microstructures in welds produced with a
conventional linear laser path. section was conducted using Zeiss Ultra Plus scanning electron micro-
scopy (SEM) device which is equipped with energy dispersive x-ray
2. Experimental method spectroscopy (EDX). Secondary electron imaging was utilized with ac-
celerating voltage of 20 kV and 60 μm aperture size. Vickers hardness
The base metals used in this study is AA6022 (nominal main al- device was used using 200 gf load with 10 s dwell time to observe the
loying element composition 1.0 wt% Si and 0.6 wt% Mg) aluminum hardness values of the weld region.
alloy and AZ31 (nominal main alloying element composition 3.0 wt%
Al and 1.0 wt% Zn) magnesium alloy sheets of similar sheets with di-
mensions of 25 × 100 × 2 mm. A lap joint configuration was utilized in 3. Results and discussion
this study, as shown in Fig. 1. From preliminary experiments, no sound
dissimilar joint was successfully fabricated between Al and Mg sheets 3.1. Microstructural and mechanical characterization
due to premature cracking during rapid cooling. Therefore, a 0.1 mm
pure nickel interlayer was inserted at the faying surface to promote Fig. 2 depicts the top view of the welded samples. Successful joints
joint formation. were obtained for both linear and wobble samples. The weld seam of all
The laser welding was conducted using an IPG Photonics fiber laser samples shows a consistent weld width and a relatively flat bead profile
YLS-6000 and the fixed parameter setup is indicated in Table 1. More except for Sample 4, where inconsistent width and undercutting can be
than 50 other test runs with varying combinations of travel speeds observed. The cross-sectional SEM micrographs of the weld regions are
ranging from 2 m/min to 6 m/min and laser power ranging from 500 W presented in Fig. 3. The white dashed lines represent the weld region
to 3000 W were conducted. However, only two similar parameter set- boundary. Defects such as porosity and undercutting are visible and
tings resulted in satisfactory joints for both linear and wobble laser labeled in the micrographs. Fig. 3(a) to (c) show the ideal condition
welding setup. The specimens are designated as Sample 1 to 4, with the where the Ni foil was successful melted to form a weld region pene-
welding parameters as shown in Table 2. Other combinations produced trating deep inside the bottom AA6022 base metal. In comparison, only
either burn-through or insufficient (and inconsistent) penetration into partial melting was generated in Sample 4 and a minimal weld region in
the lower sheet. the Al alloy can be seen. Black regions were also visible in Fig. 3(d)
Specimens were cut using a Struers Accutom-50 precision cutter to because of oxidation (possibly magnesium oxide, MgO) due to the
reveal the weld cross section. To enhance cross-sectional micro- presence of water from the polishing process residing in the pores of the
structural observations, the samples were cold mounted, ground and weld region, and is not due to the welding process.
polished on specific polishing pads using 9 μm and 3 μm diamond paste In addition, a distinct horizontal fracture at the joint boundary can
as well as 0.1 μm colloidal silica. also be observed for the linear laser samples. It should be noted that the
Microstructural observations and elemental analysis of the cross fracture occurred during the precision shearing process due to the
cutting vibration and not due to fracture during rapid cooling. This
evidently indicates that linear laser samples have a weak joint strength
despite superficially bonding.
The weld region can be divided into two fusion zones. The upper
fusion zone is the darker region dominating the top region (the Mg
sheet), while the lower fusion zone is the brighter region visible mainly
in the Al sheet. The white islands scattered throughout both fusion
zones originated from the Ni foil. Fig. 4 shows the typical boundary
between the upper fusion zone and lower fusion zone as well as be-
tween the base metals and the weld region of Sample 3. No distinct
intermetallic layer can be observed along these boundaries. In addition,
microcracks form at the lower fusion zone, depicted by black arrows in
Fig. 1. Lap joint configuration of dissimilar laser welding of Al-Mg with Ni Fig. 4(a) and (b). It may have also formed during the cutting process
interlayer. rather than the cooling period, but this could not be confirmed. These

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L.H. Shah et al.
Fig. 2. Top view of the welded workpiece of (a) Sample 1, (b) Sample 2, (c) Sample 3, and (d) Sample 4. Scale markers are in millimeters.
cracks appear in the lower fusion zone of all samples with varying
degree of severity, indicating brittle structure of this fusion zone. No
cracks are observed at the upper fusion zones between the Al and Mg
sheet.
Elemental mapping of the weld region was conducted for Sample 2
and Sample 3 depicting Mg, Ni and Al distribution, as presented in
Fig. 5. The region of interest is depicted in the SEM images of Fig. 5(a)
and (e). As can be predicted, the top weld region (upper fusion zone) is
dominated by the presence of Mg (Fig. 5(b) and (f)), while the majority
of Al material resides in the lower region of the weld (Fig. 5(c) and (g)).
In both cases, the Ni foil appears to have melted and formed an opening
‘waist’ between the base metals. Fig. 5(d) and (h) also confirms that the
islands mainly consist of Ni particles separated from the interlayer due
to melting.
The most observable difference in both sample is the presence of Al-
rich fusion zone penetrating upwards in the AZ31 sheet in Fig. 5(a)
compared to the Mg-rich fusion zone penetrating downwards in the
AA6022 sheet in Fig. 5(e). Given that cracks were observed propagating
in the lower fusion zone, the presence of this interface at the waist of
the Ni foil will introduce a stress concentration in the joint region which
leads to a weak fusion zone vulnerable to cracking.
Fig. 6 depicts a survey of Vickers hardness indentation values in
selected weld regions of Sample 2 and 3. The base metal and interlayer
hardness values are also presented at the left side of each micrographs.
The hardness of the upper fusion zone of Sample 2 and Sample 3 ranges
from 84 to 101 HV and 136 to 174 HV, respectively. For the lower fu-
sion zone of Sample 2 and Sample 3, the values were between 274 to
334 HV and 283 to 327 HV, respectively. Both samples conclusively
demonstrate that the upper fusion zone shows a relatively soft and
ductile behavior. On the other hand, cracking could be noted at the
corners of hardness indents (not shown) and high hardness values
Fig. 3. The cross-sectional weld region SEM micrographs of (a) Sample 1, (b) Sample 2, (c) Sample 3, and (d) Sample 4 with observable pores and premature fracture.
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Journal of Manufacturing Processes 37 (2019) 212–219
compared to the base metals throughout the lower fusion zone point out
the brittleness of this region and is the main reason for the horizontal
fracture in Sample 1 and Sample 2 as mentioned above.
In addition, SEM fractography of the interlayer waist region in
Sample 2 is provided in Fig. 7. The fracture surfaces observed on both
sides reveal microcracks (shown in red arrows) and a planar, faceted
cleavage structure, indicative of a brittle failure. This is in good
agreement with the findings of Dai et al. [16] who reported the fracture
surface of arc assisted ultrasonic seam welding of Mg/Al joints with a
Zn interlayer. It is postulated that this brittle nature of the lower fusion
zone was the primary reason that cracks formed and propagated in this
region due to vibration during the sample shearing process.
Further analysis can be made of the weld region through EDX ele-
mental analysis. Fig. 8 shows the high magnification images of Ni is-
lands, upper fusion zone and lower fusion zone with elemental com-
position and possible compound on selected area tabulated in Table 3.
The Ni islands in both upper and lower fusion zone show a similar trend
in terms of the Al-Ni interaction with possible formation of Al3Ni2, AlNi
and AlNi3 compounds. For the upper fusion zone, a high atomic per-
centage of Mg in the dark region suggests α-Mg phase with dissolved Al.
On the other hand, the dark region in the lower fusion zone indicates an
Al-Mg brittle compound of Al3Mg2. The composition of the cube-shaped
and needle-shaped white precipitates in the upper and lower fusion
zone could not be accurately determined due to its fine nature, since the
results may be influenced by electron interaction volume contributions
from the surrounding areas.
The element distribution maps in Fig. 5 and EDX data indicate a
preferential interaction between Al and Ni as compared to Mg and Ni,
where mainly Ni is present in the weld region. Fig. 9 shows the for-
mation enthalpies, ΔH (kJ/mol), for different mass fraction (%) of Al-
Mg, Al-Ni and Mg-Ni, respectively. The values were calculated using a
L.H. Shah et al.
Fig. 4. SEM image of Sample 3 boundaries between (a) upper fusion zone and lower fusion zone, (b) Close-up of the microcrack region.
Fig. 5. Distribution maps of (a) secondary electron image of Sample 2 with (b) Mg element, (c) Ni element and (d) Al element, as well as (e) secondary electron image
of Sample 3 with (f) Mg element, (g) Ni element and (h) Al element.
Miedema model originally developed by Miedema et al. [17–19] and
integrated into a software designed by Zhang et al. [20–22]. These
values show slight variations compared to the values reported by Wang
et al. [12] where only Al-Ni system show a larger negative value
compared to Al-Mg. In this work, Al-Ni and Mg-Ni is shown to have a
consistent larger negative value compared to Al-Mg system.
In addition, the Gibbs energy of compounds, ΔG, as a function of
temperature for all Al-Ni and Mg-Ni based IMCs was calculated using
HSC Chemistry 5.11 software and tabulated in Fig. 10. From the dia-
gram, the compounds with the lowest ΔG are Al-Ni based IMCs, which
are the ones likely to form as predicted in Table 3. Figs. 9 and 10 in-
dicate that an Al-Ni interaction has a higher probability to occur among
all binary systems, potentially mitigating Al-Mg interactions which
forms brittle Al3Mg2 and Al12Mg17 compounds. Therefore, it can be
concluded that Ni foil also serves as a physical barrier given its higher
melting point (1455 °C) compared to AZ31 and AA6022 (566 °C and
579 °C, respectively), as evidenced by the limited bonded width of the
waist. This provides a chemical barrier to prevent intermixing of the
sheets and formation of deleterious Al-Mg intermetallic compounds.
3.2. Effects of laser wobble and welding parameters
From the overall results, the laser wobbling technique has shown to
be an effective means to improve joint strength by inhibiting fracture at
the joints. On both occasions, linear laser welding beam successfully
penetrates the Ni foil, but in doing so promotes brittle lower fusion zone
formation at the interlayer waist. Table 4 below lists the nominal heat
input (kJ/mm), bonded width (mm) and weld penetration in the Al
alloy (mm) of samples. Note that the heat input calculated was
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Journal of Manufacturing Processes 37 (2019) 212–219
simplified based on weld speed and laser power in Table 2. The actual
values would be influenced by other factors such as welding efficiency
and material emissivity which would decrease the value to a certain
extent. The nominal power densities for 1225 and 1450 W power were
calculated to be 3.9 and 4.6 MW/cm2, respectively, showing no sig-
nificant difference. These laser welding processes can be classified as a
keyhole mode based on the observed deep penetration in the specimens
and the sufficiently high energy density (> 106 W/cm2) [23].
It can be seen from Table 4 that similar power density and heat
input comparison shows an increase in bonded width but a decrease in
weld penetration depth when laser wobble setup is utilized. This can be
understood by the fact that wobbling effect results in the laser beam
dissipating heat to a larger area per beam translational advancement.
Fig. 11 shows a top view schematic of the movement and approxima-
tion of the resultant weld seam width of linear laser beam compared to
the wobble laser beam. It clearly demonstrates that the wobbling
technique will cover a larger area compared to common linear welds,
forming three times the weld seam width. Hence, a larger bond width
but shallower weld penetration can be expected.
Comparing both laser wobble samples, a relatively high heat input
results in the best weld joint (Sample 3). Sample 4 parameters provided
insufficient heat input to melt the Ni foil barrier completely, subse-
quently forming the weld pool mainly in the Mg alloy where bulging of
the weld region can be observed (Fig. 3(d)). On the other hand, despite
the slightly higher heat input in Sample 3, the wobbling action ensures
wider heat dissipation area while enough to penetrate the Ni foil. This
sample could form a larger interlayer waist which translates to greater
joint area, but also loses the energy intensity to penetrate deeper inside
the bottom base metal (shallower penetration). However, it is worth
L.H. Shah et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 37 (2019) 212–219

Fig. 6. Vickers hardness value of selected regions in (a) Sample 2 and (b) Sample 3.

Fig. 7. Fracture surface of Sample 2 from (a) upper Mg alloy and (b) lower Al side.

noting that the bond area formed is not optimal for the thickness of the
sheets, thus further optimization of the parameters would be worth-
while.
The reason for the inclination of linearly welded samples to fracture
at the interlayer waist is discussed below. The mechanism of keyhole
mode linear laser welding has been outlined by Fabbro [24]. Fig. 12
presents a schematic of the linear laser Al-Mg dissimilar welding pro-
cess viewed from the longitudinal cross-section of the setup. During
welding, the melt is initially forced downwards and flow towards the
back of the beam, eventually solidifying to form the upper and lower
fusion zones. Since the heat generation is concentrated more at the top
sheet, the bottom sheet solidifies faster, forcing the melt to flow

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L.H. Shah et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 37 (2019) 212–219

Fig. 8. Secondary electron images of (a) Ni island (in upper fusion zone), (b) Ni island (in lower fusion zone), (c) upper fusion zone with white cube-shaped particles
and (c) lower fusion zone with needle-like precipitates.

Table 3
Elemental composition of Ni islands, upper fusion zone and lower fusion zone
(at%).
Region Area/ Al Ni Mg Possible compound
point

Ni island in upper fusion A 56.5 43.5 – Al3Ni2, AlNi

zone B 57.1 42.9 – Al3Ni2, AlNi
Ni island in lower fusion C 31.7 64.8 3.5 AlNi3
zone D 24.3 69.4 6.3 AlNi3
Upper fusion zone E 12.6 1.0 86.4 α-Mg with dissolved
Al
F 20.3 1.6 78.1 –
Lower fusion zone G 57.6 0.8 41.6 Al3Mg2
H 74.9 10.1 15.0 –
Fig. 10. Gibbs energy of compound, ΔG, for Al-Ni and Mg-Ni based IMCs as a
function of temperature.

Table 4
Nominal heat input, bonded width and weld penetration of samples.
Sample Nominal heat input Bonded width Weld penetration in Al
number (kJ/mm) (mm) alloy (mm)

1 117 0.23 1.56

2 69 Not available 0.83
3 117 0.52 1.32
4 69 0.29 0.21

upwards due to the resolidification gradient. As a result, a wider weld

Fig. 9. Formation enthalpy (ΔH) of the Al-Mg, Al-Ni and Mg-Ni system as a
function of mass fraction calculated by the Miedema model.
region width can be observed at the top sheet and the upward flow
could be the reason for the presence of the lower fusion zone being
introduced into the Mg sheet, forming a brittle structure at the inter-
layer waist (Sample 1 and Sample 2).

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L.H. Shah et al.
Fig. 11. Top view schematic of movement and resultant seam width of (a) linear laser welding and (b) wobble laser welding.
Fig. 12. Longitudinal cross section of keyhole mode laser welding process.
On the other hand, the mechanism of the wobble laser welding is
more intricate. Due to the circular motion, the motion of the melt flow
is very complex and chaotic. From the depiction of the laser beam
movement in Fig. 11(b), it can be expected that the high frequency
motion (1 kHz) results in the beam actively passing an area several
times while progressively traversing forward, since the circular motion
pitch is 0.033 and 0.067 mm for 2 and 4 m/min travel speed, respec-
tively. Combined with the multi-axial movement of the laser beam,
laser beam wobbling may have disrupted the equilibrium of the soli-
dification process mentioned above and suppressed the upward flow of
the melt, resulting in the presence of ductile upper fusion zone in the
interlayer waist region and Al sheet (Sample 3, Fig. 3(c)).
The traverse and longitudinal cross section of the fusion zone in
Sample 3 is depicted in Fig. 13. The dashed line in Fig. 13(a) represents
the longitudinal plane shown in Fig. 13(b). The longitudinal plane de-
monstrates the consistency of the Mg-rich upper fusion zone dom-
inating the waist region, contrary to the expected laser welding process
mechanism in Fig. 12.
Fig. 13. (a) Traverse and (b) longitudinal image of the fusion zone in Sample 3.
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Journal of Manufacturing Processes 37 (2019) 212–219
This paper has successfully demonstrated that keyhole mode laser
welding of Al-Mg with Ni interlayer is feasible through a single laser
beam without additional heat source such as hybrid process of
laser + friction stir welding (FSW) reported by Chang et al. [2] and
laser + TIG welding conducted by [12]. This work suggests two key
aspects that beam wobbling contributes to the improvement in joint
formation, namely; the reduced thermal cycle due to wider heat dis-
sipation, and; the rigorous stirring from the cone of the vapor (depicted
in Fig. 11) which stirs the pool and disrupts the common resolidifica-
tion mechanisms observed in welds, such as centerline segregation
which can lead to hot cracking.
Given the potential of the laser wobbling method, future studies
should undertake efforts to optimize the welding parameters to form
deep penetration of upper fusion zone in the Al alloy, ideally enclosing
the interlayer waist and its vicinity to prevent premature cracking,
subsequently enhancing the shear strength of the joint. Further mod-
elling of this technique would also be of great interest to understand the
mechanism behind chaotic flow intermixing and phase formation.
4. Conclusion
Keyhole mode laser welding of Al-Mg with Ni foil interlayer using a
single laser source was successfully conducted using linear and wobble
process. The findings from this paper is summarized as follows:
(i) Fracture occurred when linear laser welding was used due to the
presence of brittle lower fusion zone in the area. On the other
hand, the joint in the wobble laser remained intact after the cutting
process because of the ductile upper fusion zone in this region.
(ii) Elemental mapping shows Ni islands scattered throughout the weld
region, with the Ni element preferentially interacting with Al to
potentially form AlxNiy compounds.
(iii) Laser beam wobble enhances joint quality by widening the bond
area (interlayer waist) and mitigating brittle lower fusion zone
formation in the region.
L.H. Shah et al.
Declaration of interest
None.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge Sean Harrington and Eric
Stiles from IPG Photonics, Michigan, USA for the assistance in laser
welding. This work was supported by the Ministry of Higher Education,
Malaysia and Universiti Malaysia Pahang; and the Natural Sciences and
Engineering Research Council of Canada.
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