PLANT AND LIVESTOCK SYSTEMS AND ENVIRONMENTAL

CONTROL ENGINEERING
AC. NICDAO

Module 1
Environmental Factors Affecting Plant Growth

Plant growth and geographic distribution are greatly affected by the

environment. If any environmental factor is less than ideal, it limits a plant's growth
and/or distribution. For example, only plants adapted to limited amounts of water can
live in deserts.

Either directly or indirectly, most plant problems are caused by environmental

stress. In some cases, poor environmental conditions (e.g., too little water) damage a
plant directly. In other cases, environmental stress weakens a plant and makes it more
susceptible to disease or insect attack.

Environmental factors that affect plant growth include light, temperature,

water, humidity, and nutrition. It is important to understand how these factors affect
plant growth and development. With a basic understanding of these factors, you may
be able to manipulate plants to meet your needs, whether for increased leaf, flower, or
fruit production. By recognizing the roles of these factors, you also will be better able
to diagnose plant problems caused by environmental stress.

1. Light

Three principal characteristics of light affect plant growth: quantity, quality, and
duration.

a. Quantity

Light quantity refers to the intensity, or concentration, of sunlight. It varies with

the seasons. The maximum amount of light is present in summer, and the minimum in
winter. Up to a point, the more sunlight a plant receives, the greater its capacity for
producing food via photosynthesis.

You can manipulate light quantity to achieve different plant growth patterns.
Increase light by surrounding plants with reflective materials, a white background, or
supplemental lights. Decrease it by shading plants with cheesecloth or woven shade
cloths.
 b. Quality

Light quality refers to the color (wavelength) of light. Sunlight supplies the
complete range of wavelengths and can be broken up by a prism into bands of red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.

Blue and red light, which plants absorb, have the greatest effect on plant
growth. Blue light is responsible primarily for vegetative (leaf) growth. Red light,
when combined with blue light, encourages flowering. Plants look green to us because
they reflect, rather than absorb, green light.

Knowing which light source to use is important for manipulating plant growth.
For example, fluorescent (cool white) light is high in the blue wavelength. It
encourages leafy growth and is excellent for starting seedlings. Incandescent light is
high in the red or orange range, but generally produces too much heat to be a valuable
light source for plants. Fluorescent grow-lights attempt to imitate sunlight with a
mixture of red and blue wavelengths, but they are costly and generally no better than
regular fluorescent lights.

c. Duration

Duration, or photoperiod, refers to the amount of time a plant is exposed to

light. Photoperiod controls flowering in many plants (Figure 26). Scientists initially
thought the length of light period triggered flowering and other responses within
plants. Thus, they describe plants as short-day or long-day, depending on what
conditions they flower under. We now know that it is not the length of the light
period, but rather the length of uninterrupted darkness, that is critical to floral
development.

Plants are classified into three categories: short-day (long-night), long-day

(short-night), or day-neutral, depending on their response to the duration of light or
darkness.

a. Short-day plants form flowers only when day length is less than about 12
hours. Many spring- and fall-flowering plants, such as chrysanthemum, poinsettia, and
Christmas cactus, are in this category. In contrast,

b. long-day plants form flowers only when day length exceeds 12 hours. Most
summer flowering plants (e.g., rudbeckia, California poppy, and aster), as well as
many vegetables (beet, radish, lettuce, spinach, and potato), are in this category.
 c. Day-neutral plants form flowers regardless of day length. Examples are
tomato, corn, cucumber, and some strawberry cultivars. Some plants do not fit into
any category, but may respond to combinations of day lengths. Petunias, for example,
flower regardless of day length, but flower earlier and more profusely with long days.

You can easily manipulate photoperiod to stimulate flowering. For example,

chrysanthemums normally flower in the short days of spring or fall, but you can get
them to bloom in midsummer by covering them with a cloth that completely blocks
out light for 12 hours each day. After several weeks of this treatment, the artificial
dark period no longer is needed, and the plants will bloom as if it were spring or fall.
This method also is used to make poinsettias flower in time for Christmas.

To bring a long-day plant into flower when day length is less than 12 hours,
expose the plant to supplemental light. After a few weeks, flower buds will form.

2. Temperature

Temperature influences most plant processes, including photosynthesis,

transpiration, respiration, germination, and flowering. As temperature increases (up to
a point), photosynthesis, transpiration, and respiration increase. When combined with
day-length, temperature also affects the change from vegetative (leafy) to
reproductive (flowering) growth. Depending on the situation and the specific plant,
the effect of temperature can either speed up or slow down this transition.

a. Germination
The temperature required for germination varies by species. Generally, cool-
season crops (e.g., spinach, radish, and lettuce) germinate best at 55° to 65°F, while
warm-season crops (e.g., tomato, petunia, and lobelia) germinate best at 65° to 75°F.
b. Flowering

Sometimes horticulturists use temperature in combination with day length to

manipulate flowering. For example, a Christmas cactus forms flowers as a result of
short days and low temperatures (Figure 26). To encourage a Christmas cactus to
bloom, place it in a room with more than 12 hours of darkness each day and a
temperature of 50° to 55°F until flower buds form.

If temperatures are high and days are long, cool-season crops such as spinach
will flower (bolt). However, if temperatures are too cool, fruit will not set on warm-
season crops such as tomato.
c. Crop quality

Low temperatures reduce energy use and increase sugar storage. Thus, leaving
crops such as ripe winter squash on the vine during cool, fall nights increases their
sweetness.

Adverse temperatures, however, cause stunted growth and poor-quality

vegetables. For example, high temperatures cause bitter lettuce.

d. Photosynthesis and respiration

Thermoperiod refers to daily temperature change. Plants grow best when

daytime temperature is about 10 to 15 degrees higher than nighttime temperature.
Under these conditions, plants photosynthesize (build up) and respire (break down)
during optimum daytime temperatures and then curtail respiration at night. However,
not all plants grow best under the same range between nighttime and daytime
temperatures. For example, snapdragons grow best at nighttime temperatures of 55°F;
poinsettias, at 62°F.

Temperatures higher than needed increase respiration, sometimes above the

rate of photosynthesis. Thus, photosynthates are used faster than they are produced.
For growth to occur, photosynthesis must be greater than respiration.

Daytime temperatures that are too low often produce poor growth by slowing
down photosynthesis. The result is reduced yield (i.e., fruit or grain production).

Breaking dormancy

Some plants that grow in cold regions need a certain number of days of low
temperature (dormancy). Knowing the period of low temperature required by a plant,
if any, is essential in getting it to grow to its potential.

Peaches are a prime example; most varieties require 700 to 1,000 hours
between 32° and 45°F before breaking their rest period and beginning growth. Lilies
need 6 weeks of temperatures at or slightly below 33°F before blooming.

Daffodils can be forced to flower by storing the bulbs at 35° to 40°F in

October. The cold temperature allows the bulbs to mature. When transferred to a
greenhouse in midwinter, they begin to grow, and flowers are ready to cut in 3 to 4
weeks.
Hardiness

Plants are classified as hardy or nonhardy depending on their ability to

withstand cold temperatures. Hardy plants are those that are adapted to the cold
temperatures of their growing environment.

Woody plants in the temperate zone have very sophisticated means for sensing
the progression from fall to winter. Decreasing day length and temperature trigger
hormonal changes that cause leaves to stop photosynthesizing and to ship nutrients to
twigs, buds, stems, and roots. An abscission layer forms where each petiole joins a
stem, and the leaves eventually fall off. Changes within the trunk and stem tissues
over a relatively short period of time "freeze-proof" the plant.

Winter injury to hardy plants generally occurs when temperatures drop too
quickly in the fall before a plant has progressed to full dormancy. In other cases, a
plant may break dormancy in mid- or late winter if the weather is unseasonably warm.
If a sudden, severe cold snap follows the warm spell, otherwise hardy plants can be
seriously damaged.

It is worth noting that the tops of hardy plants are much more cold-tolerant than
the roots. Plants that normally are hardy to 10°F may be killed if they are in containers
and the roots are exposed to 20°F.

Winter injury also may occur because of desiccation (drying out) of plant
tissues. People often forget that plants need water even during winter. When the soil is
frozen, water movement into a plant is severely restricted. On a windy winter day,
broadleaf evergreens can become water-deficient in a few minutes, and the leaves or
needles then turn brown. To minimize the risk of this type of injury, make sure your
plants go into the winter well watered.

3. Water and Humidity

Most growing plants contain about 90 percent water. Water plays many roles in
plants. It is:

A primary component in photosynthesis and respiration

Responsible for turgor pressure in cells (Like air in an inflated balloon, water is
responsible for the fullness and firmness of plant tissue. Turgor is needed to maintain
cell shape and ensure cell growth.)

A solvent for minerals and carbohydrates moving through the plant

Responsible for cooling leaves as it evaporates from leaf tissue during transpiration

A regulator of stomatal opening and closing, thus controlling transpiration and, to

some degree, photosynthesis

The source of pressure to move roots through the soil

The medium in which most biochemical reactions take place

Relative humidity is the ratio of water vapor in the air to the amount of water the air
could hold at the current temperature and pressure. Warm air can hold more water
vapor than cold air. Relative humidity (RH) is expressed by the following equation:

RH = water in air ÷ water air could hold (at constant temperature and pressure)

Relative humidity is given as a percent. For example, if a pound of air at 75°F could
hold 4 grams of water vapor, and there are only 3 grams of water in the air, then the
relative humidity (RH) is: 3 ÷ 4 = 0.75 = 75%

Water vapor moves from an area of high relative humidity to one of low relative
humidity. The greater the difference in humidity, the faster water moves. This factor is
important because the rate of water movement directly affects a plant's transpiration
rate.

The relative humidity in the air spaces between leaf cells approaches 100 percent.
When a stoma opens, water vapor inside the leaf rushes out into the surrounding air
(Figure 25), and a bubble of high humidity forms around the stoma. By saturating this
small area of air, the bubble reduces the difference in relative humidity between the
air spaces within the leaf and the air adjacent to the leaf. As a result, transpiration
slows down.

If wind blows the humidity bubble away, however, transpiration increases. Thus,
transpiration usually is at its peak on hot, dry, windy days. On the other hand,
transpiration generally is quite slow when temperatures are cool, humidity is high, and
there is no wind.

Hot, dry conditions generally occur during the summer, which partially explains why
plants wilt quickly in the summer. If a constant supply of water is not available to be
absorbed by the roots and moved to the leaves, turgor pressure is lost and leaves go
limp.
4. Plant Nutrition

Plant nutrition often is confused with fertilization. Plant nutrition refers to a

plant's need for and use of basic chemical elements. Fertilization is the term used
when these materials are added to the environment around a plant. A lot must happen
before a chemical element in a fertilizer can be used by a plant.

Plants need 17 elements for normal growth. Three of them--carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen--are found in air and water. The rest are found in the soil.

Six soil elements are called macronutrients because they are used in relatively large
amounts by plants. They are nitrogen, potassium, magnesium, calcium, phosphorus,
and sulfur.

Plant macronutrients
Leaches
Absorbed from soil/ Signs of Signs of
Element Notes
as Mobility in excess deficiency
plant
In general, the
best
Reduced NH4+:NO3-
growth, ratio is 1:1.
yellowing Under low
Succulent (chlorosis). sugar
growth; dark Reds and conditions
green color; purples (low light),
Leachable, weak, spindly may high NH4+
NO3-,
especially growth; few intensify in can cause leaf
Nitrogen (nitrate),
NO3-. fruits. May some curl. Uptake is
(N) NH4+
Mobile in cause brittle plants. inhibited by
(ammonium)
plants. growth, Reduced high P levels.
especially lateral bud The N:K ratio
under high breaks. is extremely
temperatures. Symptoms important.
appear first Indoors, the
on older best N:K ratio
growth. is 1:1 unless
light is
extremely
 high. In soils
with a high
C:N ratio,
more N
should be
supplied.
Rapidly
bound (fixed)
on soil (P)
particles.
Under acid
conditions,
Reduced
fixed with Fe,
growth.
Mg, and Al.
Color may
Under
Normally intensify;
alkaline
not browning
conditions,
leachable, or purpling
fixed with Ca.
but may of foliage
Shows up as Important for
H PO -, leach from in some
Phosphorus 2 4 micronutrient young plant
HPO4- soil high in plants. Thin
(P) deficiency of and seedling
(phosphate) bark or stems,
Zn, Fe, or Co. growth. High
peat. Not reduced
P interferes
readily lateral bud
with
mobile in breaks, loss
micronutrient
plants. of lower
absorption
leaves,
and N
reduced
absorption.
flowering.
Used in
relatively
small amounts
when
compared to
N and K.
Causes N Reduced N:K balance
Can leach
deficiency in growth, is important.
in sandy
Potassium plant and may shortened High N:low K
K+ soils.
(K) affect the inter-nodes. favors
Mobile in
uptake of Marginal vegetative
plants.
other positive burn or growth; low
 ions. scorch N:high K
(brown leaf promotes
edges), reproductive
necrotic growth
(dead) spots (flowers,
in leaves. fruit).
Reduction
of lateral
bud breaks,
tendency to
wilt readily.
Mg
commonly is
deficient in
Reduction foliage plants
in growth. because it is
Marginal leached and
chlorosis, not replaced.
interveinal Epsom salts at
chlorosis a rate of 1
(yellow teaspoon per
between the gallon may be
veins) in used two
Leachable.
Magnesium Interferes with some times per
Mg++ Mobile in
(Mg) Ca uptake. species year. Mg also
plants.
(may occur can be
on middle absorbed by
or lower leaves if
leaves). sprayed in a
Reduction weak solution.
in seed Dolomitic
production, limestone can
cupped be applied in
leaves. outdoor
situations to
correct a
deficiency.
Normally High Ca Inhibition Ca is
Calcium
Ca++ not usually causes of bud important to
(Ca)
leachable. high pH, growth, pH control
 Moderately which then death of and rarely is
limited precipitates root tips. deficient if the
mobility in many Cupping of correct pH is
plants. micronutrients maturing maintained.
Interferes so that they leaves, Water stress
with Mg become weak (too much or
absorption. unavailable to growth. too little) can
plants. Blossom- affect Ca
end rot of relations
many fruits, within plants,
pits on root causing
vegetables. deficiency in
the location
where Ca was
needed at the
time of stress.
S often is a
carrier or
impurity in
General
fertilizers and
Sulfur excess yellowing
Leachable, rarely is
SO4- usually is in of affected
Sulfur (S) not mobile deficient. It
(sulfate) the form of air leaves or
in plants. also may be
pollution. the entire
absorbed fro
plant.
the air and is a
by-product of
combustion.

Eight other soil elements are used in much smaller amounts and are
called micronutrients or trace elements. They are iron, zinc, molybdenum,
manganese, boron, copper, cobalt, and chlorine.

Plant micronutrients
Absorbed
Element Signs of excess Signs of deficiency Notes
as
Rare except on Soil high in Ca, Add Fe in the
Fe++, flooded soils. Mn, P, or heavy chelate form.
Iron (Fe)
Fe+++ Interveinal metals (Cu, Zn); The type of
chlorosis, high pH; poorly chelate needed
 primarily on drained soil; depends on soil
young tissue, oxygen-deficient pH.
which eventually soil; nematode
may turn white. attack on roots.
Failure to set seed,
BO3- Blackening or
internal
Boron (B) death of tissue
breakdown, death
Borate between veins.
of apical buds.
"Little leaf"
(reduction in leaf
size), short
Shows up as Fe
internodes,
deficiency. Also
Zinc (Zn) Zn++ distorted or
interferes with Mg
puckered leaf
absorption.
margins,
interveinal
chlorosis.
Can occur at low May be found
New growth small,
Copper (Cu) Cu++, Cu+ pH. Shows up as in some peat
misshapen, wilted.
Fe deficiency. soils.
Reduction in Interveinal
growth, brown chlorosis of leaves Found under
Manganese
Mn++ spotting on followed by brown acid
(Mn)
leaves. Shows up spots, producing a conditions.
as Fe deficiency. checkered effect.
Interveinal
MoO4- chlorosis on older
Molybdenum
or midstem leaves,
(Mo)
(molybdate) twisted leaves
(whiptail).
Salt injury, leaf Leaves wilt, then
burn. May become bronze,
Chlorine (Cl) Cl-
increase then chlorotic, then
succulence. die; club roots.
Most of the nutrients a plant needs are dissolved in water and then absorbed by its
roots. In fact, 98 percent are absorbed from the soil-water solution, and only about 2
percent are actually extracted from soil particles.

Fertilizers

Fertilizers are materials containing plant nutrients that are added to the
environment around a plant. Generally, they are added to the water or soil, but some
can be sprayed on leaves. This method is called foliar fertilization. It should be done
carefully with a dilute solution, because a high fertilizer concentration can injure leaf
cells. The nutrient, however, does need to pass through the thin layer of wax (cutin)
on the leaf surface.

Fertilizers are not plant food! Plants produce their own food from water, carbon
dioxide, and solar energy through photosynthesis. This food (sugars and
carbohydrates) is combined with plant nutrients to produce proteins, enzymes,
vitamins, and other elements essential to growth.

Nutrient absorption

Anything that reduces or stops sugar production in leaves can lower nutrient
absorption. Thus, if a plant is under stress because of low light or extreme
temperatures, nutrient deficiency may develop.

A plant's developmental stage or rate of growth also may affect the amount of
nutrients absorbed. Many plants have a rest (dormant) period during part of the year.
During this time, few nutrients are absorbed. Plants also may absorb different
nutrients as flower buds begin to develop than they do during periods of rapid
vegetative growth.
 Module 2

Animal Environmental Requirements

The capacity of an animal to produce differs between species, breeds and

strains as a result of genetic factors. However, a complex of inter-related factors in the
animal husbandry will influence the animal's ability to utilize that capacity for growth,
development and production.

Progress in breeding and feeding for further increase in production and

efficiency can be limited by environmental factors. Research into these factors has
therefore been increasing in recent years, especially in countries having intensive
animal production.

Animal housing design is mainly concerned with the physical environment, in

particular climatic and mechanical factors, but all other factors should also be
considered in order to create a good layout, where healthy, high yielding animals can
be provided with correct feeding, can be easily handled and can produce without
stress or suffering physical harm.

Heat Regulation

All domestic livestock are homeotherms; that is, they maintain relatively constant
internal body temperatures, usually within a 1 to 2° C range. Normal body
temperatures of some domestic animals and humans are given in Table 10.1.

Table 10.1 Normal Body Temperatures of Domestic Animals and Humans

Animals Temperature °C
Average Range
Dairy Cow 38.6 38.0 - 39.3
Beef Cow 38.3 36.7 - 39.1
Pig 39.2 38.7- 39.8
Sheep 39.1 38.3 - 39.9
Goat 38.7 - 40.7
Horse 37.9 37.2- 38.2
Chicken 41.7 40.6 - 43.0
Human 37.0
 The body temperature of most domestic animals is considerably higher than the
environmental temperature to which they are exposed most of the time. They maintain
their body temperatures by balancing internal heat production and heat loss to the
environment.

The hypothalmus gland acts as a body thermostat by stimulating mechanisms to

counteract either high or low ambient temperatures. For example, increased
conversion of feed to-heat energy is used to counteract low ambient temperatures,
while for example increased respiration (rate and volume) and blood circulation in the
skin counteracts high ambient temperatures. Varying temperature also results in
changed behaviour.

Most animals reduce their level of activity in a hot environment and, for
example, pigs lie clustered in a heap at low temperatures, while they lie spread out
with extended limbs at high temperatures. This would suggest increased space
requirement for pigs held in a warm, tropical climate.

The body can tolerate short periods of heat stress, but if the ambient
temperature exceeds the body temperature for an extended period, it may prove fatal.

When feed is converted by the animal's metabolism for the production of milk,
eggs, meat, off-spring etc., heat is produced as a by-product. An increased production
level and thus feed requirement will therefore result in increased internal heat
production. High yielding animals are consequently more likely to suffer from heat
stress in a hot climate than are low yielding ones.

Feeding fibre-rich, low digestible feed stuffs like hay will result in high heat-
production because of increased muscular activity in the alimentary tract and, in
ruminants, increased micro-organism activity in the rumen. An increased share of
concentrates in the feed may therefore reduce heat stress in an animal under hot
climatic conditions.

Animal Moisture and Heat Production

Heat is produced centrally in the deep body. The surplus is conducted to the
skin surface where it is given off to the atmosphere as sensible heat by means of
convection, conduction and radiation and as latent heat by means of evaporation of
moisture from the lungs and skin.

Increasing ambient temperature, resulting in less temperature difference

between the body surface and the air, will decrease the amount of heat that can be
emitted as sensible heat. Instead a larger proportion is given off as latent heat, that is,
heat employed to vapourize moisture.

Table 10.2 lists values for animal heat and moisture production at various
temperatures. The heat and moisture produced by the animals confined in a structure
must be removed by ventilation. In the tropics, sufficient ventilation flow is usually
provided for by the use of opensided structures.

However, if an enclosed building is used, a range of ventilation flow rates must

be provided for in the building design. The minimum ventilation rate should remove
the moisture produced, but retain as much sensible heat as possible during cold
periods. The maximum ventilation rate should remove enough of the sensible heat
produced so that a small temperature difference, usually 2 to 4°C, can be maintained
between inside and outside. It should be noted that ventilation alone can only maintain
the building temperature at slightly above ambient.

Climatic Factors

Temperature

The over-riding environmental factor affecting the physiological functions of

domestic animals is temperature. For most farm animals a mean daily temperature in
the range 10 to 20°C is referred to as the "comfort zone". In this range the animal's
heat exchange can be regulated solely by physical means such as constriction and
dilation of blood vessels in the skin, ruffling up the fur or feathers and regulation of
the evaporation from lungs and skin. At the upper and lower critical temperatures the
physical regulation will not be sufficient to maintain a constant body temperature and
the animal must, in addition, decrease or increase its metabolic heat production.

A further decrease or increase in temperature will eventually bring the

temperature to a point beyond which not even a change in heat production will be
sufficient to maintain homeothermy.

A very young animal, lacking fully developed temperature-regulating

mechanisms, particularly the ability to increase heat production by increased
metabolism, is much more sensitive to its thermal environment and requires higher
temperatures.

Humidity

Poultry do not have sweat glands, so all evaporative heat loss must originate
from the respiratory tract. Other livestock species have varying abilities to sweat and
in descending order they are as follows: Horse, donkey, cattle, buffalo, goat, sheep
and pig.

In a hot-dry climate evaporation is rapid, but in a hot humid climate the ability
of the air to absorb additional moisture is limited and the inadequate cooling may
result in heatstress.

Too low humidity in the air will cause irritation of the mucous membranes,
while too high humidity may promote growth of fungus infections. High humidity
may also contribute to decay in structures. If possible keep the relative humidity in the
range of 40 to 80%.

Radiation

The heat load on a grazing animal can be considerably increased by direct solar
radiation and radiation reflected from clouds or the ground. A white hair coat will
absorb less radiant energy than a dark, but the heat penetrates deeper in a white, loose
coat. Air movements will dispel the heat and reduce the differences. Furthermore,
solar radiation may adversely affect the animal's skin in particular breeds having
unpigmented skin.

Heat gain by radiation can be effectively reduced by the provision of a shaded

area. It must, however, be sufficiently large to allow space between the animals so
that the heat loss by other means is not reduced. Grass covered ground in the
surroundings of the shade will reflect less radiation than bare soil.

Air Movements

Air movements will assist in heat loss by evaporation and by conduction/

convection as long as the air temperature is lower than the skin temperature. When the
air temperature approaches the skin temperature rapid air movements are experienced
as comfortable, but at low temperatures it will lead to excessive cooling of
unprotected skin areas (cold draught). In addition air movements are required to
remove noxious and toxic gases and to supply the animal with fresh air for breathing.
A wind velocity of 0.2m/s is generally regarded as a minimum requirement, but it can
be increased to 1.0m/s, when the temperature is nearing the upper critical, or more
when it goes beyond that.

Precipitation

Heavy rain my penetrate the fur of an animal and decrease its insulation value.
A strong wind can in such circumstances lead to excessive cooling. However, a
naturally greasy hair coat will resist water penetration and with the provision of a
shelter for the animals the problem may be avoided altogether.

Effect of Climatic Factors on Livestock Performance

In tropical and subtropical countries an animal may often be under heat stress.
When the environmental temperature exceeds the upper critical level (18 to 24°C,
depending on the species) there is usually a drop in production or a reduced rate of
gain. Furthermore, when the temperature falls outside the comfort zone, other climatic
factors assume greater significance. Humidity becomes increasingly important as do
solar radiation and wind velocity.

Dairy Cattle show a reduced feed-intake under heat stress resulting in lowered
milk production and reduced growth. Reproduction is also adversely affected. There
are, however, important differences between breeds. European cattle (Bos Taurus)
produce well at temperatures ranging from 4 to 24° C even at high humidity. Much
lower temperatures (-10°C) have little effect as long as fluctuations are not too rapid
or frequent. On the other hand, a drop in milk production results with temperatures
exceeding 25°C. The drop may be as much as 50% at temperatures of 32°C or higher.
In contrast, Zebu cattle (Bos Indicus), which are native to warm climates, have a
comfort zone of 1 5 to 27° C and milk production begins to drop only when
temperatures rise above 35°C.

Table 10.2 Animal Heat and Moisture Production

Livestock Weight Ambient Moisture g/h, Sensible heat Total heat1 /animal
temperature* animal /animal
kg °C *°C +25° C *° C +25° C *° C +25°
Dairy Cow 400 +12 410 835 685 395 960 960
500 +12 445 910 745 430 1045 1045
600 +12 485 985 805 465 1130 1130
700 +12 515 1045 855 495 1200 1200
Dairy Calf 50 +12 70 105 70 75 115 145
75 +12 185 365 220 120 345 365
150 +12 205 365 280 170 420 420
200 +12 160 330 270 155 380 380
300 +12 220 450 370 215 520 520
400 +12 275 565 460 265 645 645
Swine 5 +27 30 20 - 40
10 +24 35 40 35 35 60 60
20 +20 60 70 55 50 95 95
30 + 16 65 90 80 65 125 125
50 +16 75 120 125 85 175 165
70 +16 100 150 145 105 215 205
90 +16 115 170 165 120 245 235
Dry sow 180 +12 85 165 210 135 270 245
Sow one week 180 +12 120 220 285 185 365 335
prior to birth
Sow with 180 +16 175 300 340 245 460 450
piglets
Laying hen 1.5 +20 5.2 6.5 6.6 5.7 10.1 10.1
2.0 +20 6.0 7.6 7.6 6.6 11.7 11.7
Broilers 0.1 +32 3.1 - 0.9 --- 3.0
1.0 +20 5.0 6.5 6.6 5.6 10.0 10.0
1.5 +20 6.2 8.0 8.1 6.9 12.3 12.3

*Referring to temperature stated in the column "ambient temperature".

1
Total heat equals sensible heat plus latent heat (latent heat equals moisture in g/h x
0.675 Wh/g).

Beef Cattle make their best gains at temperatures below 25° C. They can easily
tolerate temperatures below 0° C if they have a good supply of feed.

Pigs require a change in ambient temperature as they age and grow, and like
cattle, they show a decreased feed intake when under heat stress.

Piglets survive and develop best at 30 to 32°C initially followed by a gradual

reduction to 20°C over the first three weeks.

Feeder pigs (30 to 65 kg) make good gains in the temperature range of 10 to
25°C with 24° C reported optimum. The optimal ambient temperature for pigs
weighing 75 to 120 kg is 15° C.
 Brood sows do well at 15°C but suffer badly at 25°C and above since they do
not perspire when hot. Reproduction rates fall under heat stress and sows are more apt
to trample their baby pigs in the discomfort of hot weather.

Sheep can tolerate a wide range of temperatures but should be protected from
wind and rain. However, a long period of high ambient temperatures inhibits
reproduction. Heat stress also reduces lambing percentage, decreases the incidence of
twinning, and decreases the birth weight of lambs. When temperatures are below 7°C
at breeding time, ewes show improved reproductive efficiency.

Goats are affected by temperature, humidity and rain. In hot climates, goats
need shelter from intense heat during the day. In humid areas they need protection
from prolonged heavy rain. Excessive wetting from rain can cause pneumonia and an
increase in parasitic infestation.

Poultry. The environmental requirements for poultry vary with age. Chicks
should be started at 35° C. After one week the temperature is reduced gradually to
24°C by the fifth week. Broilers and young turkeys reared at ambient temperatures
below 18°C are heavier than similar stock reared within the 18 to 35°C range, but
their feed conversion efficiency will be less. Laying birds produce the greatest number
of eggs and the largest sized eggs at 13 to 24° C. The best feed conversion efficiency
is achieved between 21 to 24° C. With increasing environmental temperature there is a
decrease in feedintake and alterations in behaviour. Within the temperature range of 5
to 30°C there is a reduction of about 1.6% in feed intake for every 10°C increase in
ambient temperature. Above 24°C there is a reduction in egg production and egg size.
A continued rise in temperature to 38°C or more may prove lethal. High humidities at
high temperatures create conditions that are more likely to be lethal because of a
breakdown in body cooling through respiration.

Rabbits are affected most by sun and heat, wind, rain and draughts. Sunlight is
of benefit to breading stock and the growing young, but it will also fade the coat of
coloured rabbits and discolour a white one. While rabbits enjoy the sun, they must
have the chance to get out of the direct rays. Because of their thick fur coats they
tolerate cold better than extreme heat, but they are susceptible to chilling from
draughts. Rabbits also need protection from rain and dampness.

Horses. Horses do not require warm surroundings, but they do not easily
tolerate draughts, dampness and high humidity. When exposed to high temperatures
and vigorous exercise, horses sweat and the evaporation of this perspiration cools the
skin and helps to maintain normal body temperature.
Microbiological Environment

Disease remains a major profit-limiting factor in animal production in many

tropical countries. Sanitary control measures should be incorporated in any building
design, so that a good hygienic standard can be easily maintained. An animal which is
well fed and watered and in good condition will have a high resistance to disease.
Good management can do much to remove or reduce the effects of adverse
environmental factors, such as climatic stress, which otherwise would weaken the
body's natural defences.

The whole building should be cleaned and disinfected periodically and any pen
that is emptied should be thoroughly cleaned before other animals are transferred to it.
Rearing and fattening of young animals should be organised so that the building can
be emptied, cleaned and disinfected between batches. This 'all-in, all-out' policy is
particularly beneficial for disease control, where the animals are bought from outside
the farm and in finishing units for pigs as well as broiler and layer houses.

Other Environmental Factors

Acoustical factors will only, as far as known, have marginal effect on the
animal's development and production. Nervous animals may, however, react
adversely to intermittent sudden noises. Pig squeals prior to feeding can become a
hazard to the stockman's hearing. Soft radio music in a milking parlour may have a
smoothing effect on the cows.

Day length or photoperiod varies with latitude and season and has a direct
influence on animal performance, especially on the breeding season for sheep and egg
production of poultry. Under natural conditions, there is a correlation between length
of day and rate of laying. Artificial light is used in the temperate zone to equalize egg
production throughout the year. Additional hours of light before dawn and after dusk
are recommended in hot climates to encourage the hens to eat during the cooler hours.

Dust can carry micro-organisms, which may cause an outbreak of disease.

Toxic and noxious gases are produced by manure which accumulates in

buildings or storages. Especially in connection with agitation of manure slurry stored
in a pit in a building, harmful amounts of gases can be released. However, problems
with gases are not likely to arise in the open-sided buildings used in the tropics.