Geography Skills Handbook

How Do I Study Geography?

G eographers have tried to understand the best way to teach and learn about geography.
In order to do this, geographers created the Five Themes of Geography. The themes
acted as a guide for teaching the basic ideas about geography to students like yourself.
People who teach and study geography, though, thought that the Five Themes were too
broad. In 1994, geographers created 18 national geography standards. These standards were
more detailed about what should be taught and learned. The Six Essential Elements act as a
bridge connecting the Five Themes with the standards.
These pages show you how the Five Themes are related to the Six Essential Elements and
the 18 standards.

5
Themes of Geography
1 Location
Location describes where something is. Absolute
location describes a place’s exact position on the
Earth’s surface. Relative location expresses where
a place is in relation to another place.

2 Place
Place describes the physical and human
characteristics that make a location unique.

3 Regions
Regions are areas that share
common characteristics.

4 Movement
Movement explains how and why people and
things move and are connected.

5 Human-Environment
Interaction
Human-Environment Interaction describes
the relationship between people and their
environment.

(t to b)ThinkStock /SuperStock, (2)Janet F oster/Masterfile, (3)Mark Tomalty/Masterfile, (4)© age fotostock / SuperStock, (5)Jurgen Freund /Nature Picture Library
 Themes and Elements

6
Essential Elements
18
Geography Standards
1 How to use maps and other tools
I. The World in Spatial Terms
Geographers look to see where a place is located. Location 2 How to use mental maps to organize information
acts as a starting point to answer “Where Is It?” The location
of a place helps you orient yourself as to where you are.
3 How to analyze the spatial organization of people,
places, and environments

4 The physical and human characteristics

II. Places and Regions
Place describes physical characteristics such as landforms,
climate, and plant or animal life. It might also describe
human characteristics, including language and way of life.
Places can also be organized into regions. Regions are places
united by one or more characteristics.
of places
5 How people create regions to interpret
Earth’s complexity
6 How culture and experience influence
people’s perceptions of places and regions

III. Physical Systems

Geographers study how physical systems, such as
hurricanes, volcanoes, and glaciers, shape the surface of
the Earth. They also look at how plants and animals depend
upon one another and their surroundings for their survival.
7 The physical processes that shape Earth’s surface
8 The distribution of ecosystems on Earth’s surface
9 The characteristics, distribution, and migration
of human populations
10 The complexity of Earth’s cultural mosaics

IV. Human Systems 11 The patterns and networks of economic

People shape the world in which they live. They settle interdependence
in certain places but not in others. An ongoing theme in 12 The patterns of human settlement
geography is the movement of people, ideas, and goods.
13 The forces of cooperation and conflict
14 How human actions modify the physical
environment
V. Environment and Society
How does the relationship between people and their natural 15 How physical systems affect human systems
surroundings influence the way people live? Geographers
study how people use the environment and how their 16 The meaning, use, and distribution of resources
actions affect the environment.

VI. The Uses of Geography

Knowledge of geography helps us understand the 17 How to apply geography to interpret the past
relationships among people, places, and environments 18 How to apply geography to interpret the present
over time. Applying geographic skills helps you understand and plan for the future
the past and prepare for the future.

GH1
Contents
Globes and Maps (p. GH3)
• From 3-D to 2-D
• Great Circle Routes
Projections (p. GH4)
• Planar Projection
• Cylindrical Projection
• Conic Projection
Common Map Projections (p. GH5)
• Winkel Tripel Projection
• Robinson Projection
• Goode’s Interrupted Equal-Area
Projection
• Mercator Projection
Determining Location (p. GH6)
•Latitude
•Longitude
•The Global Grid
•Northern and Southern Hemispheres
•Eastern and Western Hemispheres
Geography
Skills Handbook
Throughout this text, you will discover how geography
has shaped the course of events in United States
history. Landforms, waterways, climate, and natural
resources all have helped or hindered human activities.
Usually people have learned either to adapt to their
environments or to transform it to meet their needs.
The resources in this handbook will help you get the
most out of your textbook—and provide you with
skills you will use for the rest of your life.
The study of geography is more than knowing a lot of facts about places.
Rather, it has more to do with asking questions about the Earth, pursuing
their answers, and solving problems. Thus, one of the most important geo-
graphic tools is inside your head: the ability to think geographically.

Reading a Map (p. GH8)

• Using Scale
• Absolute and Relative Location

Physical Maps (p. GH10)

Political Maps (p. GH11)

Thematic Maps (p. GH12)
• Qualitative Maps
• Flow-Line Maps

Geographic Information
Systems (p. GH13)

Geographic Dictionary (p. GH14)

GH2 Geography Handbook

 Geography Handbook

Globes and Maps

A globe is a scale model of the Earth. Because Earth is round, a globe
presents the most accurate depiction of geographic information such as
Teach
area, distance, and direction. However, globes show little close-up
detail. A printed map is a symbolic representation of all or part of the D Differentiated
Instruction
planet. Unlike globes, maps can show small areas in great detail.
Visual/Spatial Use an orange
to illustrate the challenges of
From 3-D to 2-D transferring measurements from
Think about the surface of the Earth as the globe accurately shows a great circle route, a three-dimensional to a two-
peel of an orange. To flatten the peel, you have as indicated on the map below. However, as dimensional form. Sketch an out-
to cut it like the globe shown here. To create shown on the flat map, the great circle distance
maps that are not interrupted, mapmakers, or (dotted line) line of the continents and two or
cartographers, use mathematical formulas to between Tokyo three lines of longitude and lati-
North
transfer information from the three-dimensional and Los Angeles Pole tude onto an orange. Then care-
globe to the two-dimensional map. However, appears to be far fully remove the peel (in one
le Route
when the curves of a globe become straight lines longer than the true at Circ
Gre Los
on a map, distortion of size, shape, distance, or direction distance Tokyo Angeles piece, if possible) and gently flat-
area occurs. (solid line). In fact,
N
ten it. Allow students to examine
D the great circle dis- W E
the peel, and point out how lines
S
tance is 345 miles and shapes are distorted when
(555 km) shorter.
the curved peel is flattened. OL

N
Circle Distan
C Critical Thinking
eat
Gr 2 mi. (8,807 ce
W E
5,4
7 km
) Making Inferences Have stu-
S Tokyo Los Angeles
True Direction Distance dents use a piece of string and a
5,787 mi. (9,313 km)
globe to find the shortest route
from New York to Hong Kong.
(over the top of the globe) OL
Great Circle Routes Practicing SKILLS
A straight line of true direction—one that runs
directly from west to east, for example—is not 1. Explain the significance of: globe, map, cartographer,
always the shortest distance between two points. great circle route.
This is due to the curvature of the Earth. To find 2. Describe the problems that arise when the curves of
the shortest distance, stretch a piece of string a globe become straight lines on a map.
around a globe from one point to the other. The C 3. Use a Venn diagram like the one below to identify the
string will form part of a great circle, an imagi- similarities and differences between globes and maps.
nary line the follows the curve of the Earth. Ship
captains and airline pilots use these great circle
routes to reduce travel time and conserve fuel. Globes Maps
The idea of a great circle route is an important
difference between globes and maps. A round

Geography Handbook GH3

Answers 3. Globes present the most accurate depic-

1. globe: scale model of the Earth; map: sym-
bolic representation of all or part of the
planet; cartographer: mapmakers; great
circle route: routes that follow the great
circle along the curve of the Earth
2. Size, shape, distance, or area becomes
distorted.
tion of geographic information such as
area, distance, and direction, but do not
show close-up detail. Maps are symbolic
representations of all or part of the planet
and can show areas in great detail. Both
show information about places on the
Earth.

GH3
Geography Handbook

C Critical Thinking
Identifying Central Issues
Ask: Why do map makers use
projections? (Projections help in
transferring information from a
three-dimensional surface to a two-
dimensional surface.) OL
Projections
To create maps, cartographers project the round Earth onto a flat
surface — making a map projection. Distance, shape, direction, or size
C may be distorted by a projection. As a result, the purpose of the map usu-
ally dictates which projection is used. There are many kinds of map projec-
tions, some with general names and some named for the cartographers
who developed them. Three basic categories of map projections are shown
here: planar, cylindrical, and conic.

D Differentiated
Instruction
Kinesthetic If students are
struggling with the concept of
projection, give them a large
sheet of paper or poster board
Planar Projection
A planar projection shows the Earth centered
in such a way that a straight line coming from
the center to any other point represents the
shortest distance. Also known as an azimuthal
projection, it is most accurate at its center. As a EQ
result, it is often used for maps of the Poles. UA
TOR

and a globe. Have students place

the paper and the globe in the
same physical relationships shown
in the illustrations. Check to make
sure students can visualize how
each projection offers a different Cylindrical Projection
approximation of the sphere. BL A cylindrical projection is based on the projec-
D tion of the globe onto a cylinder. This projection EQUATOR

is most accurate near the Equator, but shapes

and distances are distorted near the Poles.

Conic Projection
A conic projection comes from placing a cone
over part of a globe. Conic projections are best
suited for showing limited east-west areas that
are not too far from the Equator. For these uses,
a conic projection can indicate distances and
directions fairly accurately.

Differentiated
Instruction GH4 Geography Handbook

Activity: Creating a Graphic Organizer

Visual/Spatial To help students remember “Special-Purpose.” Have students complete the
the several different categories and examples organizer by taking notes on each of the differ-
of maps discussed in this section, guide them in ent types of maps. OL
creating a graphic organizer entitled “Types of
Maps.” Branching this main head should be
three boxes labeled “Political,” “Physical,” and

GH4
 Geography Handbook

Common Map Projections

Robinson Projection
Each type of map projection has advantages
and some degree of inaccuracy. Four of the most
C Critical Thinking
ARCTIC CIRCLE
common projections are shown here. Comparing and Contrasting
Ask students to cover the text and

PRIME MERIDIAN
Winkel Tripel Projection TROPIC OF CANCER
look at the selected projections.
EQUATOR
ARCTIC C
IRCLE Ask: What is one similarity and
TROPIC OF CAPRICORN
one difference between the
Winkle Tripel Projection and the
PRIME MERIDIAN

TROPIC OF CAN
CER
ANTARCTIC CIRCLE

EQUATOR
Goode’s Interrupted Equal-Area
The Robinson projection has minor distortions. The sizes and Projection? (similarity: both show
TROPIC OF CAP
RI CORN shapes near the eastern and western edges of the map are
accurate, and outlines of the continents appear much as they
all of the continents; difference:
do on the globe. However, the polar areas are flattened. Goode’s projection splits Antarctica
IC CIRCLE
ANTARCT into four pieces, while the Winkel
Mercator Projection
Most general reference world maps are the Winkel Tripel pro-
Tripel projection does not.) BL
R
jection. It provides a good balance between the size and shape
of land areas as they are shown on the map. Even the polar
areas are depicted with little distortion of size and shape.
C R Reading Strategy
ARCTIC CIRCLE
Analyzing Text Structure
Goode’s Interrupted Equal-Area Projection Have students read the selected
ARCTIC CIRCLE
captions. Ask: How is the infor-

PRIME MERIDIAN
TROPIC OF CANCER

mation structured in these cap-

N
PRIME MERIDIA

EQUATOR
TROPIC OF CANCER

EQUATOR
TROPIC OF CAPRICORN tions? (Both captions propose a
TROPIC OF CAPRICORN
benefit of the projection, followed
by a drawback.) OL
ANTARCTIC CIRCLE
ANTARCTIC
CIRCLE

An interrupted projection resembles a globe that has been

cut apart and laid flat. Goode’s Interrupted Equal-Area pro- The Mercator projection increasingly distorts size and distance
jection shows the true size and shape of Earth’s landmasses, as it moves away from the Equator. However, Mercator pro-
but distances are generally distorted. jections do accurately show true directions and the shapes of
landmasses, making these maps useful for sea travel.

Practicing SKILLS

1. Explain the significance of: map projection, planar, 5. Use a Venn diagram like the one below to identify the
cylindrical, conic, interrupted projection. similarities and differences between the Winkel Tripel
2. How does a cartographer determine which map pro- and Mercator projections.
jection to use?
3. How is Goode’s Interrupted Equal-Area projection dif- Winkel Tripel Mercator
ferent from the Mercator projection? projection projection
4. Which of the four common projections described above is
the best one to use when showing the entire world? Why?

Geography Handbook GH5

Answers
1. map projection: projecting image of
earth onto a flat surface to make a
map, different projections have their
advantages/disadvantages. planar:
shows shortest distance between points,
most often used for maps of the Poles;
cylindrical: most accurate near the
Equator; conic: best for limited east-west
areas not too far from the Equator; inter-
rupted projection: shows true size and
shape of Earth but distorts distances
2. by deciding what it will be used for to
determine the least distortion
3. Goode distorts distances while show-
ing the true size and shape. Mercator
distorts size and distances but shows
true directions.
4. Winkel Tripel, because it distorts the size
and shape of landmasses the least.
5. Both show all continents with little to
no distortion of shape. Mercator shows
true direction, but distorts land size
and distance. Winkel Tripel shows little
size distortion.

GH5
Geography Handbook

S Skill Practice
Visual Literacy Have students
study the selected figures. Ask:
What are two differences
between longitude and latitude?
(Lines of latitude run horizontally
and are parallel. Lines of longitude
run vertically and intersect at the
Determining Location
Geography is often said to begin with the question: Where? The basic
tool for answering the question is location. Lines on globes and maps
provide information that can help you locate places. These lines cross
one another forming a pattern called a grid system, which helps you find
exact places on the Earth’s surface.
A hemisphere is one of the halves into which the Earth is divided.
Geographers divide the Earth into hemispheres to help them classify
and describe places on Earth. Most places are located in two of the four
hemispheres. 90°N (North Pole)
75°N
60°N

poles.) OL Latitude 45°N

Lines of latitude, or parallels, circle the Earth parallel 30°N

to the Equator and measure the distance north or south

D Differentiated
Instruction
of the Equator in degrees. The Equator is measured at
0° latitude, while the Poles lie at latitudes 90°N (north)
15°N

0° (Equator)
and 90°S (south). Parallels north of the Equator are
Logical/Mathematical Have called north latitude. Parallels south of the Equator are 15°S

students use the Internet or library called south latitude.

resources to determine their exact 30°S
45°S
absolute location. If you have 60°S
75°S
access to GPS equipment, you may S 90°S (South Pole)

wish to let students use it to check

their work. OL Longitude
Lines of longitude, or meridians, circle the Earth
from Pole to Pole. These lines measure distance east
or west of the Prime Meridian at 0° longitude.
Meridians east of the Prime Meridian are known as
east latitude. Meridians west of the Prime Meridian
60°W are known as west longitude. The 180° meridian on
45°W
30°W
60°E the opposite side of the Earth is called the International
45°E
15°W
15°E
30°E Date Line.
0° (Prime Meridian)

90°N (North Pole)

75°N
60°N

The Global Grid 45°N

30°N
Every place has a global address, or absolute location.
You can identify the absolute location of a place by Tokyo 15°N

D naming the latitude and longitude lines that cross exactly 0° (Equator)
at that place. For example, Tokyo, Japan, is located at
36°N latitude and 140°E longitude. For more precise 15°S
readings, each degree is further divided into 60 units 30°S
called minutes.
60°E 45°S

Hands-On
75°E 135°E
90°E 120°E
105°E

Chapter Project GH6 Geography Handbook

Creating a Global
Treasure Hunt
Directions Organize students into teams
and have each team choose 10 places on
Earth to research and study. Students may
choose places that are well known or unfa-
miliar. However, all places should be on
land and located at least 50 miles (80 km)
from each other. Tell students to make a list
of 8–10 interesting facts about each place.
Putting It Together Tell students to a separate sheet of paper. Each correct
“bury” their treasure in each of the loca- answer earns another clue to a new loca-
tions. Then have students use the facts they tion, eventually leading to the buried trea-
learned about the place to create clues for sure, so remind students to make sure their
a Treasure Atlas. Clues will be locations, clues follow a logical route. OL
that, when followed, will lead to the buried
treasure. The correct response to each clue
will be a place name and coordinates that
can be easily looked up. Clues should be
written on index cards. Students should
list all the clues with their answers on

GH6
 Geography Handbook

Northern and Southern Eastern and Western

Hemispheres Hemispheres S Skill Practice
The diagram below shows that the Equator The Prime Meridian and the International Date
divides the Earth into the Northern and Southern Line divide the Earth into the Eastern and Western Visual Literacy Point out that
Hemispheres. Everything north of the Equator is Hemispheres. Everything east of the Prime most people probably are not used
in the Northern Hemisphere. Everything south Meridian for 180° is in the Eastern Hemisphere. to seeing the globe from these
of the Equator is in the Southern Hemisphere. Everything west of the Prime Meridian for 180° is
angles. Ask: What view do these
Northern Hemisphere in the Western Hemisphere.
illustrations show? (the globe
Eastern Hemisphere
viewed from the top and the bottom)
EUROPE Ask: How do you generally view
ATLANTIC NORTH
OCEAN AMERICA ASIA the globe? (from the side, along the
PACIFIC
PACIFIC OCEAN
Equator) If students still struggle to
North
Pole
OCEAN
AFRICA C understand the difference between
EUROPE
AFRICA these views, use an actual globe to
ASIA INDIAN show them the view reflected in
OCEAN AUSTRALIA
the illustration. BL

Southern Hemisphere
S C Critical Thinking
INDIAN
Western Hemisphere Detecting Bias Ask: Since
OCEAN planet Earth has no true top or
AUSTRALIA NORTH
AMERICA bottom, why do globes show
AFRICA ATLANTIC
OCEAN Europe on the top half of Earth?
ANTARCTICA
South (early map makers and explorers
ATLANTIC Pole
OCEAN
PACIFIC SOUTH
were from Europe) AL
OCEAN PACIFIC AMERICA
OCEAN
SOUTH
AMERICA

Practicing SKILLS

1. Explain the significance of: location, grid system, world cities. Have a partner try to identify the cities.
hemisphere, Northern Hemisphere, Southern 5. Use a chart like the one below to identify the conti-
Hemisphere, Eastern Hemisphere, Western Hemisphere, nents in each hemisphere. Some may be in more than
latitude, longitude, Prime Meridian, absolute location. one hemisphere.
2. Why do all maps label the Equator 0° latitude and the
Hemisphere Continents
Prime Meridian 0° longitude?
Northern
3. Which lines of latitude and longitude divide the Earth
into hemispheres? Southern

4. Using the Reference Atlas maps, fill in a chart like the Eastern
one below by writing the latitude and longitude of three Western

Geography Handbook GH7

Answers
1. location: a specific place on Earth; grid
system: pattern formed as the lines of
latitude and longitude cross one
another; hemisphere: half of a sphere or
globe; Northern Hemisphere: everything
north of the Equator; Southern
Hemisphere: everything south of the
Equator; Eastern Hemisphere: everything
east of the Prime Meridian for 180°;
Western Hemisphere: everything west
of the Prime Meridian for 180°
2. They are where the division between
north/south (N/S) and east/west (E/W)
occur, respectively.
3. Equator and Prime Meridian
4. Answers will vary according to cities
chosen.
5. Northern: North America, Asia,
Europe, Africa; Eastern: Asia, Europe,
Africa, Australia; Southern: Antarctica,
Australia, South America, Africa;
Western: North America, South
America

GH7
Geography Handbook

S Skill Practice
Using Geography Skills Have
students use the scale bar on the
map to calculate the distance in
kilometers between Paris and
Stockholm. First, have students use
a ruler to measure the distance
Reading a Map
In addition to latitude and longitude, maps feature other important
tools to help you interpret the information they contain. Learning to
use these map tools will help you read the symbolic language of maps
more easily.
Key
Title The key lists and explains the symbols, colors, and lines
The title tells you what kind of used on the map. The key is sometimes called a legend.

between the cities on the map in information the map is showing.

centimeters (4.5 cm). Then, have

Europe: Political
students measure the map’s scale
in centimeters. (600 km 5 1.7 cm) 30°W 20°W 10°W
0°
10°E 20°E
30°E
40°E 50°E

Ask: How can you use this to find Scale Bar ARCT National
ICELAND IC CI
the distance between Paris and The scale bar shows the relation- Den.
RCLE boundary
National
Stockholm? (set up a proportion: ship between map measurements 60
°N capital
and actual distances on the Earth. 0 600 kilometers
Major city
600 km x By laying a ruler along the scale
5 S 0 600 miles SWEDEN
1.7 cm 4 cm bar, you can calculate how many Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection NORWAY Helsingfors
(Helsinki)
miles or kilometers are represented N Christiania St.

x 5 600 km 3 4 cm
(Oslo) Petersburg
per inch or centimeter. The map W
Stockholm
projection used to create the map is E North

Sea
1.7 cm S Sea
often listed near the scale bar. DENMARK

tic
UNITED l
x 5 1,412 km) OL 50° KINGDOM
Copenhagen Ba RUSSIA
N NETH.
Compass Rose R Amsterdam
Berlin
London
The compass rose indicates GERMANY
R Reading Strategy directions. The four cardinal
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
Brussels BELG.
LUX.
directions— north, south, east, and Paris
Reading Maps Ask: According west — are usually indicated with
Bern Vienna
Budapest
FRANCE LIECHT.
to the map, what is the capital of arrows or the points of a star. SWITZ. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
Belgrade ROMANIA
Russia? (St. Petersburg) Ask: What The intermediate directions — MONACO
SAN
MARINO Bucharest Black
40°
N Sarajevo Sea
major city is located southeast of northeast, northwest, southeast, PORTUGAL ANDORRA ITALY
MONT.
SERBIA
BULGARIA
Sofia
and southwest — may also be shown. Madrid Cetinje
Vienna? (Budapest) OL Lisbon SPAIN Rome Tiranë
ALBANIA
Constantinople

Seville OTTOMAN
Cities Mediterran
ean
GREECE
EMPIRE
Cities are represented by a dot. Sea
Athens

Sometimes the relative sizes of AFRICA MALTA CYPRUS

U.K.
U.K.
cities are shown using dots of differ-
ent sizes.

Capitals Boundary Lines

National capitals are On political maps of large areas, boundary
often represented by lines highlight the borders between differ-
a star within a circle. ent countries or states.
Additional
Support GH8 Geography Handbook

Activity: Technology Connection

Contrasting Have students use an Internet close view? (distant view) Ask: What view
mapping Web site to help them understand would show the names of neighboring streets?
scale. Tell students to find a particular location, (closer view) Point out that a distant view corre-
such as their school or home address. Then sponds to an increase in scale: it allows you to
have them use the map’s zoom function to help view a wider area but you cannot see much
visualize the benefits of increasing and decreas- detail. Conversely, a close view corresponds to a
ing scale when viewing a location. Ask: To find decrease in scale: detail is increased, but the
the nearest lake, would you use a distant or a size of the area is diminished. OL

GH8
 Geography Handbook

Using Scale
All maps are drawn to a certain scale. Scale is a consistent, propor-
tional relationship between the measurements shown on the map and W Writing Support
the measurement of the Earth’s surface. Expository Writing To give
W Small-Scale Maps A small-scale map, like this Large-Scale Maps A large-scale map, like this students practice thinking about
political map of France, can show a large area map of Paris, can show a small area with a great scale, have them write about two
but little detail. Note that the scale bar on this amount of detail. Study the scale bar. Note that
imaginary experiences. First, have
map indicates that about 1 inch is equal to the map measurements correspond to much
200 miles. smaller distances than on the map of France. students imagine they are an ant
beginning to climb a tree. Next,
France: Political The City of Paris have them imagine they are giants
MONTMARTRE Sacré Coeur
5°W U . K. 0° 5°E 10°E AV bending down to look at a nest in

BL
l Lille BELG. DE V DE BLV
anne LUX.

VD
ILLIE BLVD
D D Gare
English Ch
N
G ERMA N Y
50°N TERNES
DES
S R
BATI
GNO
LL ES E C
LICHY
N
du Nord
the top of the same tree. OL
BLVD LLES

M
Gare

AL
Place E
W URC PARC Gare

ES
E Charles CO de l’Est

HE
MONCEAU St. Lazare W E
de Gaulle

RB
S Paris BLVD

G
D Differentiated
(Étoile)

ES
HAUSS

OUR
STR LVD DE
MANN S
Arc de Triomphe

ASB
Nantes Orléans CH Opéra GRA
Instruction

B
AM NDS
ATLANTIC P SÉ BLVD
OCEAN FRANCE SWITZ.
CHAILLOT
LYS
ÉE S Bibliothéque
S

Grand Palais Place de la Nationale Kinesthetic Have two students

L
OPO
AST E
Concorde

SÉB LVD D
Bay of QU TUILERIES
Biscay Lyon ITA LY Seine AI
DES GARDENS RU Pompidou stand side-by-side, but 10 feet (3 m)

B
45°N E D Center
QUAI D’ORSAY National TUILE E R
National Bordeaux INVALIDES
Assembly RIES IVO
L
Louvre I
MARAIS apart. Ask: What is the relative

BLV
Eiffel Hôtel
boundary ESPLANADE
Tower de Ville position of each student to the

D
Toulouse Nice DES INVALIDES ST. GERMAIN Île d
Regional Corsica CHAMP SAIN
T
e la
Cité
boundary Marseille DE MARS Hôtel des Rodin GER other? (One is 10 feet (3 m) to the

BLVD
MA Notre
0 200 kilometers Invalides Museum IN
National Dame
left. The other is 10 feet (3 m) to the

EL
ST M BLVD
RASPA
capital ANDORRA 0 1 kilometer LATIN

ICH
0 200 miles Luxembourg QUARTER
right.) BL
Major city Lambert Azimuthal Palace
S PA IN 0 1 mile Sorbonne

IL
Equal-Area projection

Absolute and Relative Location find a reference point—a location you already
As you learned on page GH6, absolute location know—on a map. Then look in the appropriate
D is the exact point where a line of latitude crosses a direction for the new location. For example,
line of longitude. Another way to indicate location locate Paris (your reference point) on the map of
is by relative location, or the location of one place France above. The relative location of Lyon can
in relation to another. To find relative location, be described as southeast of Paris.

Practicing SKILLS

1. Explain the significance of: key, compass rose, cardinal 4. Describe the relative location of your school in two
directions, intermediate directions, scale bar, scale, rela- different ways.
tive location. 5. Use a Venn diagram to identify the similarities and
2. Describe the elements of a map that help you inter- differences of small-scale maps and large-scale maps.
pret the information displayed on the map.
3. How does the scale bar help you determine distances
Small-scale maps Large-scale maps
on the Earth’s surface?

Geography Handbook GH9

Answers Earth; scale: consistent, proportional measurements and actual distances on

1. key: lists and explains symbols, colors, relationship between measurements Earth; compass rose indicates direction
and lines on map; compass rose: indi- shown on map and measurement of 3. shows the relationship between map
cates direction; cardinal directions: Earth’s surface; relative location: loca- measurements and actual distances
north, south, east, and west; interme- tion of one place in relation to another
diate directions: northeast, northwest, 4. Answers will vary according to school.
2. title tells kind of information shown on
southeast, and southwest; scale bar: map; key lists and explains symbols, 5. Small scale shows large areas but little
shows relationship between map mea- colors, and lines used on map; scale detail. Large scale shows small area
surements and actual distances on bar shows relationship between map with great detail. Both show location.

GH9
Geography Handbook

Physical Maps
W Writing Support A physical map shows the location and the topography, or shape of
W the Earth’s physical features. A study of a country’s physical features
Narrative Writing Have inter- often helps to explain the historical development of the country. For
ested students research and write example, mountains may be barriers to transportation, and rivers and
a story about a physical feature streams can provide access into the interior of a country.
that affected history. Students can
explore how mountain ranges and
cliffs have served as protection, Texas: Physical
how frozen lakes and straits
Water Features

G R E AT
ROCKY
allowed for travel, or even how MO.
the construction of a canal Physical maps show rivers, streams, iver 36°N
an R
lakes, and other water features. Canadi OKLAHOMA
changed transportation. AL

MOU
ARK.

ado
Lake

Estac
Red Riv

C Critical Thinking

NTA
NEW er
Landforms
Texoma
MEXICO

no
Lla
INS
Physical maps may show landforms

PLA
Making Generalizations Sab
ine R
C such as mountains, plains, plateaus, ive

Br
INS
r LA.
Ask: What can relief and eleva-

az
and valleys. Toledo Bend 32°N

os
Guadalupe Peak Res.
TEXAS
tion tell you about rivers? (Both 8,749 ft.
(2,667 m)
Peco
sR
Sam Rayburn Res.
N

Riv
iv ec
Tr he
elements give a sense of direction:

e
s

er
N in

r
Davis Edwards Co i ty
lor

River
Mts. Stockton Plateau ad
o

Riv
water flows downhill so rivers flow Relief W E
Plateau Riv
er

er
Chisos Balcones
from high elevation to lower Physical maps use shading and texture 106°W
S
Mts.
102°W
Escarpment
in
elevation.) OL to show general relief—the differences in
Elevations
Nuece
s River
Pla
Galveston
Bay

al
elevation, or height, of landforms.

as t
Feet Meters 28°N

Co
4,920 1,500 Matagorda
1,000 Bay
3,280

Ri o
1,640 500 MEXICO Padre

Gr
655 200 nd Island

a
0
0 e Gulf of
Mexico
0 100 kilometers

0 100 miles 98°W 94°W

Mountain peak Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection

Practicing SKILLS

1. Explain the significance of: physical map, topography, Physical Feature What You Can Learn from the Map
relief, elevation. Davis Mountains
2. Complete a table like the one to the right to explain Red River
what you can learn from the map about each of the
Gulf Coastal Plains
physical features listed.

GH10 Geography Handbook

Answers 2. Davis Mountains: location, elevation,

1. physical map: shows location and topogra-
phy of Earth’s physical features; topogra-
phy: shape of Earth’s physical features;
relief: difference in elevation of landforms;
elevation: height
length; Red River: location, length, route;
Gulf Coastal Plains: location, elevation,
length

GH10
 Geography Handbook

Political Maps
A political map shows the boundaries and locations of political units
such as countries, states, counties, cities, and towns. Many features
D Differentiated
Instruction
depicted on a political map are human-made, or determined by humans D Gifted and Talented Political
rather than by nature. Political maps can show the networks and links
that exist within and between political units. maps change more rapidly than
physical maps. Have interested
students select an area and
Texas: Political research how political maps of
Human-Made Features this area have changed over time.
MO.
Political maps show human-made features such Students may be interested to
Rive
r 36°N C
Canadi
an
Amarillo
OKLAHOMA as boundaries, capitals, cities, roads, highways, learn how their own state or
and railroads. region has changed politically, or
ARK.
NEW
MEXICO Red Riv
er they may wish to study another
Lubbock Wichita
Falls Fort
area. Have students create a pre-
Worth
Dallas
Sab
i ne R
ive
sentation of their findings. AL
r LA.
Abilene
Tr
Br

32°N
in
az

El Paso
ity

C Critical Thinking
os

Peco
R
R iv

s Waco
iver

Ri
v
er

TEXAS
er

Co
lor
ad
o Riv Beaumont Comparing and Contrasting
Austin er
Houston Ask: When you fly in an airplane
San
Antonio
Nueces
Victoria Galveston and look down at the ground,
106°W River
MEXICO
28°N
what human-made features can
Corpus N
State capital you see? (roads, buildings, farms,
Laredo Christi
Physical Features
Ri o

Major city W E
Padre dams, some lakes, railroads) Ask:
Gr

nd Island Political maps may show some physical features

a

0 200 kilometers e S
Brownsville such as relief, rivers, and mountains. What human-made features can
0 200 miles
Gulf of
Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection
Mexico
you not see? (boundaries, capital
designation) BL
102°W 98°W 94°W

Nonsubject Area
Areas surrounding the subject area of the map are usually
a different color to set them apart. They are labeled to give
you a context for the area you are studying.

Practicing SKILLS

1. Explain the significance of: political map, human-made. Human-Made Feature What You Can Learn from the Map
2. What types of information would you find on a politi- Austin
cal map that would not appear on a physical map? El Paso
3. Complete a table like the one to the right to explain Texas state boundary
what you can learn from the map about each of the
human-made features listed.

Geography Handbook GH11

Answers 3. Austin: location, that it is the capital city

1. political map: shows boundaries and loca- of Texas; El Paso: location; Texas state
tions of political units such as countries, boundary: what states border Texas, what
states, counties, cities, and towns; human- river forms its southern border
made: determined by humans rather than
nature
2. capitals, cities, roads, highways, railroads

GH11
Geography Handbook

S Skill Practice
Visual Literacy Have students
study the “Europe: Slavic
Migrations” map. Ask: What do
the arrows on this map repre-
sent? (The main routes of migration
taken by Slavic peoples in c. 700.)
Ask: How is color used to present
information on this map? (It dis-
tinguishes the three major groups
of Slavs by their place of origin.)
Ask: How would you explain the
forks that appear in several
arrows? (These indicate places
where immigrants from the same
area of origin diverged into two
Thematic Maps
Maps that emphasize a single idea or a particular kind of information
about an area are called thematic maps. There are many kinds of the-
matic maps, each designed to serve a different need. This textbook
includes thematic maps that show exploration and trade, migration of
peoples, economic activities, and war and political conflicts.
Qualitative Maps Flow-Line Maps
Maps that use colors, symbols, lines, or dots to Maps that illustrate the movement of people,
show information related to a specific idea are animals, goods, and ideas, as well as physical
called qualitative maps. Such maps are often processes like hurricanes and glaciers, are called
used to depict historical information. For exam- flow-line maps. Arrows are usually used to rep-
ple, the qualitative map below shows the spread resent the flow and direction of movement. The
of farming in Latin America over time. flow-line map below shows the movement of
Slavic peoples throughout Europe.
Latin America: Europe: Slavic Migrations
Resources and Exports
VENEZUELA
ATLANTIC Migration of 20°E 30°E N

groups.) OL Slavic Peoples, c. 700 ESTONIA

ea
Au
FR.
OCEAN E
Eastern Slavs W

ltic S
ECUADOR COLOMBIA Au GUIANA
(Fr.) S
GUYANA
EQUATO
R
Western Slavs LATVIA

Ba
SURINAME 0° Southern Slavs RUSSIA
Au LITHUANIA
PERU BRAZIL Present-day
boundary RUSSIA
PACIFIC
BOLIVIA
OCEAN 10°E
POLANDV BELARUS
PARAGUAY
i
GERMANY R

st
ula
20°S

.
N TROPIC
OF CA °N
PRICO Dni 50
RN SLAVIC epe
W E CZE r R.
CH R HOMELAND UKRAINE
CHILE EP.
S ARGENTINA URUGUAY Dn
A i es
S VAKI R. t e r
0 1,000 kilometers SLO
AUSTRIA MOLDOVA
0 1,000 miles
HUNGARY
40°
S
Lambert Azimuthal SLOV. ROMANIA
Equal-Area projection
Ad CROATIA
100°W 80°W 60°W 40°W 20°W
BOS.& R.
Black
ria
HERZ. Danube
Sea
t
Resources ITALY SERBIA
ic
Se BULGARIA
Coal
60
°S
a
Food 0 200 kilometers
Petroleum products MONT. MACEDONIA
Primary Products 0 200 miles
Natural gas Lambert Azimuthal ALBANIA TURKEY
as a Percentage 40°N
Iron ore
Coffee Equal-Area projection GREECE
of Exports
Bauxite Sugar cane
75% or more
Copper Cotton
50%–74%
Au Gold Cut flowers 25%–49%
Zinc Leather Less than 25%
Timber Wool No data

Additional
Support GH12 Geography Handbook

Activity: Collaborative Learning

ning
Collaborative Lear
have diffi- Making Thematic Maps Divide the class map displaying the location of public libraries
Ask students if they
ish ing one color into several groups. Each group will research a or city parks). After groups choose their themes,
culty distingu
he r on the map
from anot theme that interests them and create a the- each group should designate tasks (research,
nts may
above. If so, these stude rces, matic map to present to the class. Themes may drawing maps, creating the presentation)
r res ou
benefit from othe e dis- be national (for example, a U.S. map showing among themselves so that each group member
s that m ak
such as map
ing or the location of roller coasters or professional participates. Schedule a period for all the groups
tinctions using shad .
symbols rather than co lor football stadiums) or local (for example, a city to present their maps to the class. OL

GH12
 Geography Handbook

Geographic Information Systems

Modern technology has changed the way maps are made. Most car- S Skill Practice
tographers use computers with software programs called geographic Visual Literacy Ask: How
information systems (GIS). A GIS is designed to accept data from dif-
could you make GIS maps with-
ferent sources—maps, satellite images, printed text, and statistics. The
GIS converts the data into a digital code, which arranges it in a data- out a computer? (You could draw
base. Cartographers then program the GIS to process the data and pro- the data on transparencies, and
duce maps. With GIS, each kind of information on a map is saved as a layer the transparencies.) OL
separate electronic layer.

Assess

Copyright © 2008 by David W. Boles. All Rights Reserved.

Copyright © 2008 by David W. Boles. All Rights Reserved.

Copyright © 2008 by David W. Boles. All Rights Reserved.

Summarizing Have students

work in pairs to make study cards
for the Geography Handbook.
Students can use main headings
and subheadings to organize the
section material. When the cards
S are finished, have students take
1 The first layer of information in a GIS 2 Additional layers of information are 3 Complex information can be presented turns testing each other on what
pinpoints the area of interest. This allows the added based on the problem or issue being using more than one layer. For example, the
user to see, in detail, the area he or she studied. In this case, hospital administrators hospital’s surrounding neighborhoods
they have learned. OL
needs to study. In this case, the area of study want to find out about the population living include other groups in addition to African
is a 5 mile (8 km) radius around Christ in neighborhoods near the hospital so they Americans. A third layer showing whites who
Hospital in Jersey City, New Jersey. can offer the community what it needs. A live within the 5 mile (8 km) radius has been
second layer showing African Americans who
live within the 5 mile (8 km) radius has been
added to the GIS. Administrators can now
use this information to help them make deci-
Close
added to the GIS. sions about staffing and services associated Identifying Ask: What are the
with the hospital.
four main types of maps? (physical,
political, qualitative, and flow-line)

Practicing SKILLS

1. Explain the significance of: thematic map, qualitative 5. Complete a chart like the one below by identifying
maps, flow-line maps. three examples of each type of thematic map found in
2. Which type of thematic map would best show the this textbook. Note the page numbers of each.
spread of Islam during Muhammad’s time? Qualitative Maps Flow-Line Maps
3. Which type of thematic map would best show average
income per capita in the United States?
4. How does GIS allow cartographers to create maps and
make changes to maps quickly and easily?

Geography Handbook GH13

Answers 2. qualitative
1. thematic map: emphasizes a single idea or 3. flow-line
particular kind of information about an
area; qualitative map: uses colors, symbols, 4. by allowing information to be stored and
lines, or dots to show information related displayed on separate electronic layers
to a specific idea; flow-line map: illustrates 5. Answers will vary. Note that most maps
movement of people, animals, goods, and in the text are qualitative maps; most
ideas, as well as physical processes like climate maps are qualitative and flow-line.
hurricanes and glaciers

GH13
 Geographic Dictionary
Volcano Mountain peak

Strait
Sound
Valley
Cape
Island

Ocean
Cliff

Isthmus

Bay
Harbor

As you read about the history

of the United States, you will Gulf Delta
encounter the terms listed below.
Peninsula
Many of the terms are pictured in
the diagram.
st
Seacoa

absolute location exact location of a place on the earth described
by global coordinates
basin area of land drained by a given river and its branches; area
of land surrounded by lands of higher elevations
bay part of a large body of water that extends into a shoreline,
generally smaller than a gulf
canyon deep and narrow valley with steep walls
cape point of land that extends into a river, lake, or ocean
channel wide strait or waterway between two landmasses that lie
close to each other; deep part of a river or other waterway
cliff steep, high wall of rock, earth, or ice
continent one of the seven large landmasses on the earth
cultural feature characteristic that humans have created in a
place, such as language, religion, housing, and settlement
pattern
delta flat, low-lying land built up from soil carried downstream by
a river and deposited at its mouth
divide stretch of high land that separates river systems
downstream direction in which a river or stream flows from its
source to its mouth
elevation height of land above sea level
Equator imaginary line that runs around the earth halfway
between the North and South Poles; used as the starting point
to measure degrees of north and south latitude
glacier large, thick body of slowly moving ice
gulf part of a large body of water that extends into a
shoreline, generally larger and more deeply indented
than a bay
harbor a sheltered place along a shoreline where ships can
anchor safely
highland elevated land area such as a hill, mountain,
or plateau
hill elevated land with sloping sides and rounded summit;
generally smaller than a mountain
island land area, smaller than a continent, completely surrounded
by water
isthmus narrow stretch of land connecting two larger
land areas
lake a large inland body of water
latitude distance north or south of the Equator, measured in
degrees
longitude distance east or west of the Prime Meridian, measured
in degrees
lowland land, usually level, at a low elevation
map drawing of the earth shown on a flat surface
meridian one of many lines on the global grid running from the
North Pole to the South Pole; used to measure degrees of
longitude

GH14
 Mountain range

Source of Glacier
river
Channel Highland

Lake
Plateau
Hills

Canyon
Mouth of river

River Desert
Upstream
Downstream
Plain Lowland
Basin
Tributary

mesa broad, flat-topped landform with steep sides; smaller than a
plateau
mountain land with steep sides that rises sharply (1,000 feet or
more) from surrounding land; generally larger and more rug-
ged than a hill
mountain peak pointed top of a mountain
mountain range a series of connected mountains
mouth (of a river) place where a stream or river flows into a
larger body of water
ocean one of the four major bodies of salt water that surround the
continents
ocean current stream of either cold or warm water that moves in
a definite direction through an ocean
parallel one of many lines on the global grid that circle the earth
north or south of the Equator; used to measure degrees of
latitude
peninsula body of land jutting into a lake or ocean, surrounded
on three sides by water
physical feature characteristic of a place occurring naturally,
such as a landform, body of water, climate pattern, or
resource
plain area of level land, usually at a low elevation and often
covered with grasses
plateau large area of flat or rolling land at a high elevation, about
300–3,000 feet high
Prime Meridian line of the global grid running from the
North Pole to the South Pole at Greenwich, England;
starting point for measuring degrees of east and west
longitude
relief changes in elevation over a given area of land
river large natural stream of water that runs through the land
sea large body of water completely or partly surrounded
by land
seacoast land lying next to a sea or ocean
sea level position on land level with surface of nearby ocean
or sea
sound body of water between a coastline and one or more islands
off the coast
source (of a river) place where a river or stream begins, often in
highlands
strait narrow stretch of water joining two larger bodies of
water
tributary small river or stream that flows into a larger river or
stream; a branch of the river
upstream direction opposite the flow of a river; toward the source
of a river or stream
valley area of low land between hills or mountains
volcano mountain created as ash or liquid rock erupts from inside
the earth

GH15