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Urban Agriculture in a developing country: the experience of the Philippines’

urban agriculture

Chapter · January 2009

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Semiarto Purwanto
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 Urban&Agriculture&in&a&Developing&Country:&The&Experience&of&the&
Philippines’&Urban&Agriculture&Programs&

Semiarto&Aji&Purwanto1&
!

Introduction&

My!first!encounter!with!urban!agriculture!took!place!three!years!ago!when!I!was!
conducting!a!research!for!my!dissertation!in!the!southeastern!part!of!Jakarta.!There!a!lot!
of!people!planted!vegetables!for!a!living.!Upon!investigation,!I!learned!that!they!were!
migrants!from!the!neighboring!region,!Karawang,!about!100!kilometers!away.!They!
occupied!vacant!lands,!moving!from!one!place!to!another,!whenever!the!landowners!
took!back!their!property.!In!many!cases,!the!farmers!merely!occupied!the!land,!without!
notifying!the!owners!or!the!government.!Further,!as!the!Municipality!of!Jakarta!and!the!
Department!of!Agriculture!did!not!have!any!guidelines!for!the!farmers!to!follow,!the!
practice!of!urban!agriculture!was!mostly!seen!as!an!illegal!or!informal!economic!activity.!

Later,!when!I!read!through!my!findings!and!compared!them!with!the!experiences!of!the!
other!developing!countries,!I!found!out!that!urban!agriculture!could!be!an!alternative!
solution!to!poverty!and!other!problems!involving!food!supply,!the!environment,!and!
employment/livelihood!in!the!urban!areas.!The!existence!of!policies!or!regulations!was!
important,!however,!as!farmlands!were!problematic,!not!only!in!the!sense!that!they!
were!subject!to!environmental!hazards!like!pollution!and!contamination,!but!more!so!
because!of!land!control!and!ownership!issues.!In!Jakarta,!urban!farmers!occupied!and!
cultivated!vacant!lands!owned!by!private!individuals!or!groups.!In!the!Philippines,!this!
also!happened!and!there!were!instances,!besides,!when!urban!lands!already!allotted!to!
an!individual!or!group!were!cultivated!by!them,!only!for!the!same!land!to!be!suddenly!
taken!back!by!the!owner!from!the!hapless!urban!farmer!because!someone!was!
interested!in!buying!the!land.!

From!my!review!of!literature,!I!determined!that!in!the!Philippines,!there!are!some!
attempts!to!promote!urban!agriculture,!as!initiated!by!government!agencies,!NGOs,!and!
universities.!I!believe!that!my!learning!about!this!country’s!experience!will!help!me!
promote!urban!agriculture!in!Indonesia.!

&

About&urban&agriculture&
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
1!Confluences!And!Challenges!In!Building!The!Asian!Community!In!The!Early!21st!Century.!The!

Work!of!the!2008/2009!API!Fellows!

©!The!Nippon!Foundation!First!published!in!November!2009!

!
A!city!is!often!perceived!as!the!center!of!government,!industry,!trade,!and!service.!Some!
anthropologists!argue!that!a!city!differs!from!a!rural!area!because!of!the!fact!that!the!
latter!is!mostly!characterized!by!subsistence!agriculture!(Fox!1977;!Maccionis!and!
Parrillo!2001).!While!this!may!be!generally!true,!in!some!parts!of!some!cities,!the!city!
dwellers!also!carry!out!agricultural!activities.!

Researches!on!the!persistence!of!agricultural!activities!in!the!city!have!attracted!experts!
to!explain!their!presence.!One!of!those!experts!is!McGee!(1991),!who!noticed!the!
changing!settlement!systems!in!Asia.!He!said!that!the!desakota(region,!a!transition!
settlement,!was!characterized!by!a!mixture!of!agricultural!and!non^!agricultural!
activities.!Recently,!Luc!Mougeot!(2005)!conducted!a!more!systematic!study!on!
agriculture!and!revealed!that!it!was!actually!a!strategy!taken!up!by!the!poor!in!the!city,!
alongside!other!strategies,!for!their!survival.!Mougeot!(2005,!18)!defined!urban!
agriculture!thus:!

an!industry!located!within!(intra^urban)!or!on!the!fringe!(peri^urban)!of!a!town,!a!city!or!
a!metropolis,!which!grows!and!raises,!processes!and!distributes!a!diversity!of!food!and!
non^food!products,!(re^)using!largely!human!and!material!resources,!products!and!
services!found!in!and!around!that!urban!area,!and!in!turn!supplying!human!and!material!
resources,!products!and!services!largely!to!that!urban!area.!

Per!Mougeot’s!definition,!urban!agriculture!may!be!found,!not!only!in!desakota,!but!also!
in!the!peri^urban!and!even!in!the!core!of!a!city.!

In!addition,!Dreschsel!(2005,!5)!explained!that!in!urban!agriculture,!as!a!manner!by!
which!urban!citizens!produce!their!food!by!themselves,!the!vegetables!planted!are!
based!on!their!lifespan.!For!instance,!fast^!growing!ones!are!preferred.!In!the!model!of!
Von!Thunen!(1828),!meanwhile,!he!also!said!that!urban!agriculture!relies!on!geographic!
orientation.!His!thesis!is!slightly!consistent!with!McGee’s!geographic!

approach.!He!further!argued!that!a!city!is!a!significant!center!for!marketing!agricultural!
commodities.!He!pronounced!that!produce!with!shorter!life!spans!should!be!planted!
closer!to!the!city!or!around!the!urban!core!areas.!Meanwhile,!livestock,!cereals,!
potatoes!and!the!other,!more!durable!commodities!may!reasonably!be!raised!farther!
away!from!the!city.!

A!report!from!the!FAO!seminar!(2005,!9^18)!raised!the!issue!of!urban!agriculture!as!a!
way!of!coping!with!problems!of!food!supply!in!the!city.!The!report!started!with!the!
notion!of!urbanism,!which!has!become!a!major!trend!in!almost!every!developing!
country.!It!is!followed!by!poverty’s!expanding!into!the!city!as!a!consequence!of!rapid!in^
migration.!On!the!other!hand,!agricultural!lands!around!the!city!are!sometimes!lost!and!
transformed!into!housing!projects!(residential!subdivisions)!or!become!the!site!of!city!
infrastructure.!Such!transformations!have!created!a!circumstance!in!which!the!city!
inhabitants’!demand!for!food!increases!faster!than!supply.!In!Asia!where!urbanization!is!
an!everyday!phenomenon,!although!food!supply!is!a!real!problem,!urban!agriculture!
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!
remains!an!idea!that!has!yet!to!be!discussed.!

The!Philippines!is!one!of!the!foremost!countries!in!Asia!to!promote!urban!agriculture!as!
a!national!program.!In!early!1990,!groups!of!scholars!and!local!bureaucrats!formulated!
an!urban!agriculture!program!in!Quezon!City!(Nitural!2006,!137).!The!program!was!fully!
supported!by!the!government!and!facilitated!by!the!NGOs!(Duran,!Batac,!and!Drechsel!
2001).!Some!pilot!projects!enjoyed!the!support!of!international!donors!such!as!the!GTZ!
(Burleigh!2002,!2003)!and!the!CIP^International!Potato!Center!(Boncodin,!Campilan,!and!
Prain!2000).!It!was!believed!that!the!people!readily!accepted!the!programs!because,!to!
begin!with,!the!poor!in!the!city!had!already!been!practicing!urban!agriculture.!In!Metro!
Manila,!for!example,!urban!agriculture!has!been!ongoing!for!a!long!time,!way!before!the!
local!bureaucrats,!the!academicians,!and!the!scientists!promoted!it.!According!to!
Guzman!(2005),!it!existed!in!various!sites!and!forms,!and!for!various!reasons!ranging!
“from!backyards,!to!communal!gardens,!and!from!institutional!to!commercial!plots,!
geared!for!household!consumption,!for!the!market!or,!more!commonly,!for!a!mixture!of!
both”.!

Given!Indonesia’s!problems!vis^à^vis!the!Philippines’!experience!in!conducting!urban!
agriculture!programs,!I!would!like!to!advance!three!important!observations.!First,!I!
found!out!that!the!model!of!urban!agriculture!initiatives!or!the!policies!related!to!the!
same!are!insufficient,!in!light!of!the!growing!number!of!urban!farmers!in!the!world,!
including!Indonesia.!Second,!in!the!developing!countries,!urbanization!has!created!an!
unsolved!problem!for!policy!formulation!on!urban!planning.!Third,!a!study!on!how!urban!
agriculture!was!initiated,!promoted!and!managed!by!several!agencies!in!the!Philippines!
may!give!Indonesia!valuable!insights.!As!it!is,!the!Philippines!has!many!examples!that!
illustrate!the!different!stages!in!the!development!of!various!urban!agriculture!projects.!
These!stages!are!as!follows:!coming!up!with!the!idea,!project!formulation,!
implementation,!monitoring,!and!evaluation.!By!examining!the!projects!along!the!
different!stages,!I!believe!that!a!comprehensive!understanding!of!this!issue!will!be!
achieved.!

Policies!on!agriculture,!in!general,!and!urban!agriculture,!in!particular&

Agricultural!development!is!very!important!for!the!Philippines.!To!illustrate,!in!2007,!the!
agriculture!sector!accounted!for!about!22!percent!of!the!country’s!GNP.!But!what!makes!
it!even!more!important!is!that!it!provides!income!and!livelihood!to!millions!of!Filipino(
people.!

The!agriculture!policies!in!the!Philippine!are!based!on!Republic!Act!8435,!which!is!also!
known!as!the!Agriculture!and!Fisheries!Modernization!Act!(AFMA).!Its!main!objective!is!
to!modernize!the!agriculture!sector!in!the!country,!while!at!the!same!time!trying!to!
enhance!the!level!of!participation!of!the!small!landholders,!in!order!to!maintain!food!
security!and!food!self^sufficiency.!It!also!aims!to!promote!private!sector!participation!

!
and!people!empowerment.!Under!the!presidency!of!Gloria!Macapagal,!the!Department!
of!Agriculture!(DA),!in!line!with!AFMA,!launched!the!Ginintuang(Masaganang(Ani(
(GMA),!which!served!as!the!blueprint!of!her!administration’s!agriculture!program.!Its!
top!two!priorities!were!to!achieve!food!security!and!alleviate!poverty!through!
agricultural!or!food!production.!

In!2006,!DA!Secretary!Arthur!C.!Yap!said!that!“the!nascent!rebound!of!the!economy!will!
remain!as!cold!statistics!to!ordinary!Filipinos(unless!this!turnaround!can!put!a!dent!on!
the!high!incidence!of!hunger!and!poverty”!(Dela!Cruz!2006).!His!office!then!created!a!
special!program,!the!Gulayan(Para(sa(Masa(project!or!Programang(Gulayan(ng(Masa(
Tungo(sa(Kanayunang(Malusog(sa(Pag9asa,!which!is!also!known!as!the!Family!Farm!
Program.!This!program!is!actually!part!of!a!bigger,!more!ambitious!project!that!includes!
three!others,!namely,!Manukan!Para!sa!Masa,!Isdaan!Para!sa!Masa,!and!the!Barangay!
Food!Terminal.!

Gulayan(para(sa(Masa(or,!in!short,!Gulayan(ng(Masa(is!anchored!on!promoting!
integrated!food!production!through!backyard!gardening!in!the!country’s!most!
vulnerable!rural!communities.!It!also!encompasses!the!provision!of!training!and!starter!
seeds,!planting!materials,!chicken,!swine,!small!livestock,!and!fish.!Meanwhile,!Manukan!
para!sa!Masa!is!focused!on!the!fulfillment!of!a!family’s!need!for!food!and!protein,!
through!the!provision!of!chicken!and!livestock.!By!raising!chicken,!a!poor!family!is!
expected!to!be!able!to!get!protein!from!its!meat!or!eggs,!or!to!realize!income!from!
selling!the!same.!For!those!areas!where!the!water!supply!allows!it,!Isdaan!para!sa!Masa!
was!launched!through!the!provision!of!catfish.!For!food!distribution!purposes,!the!
government!also!established!the!Barangay!Food!Terminal!from!which!people!could!buy!
nutritious!and!affordable!food.!

In!the!urban!areas,!AFMA!and!the!Gulayan(ng(Masa(program!came!up!with!the!idea!of!
developing!urban!agriculture!as!a!way!of!assuring!the!urban!populace,!especially!the!
poor,!that!they!could!get!food!from!their!own!farm!or!generate!income!from!the!harvest!
of!their!own!produce.!The!urban!agriculture!program!was!named!Kabuhayan!sa!Gulayan!
at!Bulaklakan!or!the!Gulayan!at!Bulaklakan!Project,!which!served!as!the!government’s!
urban!agriculture!program.!

The!history!of!urban!agriculture!in!the!Philippines!can!be!traced!back!to!the!time!when!
President!Joseph!Estrada!was!in!power.!In!1998,!the!First!Lady,!Loi!Ejercito,!initiated!a!
program!that!combined!agriculture,!which!produced!vegetables!for!consumption,!and!
flower!propagation!for!beautification!purposes.!In!the!beginning,!the!program!was!
under!the!supervision!of!the!Office!of!the!Presidential!Assistant!for!Food!Security.!For!its!
implementation,!the!local!government!units!established!a!working!group!of!several!
agencies.!In!Metro!Manila,!for!example,!the!Metropolitan!Manila!Development!
Authority,!the!Office!of!the!First!Lady,!the!local!government!units!(at!the!barangay!
level),!and!some!NGOs!worked!together!to!introduce!and!implement!the!program.!
According!to!Anenias!(2001),!two!years!after!it!was!initiated,!the!program!had!launched!

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30!vegetable!gardens,!with!a!cumulative!total!area!of!230,000!square!meters.!It!
improved!the!lives!of!2,500!beneficiaries.!

Under!President!Gloria!Macapagal^Arroyo,!the!Department!of!Agriculture!became!the!
program’s!implementing!agency.!One!of!its!offices,!the!Bureau!of!Plant!and!Industry!
(BPI),!assumed!the!responsibility!of!implementing!the!program!that!would!increase!farm!
productivity,!create!jobs!and!livelihood!opportunities,!both!in!the!rural!and!the!urban!
areas.!However,!the!coordination!of!the!urban!agriculture!program!was!handled!by!the!
regional!office!of!the!DA.!In!DA!Region!IV,!for!example,!I!noticed!how!a!special!task!force!
was!created!to!support!the!urban!agriculture!program.!Its!coordinator!explained!that!
the!program!was!part!of!Serbisyo!Muna,1!a!program!launched!by!President!Macapagal^
Arroyo!to!prioritize!the!needs!of!the!vulnerable!people.!

On!16!January!2009,!to!cope!with!the!worsening!world!economy,!President!Macapagal^
Arroyo!issued!Executive!Order!No.776!entitled!“Rolling!Out!Backyard!Food!Production!in!
the!Urban!Areas”.!It!was!a!call!to!run!a!massive!program!on!urban!agriculture!through!
the!setting!up!of!vegetable!gardens!and!backyard!fishponds!on!private!lands!and,!if!
necessary,!on!vacant!lots!and!government!lands.!The!President!specifically!asked!the!
DA,!the!local!government!units!and!PAGCOR2!to!actively!participate!in!this!program.!

Urban&agriculture&and&the&initiators&

In!the!Philippines,!several!agencies!were!involved!in!promoting!and!implementing!urban!
agriculture!programs.!The!Department!of!Agriculture,!along!with!other!government!
offices!and!corporations,!was!one!of!them,!but!there!were!others!as!well,!among!them!
NGOS,!universities,!the!Church!and!various!individuals.!

The!Department!of!Agriculture’s!Initiatives&

At!the!start,!I!presumed!that!collecting!data!from!the!DA!would!be!easy!because!I!
thought!that!all!the!information!about!the!program!could!be!found!there.!I!approached!
some!contact!persons!involved!in!the!program!and!was!very!glad!to!find!Mrs.!Tita!
Garcia,!the!coordinator!of!Urban!Agriculture!in!the!office!of!the!DARegionIV.!She!was!
excited!to!find!out!that!my!mission!was!to!study!what!she!was!doing.!

One!Sunday!morning,!she!took!me!to!a!meeting!in!her!house,!which!was!in!the!office!
compound.!There!I!gathered!many!stories!about!the!program!but!did!not!receive!any!
document!on!strategy!and!planning,!which!I!believe!should!be!data!basic!to!every!
development!program.!She!explained!that!all!the!programs!she!had!carried!out!so!far!
were!decided!based!on!the!statements!issued!by!the!of!DA!Secretary,!whereas!the!big!
picture!pertaining!to!the!agriculture!program!was!prescribed!in!the!AFMA!document.!
She!let!me!observe!the!works!thus!far!accomplished,!and!allowed!me!to!join!the!
seminar!that!would!disseminate!the!program!in!elementary!schools.!

DA!Region!IV!worked!with!the!urban!poor!by!implementing!the!program!through!

!
various!barangay,!schools,!the!Church,!and!government!offices.!From!1998!to!2009,!
according!to!the!most!recent!program!status!report!given!to!me,!the!office!had!
conducted!121!projects!over!an!area!of!947,875!square!meters.!These!had!6,373!
beneficiaries!from!Bulacan,!Laguna,!Cavite,!Rizal,!Pasig,!Mandaluyong,!Marikina,!
Valenzuela,!San!Juan,!Parañaque,!Pateros,!Navotas,!Las!Piñnas,!Manila,!Muntinlupa,!
Malabon,!Caloocan!City,!and!Quezon!City.!

Some!government!offices!in!Quezon!City,!like!the!Office!of!the!Ombudsman!and!the!DA!
office,!started!their!vegetable!farms!in!2006.!In!the!Office!of!the!Ombudsman,!the!DA!
Region!IV!program!was!welcomed!such!that!the!office!even!offered!its!backyard!for!
planting.!The!artistic!shape!of!the!vegetable!field!could!be!viewed!from!the!top!of!the!
building.!It!was!a!big!circle!with!a!diameter!of!around!50!meters.!Aside!from!the!circular!
portion!was!a!square!area!but!this!was!destroyed!by!a!flood.!

The!Office!of!the!Ombudsman!hired!10!to!20!people!to!prepare!the!land,!and!7!to!10!
people!to!care!for!it.!Meanwhile,!a!farming!competition!was!held!for!the!officials!from!
the!lower!to!the!higher!ranks!to!attract!them!to!the!program.!They!planted!the!
vegetable!seeds!on!the!prepared!plots!and!waited!for!them!to!grow.!The!hired!people!
maintained!the!plantation!every!day.!When!harvest!time!came,!everyone!in!the!office!
converged!in!the!field,!searched!for!the!best!plantation,!and!declared!the!best!one!as!
the!winner.!None!of!the!harvested!produce!was!sold,!however;!instead,!they!were!given!
to!the!lower!rank!officials!or!anybody!in!the!office!who!wanted!to!take!some!of!the!
harvest!home.!

I!was!also!informed!about!a!parcel!of!land!near!the!DA!office!in!Quezon!City!that!was!
given!to!a!family!to!farm.!Unfortunately,!the!field!had!become!the!site!for!a!new!
building!by!the!time!I!arrived!at!the!place.!

Basically,!a!DA!officer!told!me,!all!the!government!offices!had!shown!their!support!for!
the!urban!agriculture!program!by!creating!vegetable!gardens.!In!the!case!of!the!DA,!its!
garden’s!produce!was!also!given!to!lower^rank!officials!or!to!a!poor!family,!as!mutually!
agreed!upon.!

One!day,!I!had!the!chance!to!follow!a!group!from!DA!Region!IV!that!was!disseminating!
the!urban!agriculture!program.!They!went!to!two!elementary!schools!in!the!Malabon!
area!to!conduct!a!seminar!on!the!prospect!of!urban!residents’!having!vegetable!
gardens.!The!first!school!we!visited!was!the!Dampalit!Elementary!School!along!a!coastal!
area!that!was!flooded!most!of!the!time!because!it!was!below!sea!level.!The!seminar!was!
attended!by!80!pupils!from!grades!5!and!6,!who!crowded!a!classroom!on!the!second!
floor.!The!other!elementary!school!we!visited!had!a!better!seminar!room!for!around!100!
pupils!from!grades!5!and!6.!Three!officials!talked!about!how!important!it!is!to!eat!
vegetables,!and!about!other!topics!like!health!and!the!people’s!livelihood,!how!to!make!
vegetable!gardens,!manage!and!recycle!waste,!and!produce!compost.!During!the!
seminar,!the!pupils!listened!quietly!until!the!question!and!answer!portion,!when!two!or!
three!pupils!asked!questions.!
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At!the!Dampalit!Elementary!School,!I!did!not!see!any!vegetable!garden!but!there!was!
one!in!the!other!school.!However,!it!looked!like!nobody!was!taking!care!of!it.!The!
kangkong((morning!glory),!spinach,!and!chili!looked!undernourished,!and!a!lot!of!weeds!
were!growing!wild.!

Barangay!initiative&

When!then!First!Lady!Loi!Estrada!first!launched!the!urban!agriculture!program,!a!
barangay!in!Quezon!City!responded!to!her!call!by!putting!up!a!demonstration!plot!to!
attract!people!so!that!they,!too,!would!put!up!their!own!vegetable!gardens.!

In!1998,!the!barangay!captain!of!Barangay!Holy!Spirit,!Felicito!Valmocina,!also!known!as!
“Super!Cap”,!turned!a!disputed!parcel!of!land!that!had!been!abandoned!and!had!
become!a!garbage!site,!into!a!garden.!He!organized!a!group!called!the!Samahang!ng!
Munting!Manggugulay!ng!Holy!Spirit!and!with!them!started!cultivating!the!2.3!hectares!
of!land.!They!were!joined!by!100!people!from!the!barangay!who!enjoyed!the!harvest,!
initially.!However,!after!learning!that!they!could!only!use!the!land!but!not!own!it,!they!
quit!the!program.!

Four!years!after!the!program!was!established,!the!barangay!official!took!control!of!the!
field!and!appointed!an!agriculturalist,!David!Balilla,!to!manage!the!farm.!Using!
indigenous!methods!to!compost!waste,!he!claimed!that!every!kind!of!plant!could!thrive!
there.!He!joked,!“Every!vegetable!mentioned!in!the!song!Bahay(Kubo3!can!grow!here”.!

Now,!the!vegetable!and!flower!gardens!in!Barangay!Holy!Spirit!have!become!models!for!
urban!agriculture!and!waste!management,!since!they!also!have!a!composting!unit!that!
manages!waste!from!the!barangay.!The!composting!unit!was!financed!by!a!grant!from!
the!Asian!Development!Bank.!

Other!institutions!and!individuals!have!also!participated!in!the!maintenance!and!
enhancement!of!the!demonstration!plot.!The!DA!supplies!its!agricultural!needs!such!as!
seeds!and!tools,!while!the!Bureau!of!Fisheries!and!Aquatic!Resources!provides!the!
technology!for!culturing!tilapia.!When!I!visiting!the!barangay,!I!noticed!a!big!banner!with!
the!picture!and!name!of!a!senator.!Mr.!Balilla!explained!that!he!had!donated!a!solar!
irrigation!pump.!

Individual!initiatives&

Aside!from!government^initiated!urban!agriculture!programs,!similar!ones!have!been!
mounted!by!other!entities!in!Metro!Manila.!Right!behind!the!UP!campus!in!Diliman,!
Quezon!City,!for!example,!I!found!a!large!rice!field.!Per!my!informant,!this!parcel!of!land!
was!actually!owned!or!claimed!by!the!university.!A!road!through!the!farming!area!was!
just!about!to!be!built!when!I!observed!the!place!in!April!2009.!Managed!by!some!
families,!the!rice!field!was!intensively!cultivated!by!the!farmers!whose!ancestors!had!
been!there!long!before!the!university!was!established.!Totoy,!a!farmer!who!descended!

!
from!among!them,!said!that!he!managed!two!hectares!of!the!rice!fields!that!could!be!
planted!to!rice!twice!a!year.!He!planted!IR!66!during!the!season!I!saw!him.!According!to!
him,!the!variety!allowed!him!to!harvest!70!to!100!sacks!of!rice.!Granted!that!one!sack!
contained!40!kilograms!of!rice,!then!that!would!bring!his!total!harvest!to!2800!to!4000!
kgs.!He!said!that!his!extended!family!of!12!could!consume!his!entire!harvest,!so!he!never!
had!any!left!to!sell.!

I!found!another!case!of!a!farmer!consuming!his!harvest!rather!than!selling!it!in!the!
market.!His!vegetable!garden!lay!along!the!sides!of!the!Marikina!River.!Its!length!
spanned!the!River!Banks!Mall!up!to!the!Marikina!market,!or!measured!approximately!
two!kilometers.!Around!100!farmers!cultivated!the!side!of!the!river!bank!beside!the!
Animal!Park,!a!recreation!site!in!the!City!of!Marikina.!As!they!were!managed!by!the!city!
hall,!they!had!to!obtain!a!license!from!the!local!government!before!they!could!cultivate!
the!land.!An!association!was!established!to!organize!the!farmers:!the!Samahan(ng(mga(
Mamananim(sa(Patay(na(Ilog.!Mang!Jose,!the!65^year!old!farmer!that!I!met,!told!me!
that!he!never!sold!his!harvest!nor!planted!the!vegetables!for!a!living.!He!explained!that!
he!had!survived!a!stroke!that!paralyzed!him!for!about!a!year.!Recovering!from!his!
disease,!he!felt!that!he!needed!a!regular!physical!activity.!Along!with!another!retiree,!he!
asked!the!government!to!allow!him!to!cultivate!the!riverbanks!and!was!granted!
permission.!However,!when!asked!about!the!urban!agriculture!program!and!the!DA’s!
assistance!for!urban!farmers,!he!said!that!there!was!no!such!program!for!them.!I!argued!
and!explained!about!my!visit!to!DA!Region!IV.!He!replied!with!the!question,!“How!long!
have!you!been!staying!here?”.!When!I!said!that!I!had!been!around!for!three!months,!he!
smiled!and!said,!“Okay,!one!day!when!you!stay!longer,!you!will!know!what!the!
government!does!for!us!farmers”.!

University!initiative&

To!complete!my!observation,!I!also!visited!Cagayan!de!Oro!in!Mindanao.!From!the!
Internet,!I!had!found!out!that!this!city!had!implemented!the!program!with!assistance!
from!Xavier!University.!Dr.!Holmer!of!the!university!said!I!was!welcome!to!visit!his!
project.!Unfortunately,!was!abroad!when!I!went!to!his!Peri^!urban!Vegetable!Project!
(PuVEP).!In!line!with!the!urban!agriculture!program,!the!university!conducted!research!
to!determine!what!species!were!suitable!to!be!grown!in!particular!areas.!The!PuVEP!
built!a!laboratory!and!set!up!a!demonstration!plot!near!the!university!campus!in!
Cagayan!de!Oro!City.!It!collaborated!with!the!Mayor’s!office!to!disseminate!the!
program.!

PuVEP!began!its!work!in!early!2002!by!establishing!four!projects!of!allotment!gardens:!
one!each!in!Bugo!and!Gusa,!and!two!in!Lapasan,!with!funding!support!from!the!
European!Union.!An!allotment!garden!consists!of!several!parcels!each!measuring!about!
200!to!400!square!meters.!It!was!assigned!to!individuals!or!families!that!were!organized!
into!an!association.!Each!parcel!was!cultivated!individually!to!differentiate!it!from!a!
communal!garden!which!was!usually!managed!collectively!by!a!particular!group.!Though!

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!
it!was!common!in!some!European!countries!as!early!as!two!centuries!ago,!the!allotment!
garden!was!quite!new!in!Asia.!Therefore,!PuVEP!tried!to!settle!all!the!necessary!
requirements!to!put!up!the!garden,!from!the!legal!aspect,!to!providing!technology,!to!
the!establishment!of!groups,!to!extending!start^up!financial!support,!and!mentoring!the!
farmers.!

In!barangay!Macasandig,!I!observed!two!allotment!gardens:!Christa!Holt!and!Dietrich,!
which!were!named!after!two!Germans!who!had!donated!funds!for!the!garden.!The!
gardens!were!well!organized,!and!grew!many!kinds!of!vegetables:!beans,!mustard,!
spinach,!eggplant!and!lettuce.!In!Lapasan,!a!newly!initiated!allotment!garden!named!
Hillside!also!proved!quite!interesting.!This!garden!was!managed!by!women!who!said!
that!farming!allowed!them!to!spend!their!time!more!meaningfully.!Before!they!had!
Hillside,!they!had!used!up!their!time!gambling,!gossiping,!and!watching!TV.!Further,!the!
money!they!raised!from!the!garden!allowed!them!to!buy!additional!food!for!the!family!
and!finance!their!children’s!education.!

Although!PuVEP!had!attended!to!all!the!legal!aspects!of!the!garden,!as!mentioned!
earlier,!the!staff!that!guided!me!during!my!visit!was!surprised!by!what!he!saw!when!we!
went!to!the!garden!in!Lapasan—the!entrance!had!been!blocked!by!the!landowner!so!
that!the!farmers!could!not!cultivate!the!land.!Some!tried!to!climb!over!the!fence!to!get!
to!their!plots,!but!the!others!simply!gave!up.!The!landowner!explained!that!he!had!made!
a!deal!with!a!buyer!who!wanted!to!buy!his!land.!

Concluding&Remarks&

From!my!observations,!I!now!conclude!that!urban!agriculture!programs!in!the!
Philippines!vary!in!form,!initiators,!program!strategy,!and!sustainability.!The!projects!
initiated!by!government!agencies!like!the!DA,!took!on!the!form!of!assigned!farmlands!
and!benefited!from!government’s!provision!of!seeds,!agriculture!tools,!land!preparation!
assistance,!and!technical!knowledge!support.!Slightly!similar!to!the!government^
initiated!projects!were!the!initiatives!of!the!barangay!and!the!university,!whose!
programs!also!took!on!many!forms.!At!the!barangay!level,!the!small!coverage!made!it!
possible!for!a!demonstration!plot!to!

be!created,!to!show!the!citizens!what!gardening!was!about.!Meanwhile,!the!university!
project!had!a!research!component!that!helped!in!the!selection!of!species!that!would!
grow!well!in!the!area.!It!also!usually!came!out!with!manuals!or!books!on!farming.!
Important!to!point!out!would!be!the!fact!that!all!three!had!access!to!funding!from!other!
parties.!

On!the!other!side,!individual!initiatives!mostly!had!no!specific!programs!attached!to!
them!beyond!the!existence!of!the!garden!itself.!Unfortunately,!they!had!to!contend!with!
land!availability!and/or!the!legal!status!of!the!land!they!cultivated.!

The!different!initiators!used!different!strategies!to!promote!urban!agriculture.!The!DA!

!
claimed!that!it!used!the!participatory!approach!to!introduce!the!program.!However,!I!
noticed!that!most!of!the!projects!had!been!planned!in!detail!from!the!top,!by!the!
officials!and!experts!in!the!office.!The!program,!as!designed,!was!then!delivered!to!the!
school,!the!government!office,!the!barangay,!and!the!church.!They!all!had!similar!
templates.!

But!the!university!had!a!distinct!approach.!It!started!with!research!and,!in!the!case!of!
PuVEP,!the!research!took!a!while!to!accomplish:!almost!three!years!before!the!
implementation!could!begin.!In!terms!of!choosing!potential!participants,!the!university!
kept!the!magnitude!small!relative!to!the!number!of!participants!that!government!
projects!had.!

For!their!part,!the!individual!initiatives!had!more!variations.!For!instance,!the!farmer!
around!the!UP!campus!simply!continued!his!forebears’!practice.!There!were!no!
indications!either!that!he!had!any!intention!to!develop!any!other!agriculture!activity.!His!
style!was!different!from!that!of!the!farmers!along!the!Marikina!riverbanks,!which!had!an!
association!and!clear!objectives.!They!knew!exactly!how!farming!would!benefit!their!
livelihood,!leisure,!and!physical!well^!being.!

I!really!have!to!think!hard!about!the!projects’!sustainability.!Some!pessimistic!views!
emerged!when!I!asked!observers!in!the!Philippines!about!the!future!of!government!
programs.!They!said!that!the!DA!was!unfortunately!perceived!as!one!of!the!most!
corrupt!government!offices!in!the!country.!It!would!allegedly!say!that!the!project!may!
run!for!years,!and!then!allocate!enough!budget!for!the!program.!But!the!truth!was!that!
the!people!received!only!a!little!of!the!funds!indicated!in!the!budget.!“You!see!the!
money!was!there,!and!the!program!has!stated!as!much;!but!can!you!see!the!garden?”!
an!NGO!activist!asked!me.!

Looking!back,!I!also!remember!what!some!farmers!who!worked!on!their!own!said—!
they!had!never!received!any!help!from!government!agencies.!They!even!worried!about!
their!future!since!in!UP,!for!example,!a!road!was!to!be!built!across!their!place.!
Moreover,!they!had!been!asked!to!move!out!several!times.!In!Marikina!riverbanks,!on!
the!other!hand,!annual!floods!always!destroyed!the!garden.!

What!can!be!learned!from!the!Philippines!experience!is!that!many!parties!appear!
interested!in!urban!agriculture.!The!government!has!a!policy!to!promote!it,!while!a!
university!and!some!NGOs!have!promoted!and!supported!the!program.!I!have!exercised!
the!Philippine!case!and!now!conclude!that!a!gap!exists!between!the!program!as!
envisioned,!and!its!implementation.!Urban!agriculture!has!now!become!an!issue!for!
debate!in!terms!of!its!capability!to!solve!the!urban!problem,!both!in!written!discourses!
and!among!policymakers.!In!Indonesia,!I!have!observed!that!urban!agriculture!is!not!
even!talked!about!widely!in!the!academic!world,!much!less!in!government,!such!that!
there!are!no!policies!regulating!and!controlling!this!“illegal”!activity,!even!as!the!practice!
of!urban!agriculture!in!Jakarta!is!widespread!and!appears!to!be!expanding.!

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Ultimately,!I!would!like!to!say!that!in!the!Philippines,!urban!agriculture!is!a!popular!topic!
of!discourse!in!politics,!policy!and!social!movements,!rather!than!in!real!life,!at!least!
where!the!urban!people!are!concerned.!In!Indonesia,!discourses!on!this!issue!have!been!
very!limited!despite!the!existence!of!many!beds!of!vegetables!spread!all!over!cities!like!
Jakarta.!

NOTES!

. 1!!Serbisyo(muna(literally!means!“service!first”.!This!program!of!President!Gloria!
Macapagal^Arroyo!was!launched!in!2005.!It!is!also!called!the!People’s!
Government!Mobile!Action!(PGMA).!The!program!includes!collaboration!
activities!participated!in!by!local!government!units,!non^government!
organizations,!religious!groups,!the!urban!poor!and!the!private!sector.!PAGCOR!
(see!footnote!2)!is!responsible!for!implementing!various!program,!among!them!
urban!agriculture.!!

. 2!!PAGCOR!stands!for!the!Philippine!Amusement!and!Gaming!Corporation,!a!
government!corporation!that!regulate!all!games!of!chance!in!the!country,!
particularly!casino!gaming,!to!raise!funds!for!the!governments’!socio^civic!and!
national!developmental!efforts,!and!to!help!boost!the!country’s!tourism!
industry.!It!was!built!in!1977!under!the!Marcos!era!
(http://www.pagcor.ph/about^pagcor.php).!

. 3!More!than!thirty!years!ago,!Bahay(Kubo(began!to!be!taught!in!kindergarten!school!
and!has!since!become!popular.!It!tells!about!a!backyard!garden!of!a!traditional!
house!full!of!various!kinds!of!vegetables.!The!lyrics!go:!Bahay(kubo,(kahit(
munti,(Ang(halaman(doon,(ay(sari(sari.(Singkamas(at(talong,(sigarilyas(at(mani(
Sitaw,(bataw,(patani;(Kundol,(patola,(upo’t(kalabasa,(At(saka(mayroon(pang(
labanos,(mustasa,(Sibuyas,(kamatis,(bawang(at(luya,(Sa(paligid9ligid(ay(puno(ng(
linga.(In!English!this!translate!to!“Nipa!hut,!even!though!it!is!small,!the!plants!it!
houses!are!varied,!turnip!and!eggplant,!winged!bean!and!peanut,!string!bean,!
hyacinth!bean,!lima!bean,!wax!gourd,!luffa,!white!squash!and!pumpkin,!and!
there!is!also!radish,!mustard,!onion,!tomato,!garlic,!and!ginger.!And!all!around!
are!sesame!seeds”.!

REFERENCES&

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Boncodin,!R.,!D.!Campilan,!and!G.!Prain.!2000.!Dynamics!in!tropical!home!gardens.!
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Fox,!Richard!G.!1977.!Urban(anthropology.(Cities(in(their(cultural(settings.!New!Jersey:!
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Macionis,!John!J.!and!Vincent!N.!Parrillo.!2004.!Cities(and(urban(life.!3rd!ed.!New!Jersey:!
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McGee,!T.G.!1991.!Introduction.!In!The(extended(metropolis:(Settlement(transition(in(
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Mougeot,!Luc!J.!A.!2005.!Agropolis.(The(social,(political(and(environmental(dimensions(of(
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Nitural,!Pedrito!S.!2006.!Urban!agriculture!program!in!the!Philippines:!Its!beginning!and!
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Urban(Agriculture(in(the(Asian(and(Pacific(Region,!Tagaytay!City,!Philippines,!22^26!May.!

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