Ore Geology Reviews 107 (2019) 434–456

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Ore Geology Reviews

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A review of intermediate sulfidation epithermal deposits and T

subclassification
Le Wanga,b,c,d, Ke-Zhang Qina,b,c, , Guo-Xue Songc, Guang-Ming Lia,b
⁎

a
Key Laboratory of Mineral Resources, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, PR China
b
Institutions of Earth Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, PR China
c
University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, PR China
d
Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa K1N 6N5, Canada

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Intermediate sulfidation (IS) veins is one of the subtypes of epithermal deposits formed in subduction-related arc
Intermediate sulfidation settings or post-collisional orogenic belts. The economic and scientific significance of IS deposits has been
Epithermal deposit highlighting importance in Ag-Au-Pb-Zn exploration and study of porphyry-epithermal systems. This epithermal
Porphyry clan of deposits typically have a close relationship with andesitic-dacitic volcanic-subvolcanic rocks, and formed
Subtype
at a depth of ∼0.3 to as much as 1 + km. IS deposits are typically related to oxidized calcic to calc-alkaline
Arc
Post-collisional
magmatism. Fluid homogenization temperatures and salinities range between 150 and 350 °C, and 0 and 23 wt%
NaCl equivalent, respectively. The O and H isotope compositions are consistent with a mixture of magmatic and
meteoric water, with an increase in meteoric diluent as the hydrothermal system wanes. Most of the IS deposits
in the world, particularly those in Circum-Pacific metallogenic belts, formed during Cenozoic time. Several
Mesozoic and Paleozoic IS deposits in the Central Asian Orogenic Belt imply great exploration potential for pre-
Cenozoic IS deposits in this area.
The presence of Mn-carbonate such as rhodochrosite and manganocalcite (locally Mn-silicate, e.g., rhodonite,
helvite) typically in mid to late hydrothermal stages is a common diagnostic feature to discern IS from low-sulfi-
dation (LS) deposits. In addition, the occurrence of intermediate-sulfidation state sulfides such as pyrite, chalco-
pyrite, sphalerite, galena, and tetrahedrite/tennantite associations are another indicator of the IS type; light-colored
(Fe-poor) sphalerite is typical of IS deposits, consistent with relatively oxidized fluids. Elevated fluid salinity is
another characteristic, with maximum salinity values of base metal-rich IS veins usually > 5 wt% NaCl equiv.
The reported IS deposits worldwide show that they develop in compressional volcanic arcs as well as in some
extensional settings. In this review, IS deposits are subdivided into “NC (Neutral-Compressional)-type IS” with
a low Ag/Au ratio (< 60), formed in neutral to compressive stress state volcanic arcs, and “E (Extensional)-type
IS”, on the contrary, with a high Ag/Au ratio (> 60), formed in extensional settings such as extensional intra-arc,
post-collisional orogenic belts, and back-arc settings. Another notable feature of E-type IS deposits is their large
Ag endowment compared to NC-type IS. NC-type IS (Au ± Ag) deposits can be associated with porphyry Cu-Au
and/or high sulfidation (HS) Au-Cu deposits, and their economic metals are mainly gold and/or silver. By
contrast, some E-type IS deposits can occur on the flanks of porphyry molybdenum deposits; E-type IS veins can
also occur together with LS precious metal veins in back arcs or extensional continental margins, the most
representative examples occurring in Mexico. The occurrence of the two subtypes of IS are largely controlled by
the parent magma, with parent magma of NC-type IS primarily derived from depleted mantle or juvenile crust,
while parent magma of E-type IS mainly from (ancient?) continental crust.
The occurrence of IS deposits is presumably controlled by tectono-magmatic settings and fluid evolution
paths. Neutral to compressive stress regime, relatively great depth to an exsolving magma (> 4 km) and low
exsolution rate of magmatic fluids, plus the presence of syn-ore dikes in conjunction with the development of
interconnected fracture networks above the porphyry stock could be conducive for the occurrence of IS (and also
HS) Au veins upon porphyry copper deposits (PCDs). Confirmation of sub-types and variations of IS veins can aid
in exploration for spatially and genetic-related mineralization types, such as porphyry and HS deposits.

⁎
Corresponding author at: No. 19, Beitucheng Western Road, Chaoyang District, 100029 Beijing, PR China.
E-mail address: kzq@mail.iggcas.ac.cn (K.-Z. Qin).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2019.02.023
Received 8 November 2018; Received in revised form 31 January 2019; Accepted 17 February 2019
Available online 20 February 2019
0169-1368/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
L. Wang, et al.
1. Introduction
Epithermal deposits are responsible for 8% gold (Frimmel, 2008),
17% silver (Singer, 1995), and a certain amount of base metals pro-
duction globally, being the important source of precious metals for
Mexico, the United States, Canada, Chile, Peru, Papua New Guinea, and
Japan. Lindgren (1922, 1933) first defined epithermal deposits as
precious metal and base metal accumulations formed by ascending
hydrothermal water at relatively shallow depths (≤900 m) and low
temperature (50–200 °C), typically hosted in volcanic and adjacent
rocks. By now there is a consensus that epithermal deposits formed at a
depth less than ∼1.5 km and generally at a temperature between 150
and 300 °C (e.g., Hedenquist et al., 2000; Simmons et al., 2005).
Epithermal ore deposition occurs where focused, rapidly ascending
fluids sharply change composition within several hundred of meters of
the surface (boiling). This process favors precipitation of bisulfide-
complexed metals such as gold. Boiling and its concomitant phase se-
paration and rapid cooling also result in associated features such as
deposition of bladed calcite, colloform quartz, and adularia, as well as
the generation of steam-heated waters that create advanced argillic and
argillic alteration blankets. Moreover, sharp depressurization following
hydraulic fracturing or brecciation focuses the flow of vigorously
boiling fluid (Hedenquist et al., 2000).
Among three types of epithermal deposits, i.e., HS, IS and LS type, IS
deposits were most recently distinguished from their LS siblings (John,
1999; Hedenquist et al., 2000; Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003), with
subsequent attention worldwide (e.g., Gemmell, 2004; Shamanian
et al., 2004; Gantumur et al., 2005; Koděra et al., 2005; Camprubí and
Albinson, 2007; Downes, 2007; Kouzmanov et al., 2009; Velador, 2010;
Yilmaz et al., 2010; Mehrabi and Siani, 2012; Gamarra et al., 2013; Nie
et al., 2015; Márquez-Zavalía and Heinrich, 2016; Manning and
Hofstra, 2017; Wang et al., 2018). Due to different naming tradition, IS
deposits in the Cordillera have been termed “Cordilleran polymetallic
\base metal deposits” (Sawkins, 1972; Einaudi, 1982; Hemley and
Hunt, 1992; Bendezú and Fontboté, 2002), “polymetallic\base metal
epithermal deposits” (Bendezú et al., 2008; Baumgartner et al., 2008),
and “carbonate-base metal Au deposits” in the circum-Pacific region
(e.g., Leach and Corbett, 1994; Corbett and Leach, 1998). In this re-
view, we use the name intermediate sulfidation epithermal deposits to
keep the consistence with HS and LS and hence to facilitate their direct
comparison.
IS deposits generally have lower Au grade than LS veins. However,
what makes IS deposits important in exploration is their potential for
significant Ag and base metal contents and their close relations with
PCDs, porphyry molybdenum deposits (PMDs), and HS deposits.
Compared with HS and LS deposits, the understanding of IS deposits
is relatively lagging. This review summarizes the current knowledge of
key features of IS deposits, including spatiotemporal distributions, ore
and gangue mineralogy, ore and deposit morphology, magmatic affi-
nity, tectonic and structure control, metal transporting and depositing
mechanisms, factors controlling its occurrence, and relationships with
porphyry-HS deposits and LS deposits. An empirical subclassification
scheme of IS deposits is proposed based on distinctive tectonic settings
and associated stress states within which they formed. A tectonic-
magmatic control on subtypes of IS are proposed. This classification
may facilitate the investigation and exploration of IS and related de-
posits.
2. The related terms
The term ‘sulfidation’ was first used in epithermal classification
(high sulfidation deposit characterized by oxidized sulfur valence
(SO42−, n = +6) and low sulfidation deposit characterized by reduced
sulfur (H2S, n = −2)) by Hedenquist (1987). In this contribution, the
sulfidation terminology refers to sulfidation state of the principal sul-
fide minerals, but also includes a range of characteristics that are
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Ore Geology Reviews 107 (2019) 434–456
Fig. 1. Logƒ(S2)-T (°C) diagram showing the variety of sulfide assemblages in
porphyry and epithermal deposits that reflect sulfidation state. I. Trajectories ①
and ② are those described for porphyry copper deposits and intermediate-sul-
fidation precious-base metal veins associated with porphyries, respectively;
based on Einaudi et al. (2003). Trajectory ③ is a speculative path that could
explain the sulfidation evolution deduced for the La Guitarra deposit and other
similar epithermal deposits (e.g., Bacís, Guanajuato, Tayoltita, Maguaríchic,
Pachuca–Real del Monte) in México (Camprubí and Albinson, 2007). Adapted
after Einaudi et al. (2003) and CamprubÍ and Albinson (2007).
typical, but not necessarily exclusive, to one type of deposit. Sulfidation
state of sulfide minerals is a function of fs2 and temperature (1000/T,
Fig. 1; Einaudi et al., 2003). By definition (Einaudi et al., 2003), in-
termediate sulfidation is stable with respect to chalcopyrite-pyrite-ar-
gentite as well as tennantite and tetrahedrite. This practical description
based on mineralogy is more useful than determining a range of fluid
inclusion homogenization temperatures and corresponding sulfur fu-
gacities from measuring the FeS in sphalerite and Ag contents of elec-
trum (Barton and Toulmin, 1964, 1966; Barton and Skinner, 1979).
The term “intermediate-sulfidation epithermal deposits” has been
used for nearly two decades. John et al. (1999) classified LS deposits of
northern Nevada as type 1 LS (associated with a western andesite arc)
(Table 1) and type 2 LS (related to bimodal magmatism) based on
several distinct geological facts. They noticed that type 1 LS formed
from moderate temperature, low to moderate salinity fluids with rela-
tively high oxygen and sulfur fugacities, which are the median between
HS and type 2 LS. The resulting deposits generally have higher base
metal and silver contents and higher Ag/Au than type 2 LS, and their
sulfide mineral association is transitional between HS and type 2 LS.
Type 1 LS was proposed to be called IS deposits by Hedenquist et al.
(2000) (Table 1). Sillitoe and Hedenquist (2003) refined the termi-
nology for epithermal deposits and noted that HS and IS form in the
same tectonic setting as porphyry, and they can be related, which is
distinctly different from extensional setting of LS deposits (Table 1).
The epithermal classification HS, IS, and LS is currently the most ac-
cepted scheme (e.g., Shamanian et al., 2004; Downes, 2007;
Kouzmanov et al., 2009; Velador, 2010; İmer et al., 2016; Xie et al.,
2017) despite the presence of other classification schemes (Simmons
et al., 2005).
Later, Camprubí and Albinson (2007) proposed a IS-LS transition
type based on a summary of 35 of epithermal deposits in Mexico, noting
an atypical epithermal style with upper LS precious metal and roots of
IS polymetallic base metal mineralization (Table 1).
Key terms used in this review are clarified here (mainly based on
Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003). HS deposits: a kind of epithermal de-
posits characterized by high content sulfides (10–90 vol%), pyrite –
 Table 1
Terms evolution of intermediate-sulfidation epithermal deposits.
Authors John et al. (1999), John (2001) Hedenquist et al. (2000) Sillitoe and Hedenquist Camprubí and Albinson, 2007
L. Wang, et al.

(2003)
Type name Type 1 low-sulfidation epithermal related Intermediate sulfidation-state deposits Intermediate- Type A (or IS Type B (or LS-IS
to western andesite sulfidation type) type)
epithermald deposits

Ore mineralogy Pyrite, electrum, silver sulfides and Pyrite, Au-Ag sulfides/ sulfosalts, variable sphalerite, galena, chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite/ tennantite Sphalerite, galena, Pyrite and/or arsenopyrite, sphalerite,
sulphosalts; local sphalerite, galena, tetrahedrite- galena, chalcopyrite, argentite-acanthite,
chalcopyrite tennantite, Ag-tetrahedrite -tennantite, Ag sulfosalts,
chalcopyrite Ag-Pb sulfosalts, electrum, native gold or
silver
Gangue mineralogy Quartz, carbonate, sericite ± adularia, Quartz-carbonate-rhodonite-sericite-adularia ± barite ± anhydrite ± hematite ± chlorite Quartz, carbonate Quartz, bladed Quartz, adularia
rare chlorite common typically calcite, illite,
including adularia, chlorite,
manganiferous epidote
varieties; Barite and
manganiferous silicates
present locally
Mineralization style Open space, rhythmically banded and Vein, breccia body, disseminated Veins, stockworks, Veins, brecciated bodies, polyphase
comb texture veins; mineralized zones breccias, multibanded and brecciated
generally ≤10 m wide, may be continuous disseminations, minor
for kilometerss along strike and up to 1 km mantos and chimneys
downdip; repeated fault brecciation
Alteration style Regional propylitic alteration; narrow Clays, sericite, carbonates Sericite; adularia Smectite, illite,
zones of superimposed adularia, sericite, generally uncommon kaolinite, chlorite
and argillic alteration around
quartz ± carbonate ± adularia veins;

436
barren steam-heated argillic alteration
overlying boiling zones
Metals produced Au, Ag ± Cu, Pb, Zn Ag-Au-Pb-Zn, Ba, Mn, Se Ag-Au, Zn, Pb, Cu Ag, Au, Pb, Zn, Cu
Geochemical Au, Ag, Ba, Mn, ± Cu, Pb, Se, Zn Mo, As, Sb
signature
Ag/Au High, generally 10:1 to 100:1 2–10 1– > 1000
Base metal content Variable, but generally > 200 ppm (20 + )%
(Cu + Pb + Zn)
Sulfide content Variable, can be high in deeper parts of 5– > 20 vol% > 5% < 1% to > 5%
systems (30%)
Ore fluids Neutral pH, low to moderate ƒO2 and ƒS2, 3–10 + wt % NaCl equiv 0–23 wt% NaCl equiv 0–20 wt% NaCl equiv
low to moderate salinities (1–6 wt% NaCl
equiv), locally CO2 rich
Temperature of ore 200–280 °C 220–280 °C+ 230–300 °C
formation
Connection with PCD- Spatially coexisting with PCD, HS and LS Some IS veins adjacent to high-sulfidation ore
HS-LS
Tectonic setting Transtensional zones related to strike-slip Arc terrain Extensional Rift
faults continental-margin
arc, compressive island
arc-continental-margin
backarc, neutral-stress
arc
Associated igneous Andesite-dacite Andesite-rhyodacite Principally andesite to
rocks rhyodacite but locally
rhyolite
Geochemistry of Subduction-related, high-potassium calc- Calc-alkaline
igneous rocks alkaline series; relatively oxidized and high
water contents
(continued on next page)
Ore Geology Reviews 107 (2019) 434–456
L. Wang, et al. Ore Geology Reviews 107 (2019) 434–456

enargite – luzonite – famatinite – covellite as major ore minerals, quartz

– sulfate (e.g., barite) as main gangue minerals (carbonate absent), and

Monte, Zacatecas
Pachuca-Real del
Type B (or LS-IS

Temascaltepec,
quartz – alunite – pyrophyllite – dickite as main proximal alteration
minerals. Lithocap: blankets of alunite, kaolinite, and vuggy quartz
Camprubí and Albinson, 2007

formed from acid leaching of condensation of a low-density magmatic

type)

vapor and meteoric water, also known as acid altered lithocap or ad-
vanced argillic lithocap. The lithocap usually predates the HS miner-
Cobre, Bolaños, alization and could act as host rock for it (Sillitoe and Hedenquist,
San Martín de
Guadalupe, El
Type A (or IS

2003). LS deposits (associated with subalkaline magma in this review):

Sombrerete
Zacualpan,
a kind of epithermal deposits featured by low sulfides content (typi-

Fresnillo,
Bolaños,
Real de

cally < 2 vol%), minor pyrite – arsenopyrite ± pyrrhotite ±

type)

sphalerite ± galena ± chalcopyrite ± tetrahedrite/tennantite as ore

minerals, chalcedony – quartz ± carbonate ± fluorite as primary
Sillitoe and Hedenquist

epithermald deposits

gangue minerals, illite/smectite – adularia as key proximal alteration

Fresnillo (Ag-rich),

minerals. IS deposits: a sort of epithermal deposits featured by inter-

Baguio (Au-rich)

mediate sulfides content (5–20 vol%), pyrite – sphalerite – galena –

Intermediate-
sulfidation

chalcopyrite – tetrahedrite/tennantite as chief ore minerals, quartz –

(2003)

manganiferous carbonate ± adularia ± manganiferous silicate ±

barite as gangue minerals, illite as proximal alteration minerals. IS-LS
deposits, an atypical epithermal style with upper LS Au-Ag and roots of
IS polymetallic mineralization (Zn-Pb-Cu), largely located in Mexico
(Camprubí and Albinson, 2007).

3. Distribution in space and time

Clusters of porphyry copper deposits and epithermal deposits

usually occur in zones which experienced prolonged history of plate
subduction and/or collision (Sillitoe, 1997, 2008, Qin et al., 2002;
Yakubchuk et al., 2005; Cao et al., 2011; Richards, 2015; Shen et al.,
2015). Three global metallogenic belts closely related to plates sub-
duction and collision, i.e., Circum-Pacific (Pacific Rim) metallogenic
Comstock, Tonopah, Creede, Fresnillo, Casapalca, Victoria

belt, Tethys-Himalayan metallogenic belt and Central Asian metallo-

genic belt, contain most porphyry copper deposits and all types of
epithermal deposits. The amount of reported IS deposits in the Central
Asian and Tethys-Himalayan belts is much less than that in Circum-
Pacific belt (Fig. 2).
Intermediate sulfidation-state deposits

In terms of tectonic settings, IS deposits could develop in all the

stress states (compressive, neutral, and extensional) in magmatic arcs
(Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003), back arcs (Camprubí and Albinson,
2007), and post-collisional orogenic belt (Xie et al., 2017). This leads to
Hedenquist et al. (2000)

a much wider distribution of IS deposits than PCDs in the shallow level

of earth crust.
Domes, diatremes

In a regional scale, IS deposits are economically important in the

600-km-long Walker Lane in Nevada (e.g., Comstock Lode), the 750-
km-long Sierra Madre Occidental belt in Mexico (e.g., Tayoltita), the
100-km-long Zamora belt in southern Ecuador (e.g., Fruta del Norte),
and the 300-km-long Middle Cauca belt in Colombia (e.g., Marmato)
Andesite/dacite stratovolcanoes and dome

(Sillitoe, 2008). Besides, sporadic IS deposits were also reported in

Type 1 low-sulfidation epithermal related

Altiplano province (Noble et al., 1990) as well as central and Northern

part of Peru (Kamilli and Ohmoto, 1977), central and eastern Europe
John et al. (1999), John (2001)

(Lexa, 1999; Ciobanu et al., 2002; Grancea et al., 2002), Baguio district
of the Philippines and Morobe goldfield of Papua New Guinea (Sillitoe,
Comstock Lode, Tonopah

1989), Hokkaido of Japan (Watanabe, 2002), Lachlan orogenic belt of

Australia (Downes, 2007), Tethys subduction magmatic arc in Turkey
to western andesite

(Yilmaz et al., 2010), Alborz magmatic arc in Iran (Shamanian et al.,

2004; Mehrabi and Siani, 2012), Bulgaria (Rice et al., 2007; Sabeva
et al., 2017), eastern Central Asian Orogenic Belt (Gantumur et al.,
2005; Han et al., 2013; Nie et al., 2015; Song et al., 2015; Wang et al.,
2018).
As for mineralization ages, most of the IS deposits are quite young,
Style of magmatism
Table 1 (continued)

primarily formed in Cenozoic and peaked in the Miocene (Fig. 3,

Table 2). There are also several IS deposits of Mesozoic. Very rare Pa-
leozoic IS veins were reported, with four out of nine pre-Cenozoic IS
Type name

Examples

deposits occurring in Circum-Pacific metallogenic belt, and three of

Authors

them in east part of Central Asian metallogenic Belt, whereas the rest
two in Tethys-Himalayan metallogenic belt (Table 2, Fig. 3). The

437
L. Wang, et al. Ore Geology Reviews 107 (2019) 434–456

Fig. 2. Global distribution of IS deposits; HS and LS deposits are also shown. Modified from Hedenquist et al. (2000); and arc-related metallogenic belts after Richards
(2013).

present most ancient IS deposit is Zhengguang IS Au-Zn deposit, formed
in early Ordovician (Song et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2018). The age
distribution pattern is consistent with the fact that IS deposits generally
form in shallow depth (< 1.5 km) and largely occur in volcanic arcs
(Fig. 2) which usually accompany strong uplift and erosion, resulting in
a lower preservation rate for the older ones.
4. Characteristics of IS deposits
4.1. Mineralogy and paragenesis
Sulfide mineral assemblage in the majority of IS deposits can be
relatively simple, including combinations of pyrite, Fe-poor sphalerite,
galena, chalcopyrite, and tetrahedrite/tennantite (Einaudi et al., 2003;
Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003). Precious metal IS deposits also contain
electrum, native gold, acanthite-argentite, and many other silver sul-
fosalts minerals. There are minor occurrences of arsenopyrite (Fresnillo,
Gemmell et al., 1988), and rare pyrrhotite (Real de Angeles, Pearson
et al., 1988). In some cases, high-temperature dark sphalerite is present
(locally up to 20 mol% FeS in Creede, United States, Barton et al., 1977;
Kelian, Indonesia, van Leeuwen et al., 1990). Such fluctuations in the
FeS content of sphalerite may be caused by intermittent events such as
boiling, interaction with local reduced wall-rock or basement, or by
pulses of reduced fluids of magmatic or sedimentary origin (Barton
et al., 1977; Bethke and Rye, 1979) (furtherly discussed in Section
6.1.1).

Fig. 3. Distribution of mineralization age of IS deposits in the world (n = 43). Data from references in Table 2.

438
 Table 2
Selected features of intermediate-sulfidation epithermal deposits in the world.
No. Deposit Country Tectonic setting Mineralization Tonnage and grade Ag/Au Genetically Host rock Gangue Ore minerals Th of main Salinity of main References
L. Wang, et al.

age/Ma related minerals stage/℃ stage/wt.% NaCl

magmatic rock eqv.

1 Fresnillo Ag- Mexico Back-arc 29–31 6.2Mt @ 780 g/t Ag, 1393 Quartz Middle-late Jurrasic q, cal, ser, py, sp, gn, 160–320 ∼2(q and cal), Gemmell et al.,
Au 2.7 g/t Au monzonite volcanic sedimentary adu, dolo, asp, ssf, 8.5–12.0(sph) 1988; Trejo,
stock rocks, overlying ank, flu acan 2001; Velador,
Paleocene-Eocene 2010
conglomerate, Eocene-
Oligocene volcanics
2 Guanajuato Mexico Back-arc 28.4–30.7 40Mt @ 850 g/t Ag, 213 Quartz Mesozoic sedimentary q, ser, chl, py, gn, sp, 240–290 1.1–2.5 Mango et al.,
Ag-Au 4 g/t Au monzonite rocks, Cenozoic cal, ep cp, el, acan, 2014 and
porphyry volcanics ssf references
therein
3 La Colorada Mexico Extensional intra-arc 30–35 4Mt @ 400 g/t Ag, 4% 800 Dacitic flows Cretaceous mudstone, q, ill, adu, py, gn, sp, 148–325 ND Chutas and
Ag-Zn-Pb Zn, 1.5% Pb, 0.5 g/t Au and tuffs limestone, siltstone bar cp, ssf, Ag Sack, 2004 and
references
therein;
Findley, 2010
4 Miguel Auza Mexico Extensional intra-arc 45 2 Mt @152 g/t Ag, 800 Diorite? Cretaceous Caracol q, mus, py, cp, sp, 250–400 ND Findley, 2010
Ag-Pb-Zn 2.30% Pb, 2.41% Zn, Formation argillaceous cal, ill, chl gn, asp, Ag- (speculated
0.19 g/t Au slate, sillt stone and rich ten, ssf, from Ag content
greywacke acan in tetrahedrite)
5 Pachuca-Real Mexico Back-arc 20–21 40000 t Ag, 187 t Au 216 Rhyolite domes Miocene-Pliocene calc- q, rho, py, gn, sp, ND 0–5.7 Drier, 1976
del Monte Ag- and dikes alkaline volcanics adu, cal, arg, cp, plb,
Au (basaltic andesites to pre, ep, ill, ste, tet, Ag
rhyolites) kao, flu,

439
dolo, bar
6 Real de Mexico Extensional intra-arc 45 85Mt @ 75 g/t Ag, ? Unknown Early Cretaceous adu, q, flu, po, sp, gn, 268–388 1.4–21 Pearson et al.,
Angeles Ag- 1.0% Pb, 0.92% Zn carbonaceous cal asp, py, ssf, 1988
Pb-Zn sandstone and siltstone arg
7 Tayoltita Ag- Mexico Extensional intra-arc 31.9–38.6 19Mt @ 500 g/t Ag, 63 Andesite stock Late Cenozoic q, ep, cal, py, gn, sp, ND 0–7.5 Smith et al.,
Au 8 g/t Au andesite, rhyolite ab cp, arg, el, 1982; Clarke
ssf, Ag and Titley,
1988; Enriquez
and Rivera,
2001
8 Zacatecas Ag- Mexico Back-arc 36 20Mt @ 900 g/t Ag, 360 Silicic Mesozoic meta- q, cal py, sp, gn, 160–300 ND Ponce and
Au 2.5 g/t Au subvolcanic sedimentary rocks, red cp, acan, fre, Clark, 1988
and volcanic bed Ag, Au, el
rocks
9 Creede Ag United Extensional intra-arc 24.6 2493 t Ag 400 Calc-alkaline or Andesite, dacite, q, chl, cal, py, gn, sp, ND 4–12(q,cab,sph) Hayba et al.,
States bimodal quartz latite, rdc, bar, cp, Cu 1985; Barton
volcanism rhyodacite, rhyolite, flu, sid, sulfosalts, et al., 1977;
and associated ank, ser, ssf, Au, Steven and
sedimentary rocks adu, kao tellurides, Eaton, 1975
bn, asp
10 Tonopah Ag United Extensional intra-arc 20 8.0 Mt @ 679 g/t Ag 94 Andesite-dacite Andesite-to-dacite q, adu, py, sp, gn, 140–290 1–3(q) Bonham and
States and underlying flows and rhyolite tuff ser, rdc, cp, arg, pyr, Garside, 1979;
intrusive rocks rho, cal, plb, el John et al.,
bar 2016; Manning
and Hofstra,
2017
(continued on next page)
Ore Geology Reviews 107 (2019) 434–456
 Table 2 (continued)

No. Deposit Country Tectonic setting Mineralization Tonnage and grade Ag/Au Genetically Host rock Gangue Ore minerals Th of main Salinity of main References
age/Ma related minerals stage/℃ stage/wt.% NaCl
L. Wang, et al.

magmatic rock eqv.

11 Arcata Ag-Au Peru Extensional intra-arc 5.4 10.5 t Au, 3450 t Ag 420 Andesite-dacite Intermediate lavas and q, adu, py, pyr, tet, 175–275 ≤2.5 (q), ≥3.0 Candioteni
lavas and breccias cal, rdc, acan, el, sp, (sph + pyr) et al., 1990
domes Mn gn, cp, asp,
silicates, po, mar, stb
chl, minor
flu and sid
12 Pallancata Ag- Peru Extensional intra-arc Miocene? 7.0 Mt @ 340 g/t Ag, 262 Quartz Miocene volcanic rocks q, cld, py, sp, gn, 260– < 93.3 °C ∼0.35 Gamarra et al.
Au 1.3 g/t Au monzonite adu, ser cp, arg, ssf, 2013; https://
dome? el www.
silverinstitute.
org/all-world-
silver-surveys/
13 Jiawula China Post-collision 143–142 8.1 Mt @ 117 g/t Ag, ND Monzonite Slate, schist, granulite, q, cld, Mn- py, sp, gn, 242–297 0.4–4.2 Nie et al. 2015;
Ag–Pb–Zn extensional 9.1 Mt @ 2.86% Pb, porphyry shoshonite, andesite, sid, cc,rdc, mar, mo, po, Li et al., 2015
environment 9.7 Mt @ 3.98% Zn, trachyandesite, dacite, flu, ser, cay, cp, ben,
7.6 Mt @0.39% Cu rhyolite oli, sme, el, mag,
mus, ill, hem, bn, crs,
kao Ag, arg, fre,
hes, acr, bee
14 Zhaxikang Pb- China Post-collision 17.9–18.9 17.7 Mt @ 3.59% Zn, ND Pegmatite and Black shale, limestone, Fe-Mn py, sp, gn, 214–292 2.6–5.3 Xie et al., 2017
Zn-Sb-Ag extensional 2.04% Pb, 78.62 g/t two-mica sandstone carb, q, cp, asp, ten,
environment Ag; 11 Mt @ 0.91% Sb leucogranite ser, cal st, bou
15 Cerro Moro Argentina Northeast- Late Jurassic 7.2 Mt @ 4.8 g/t Au, 60 Andesite? Jurrasic sub-volcanic q, adu, py, arg, sp, ND ND Sillitoe, 2018
Au-Ag southwest-directed 282.5 g/t Ag and volcanic rocks cal, cld gn, cp, mar,

440
extenion el, Au,
16 Dukat Ag-Au Russia Rift graben in 84 34 Mt @ 500 g/t Ag, 40 425 Leucogranite Rhyodacite and q, rho, py, Ag, acan, ND ND Filimonova and
Okhotsk–Chukotka Mt @ 1g/t Au porphyry rhyolite rdc, adu, Au, fre, sp, Chugaev, 2006;
arc chl, cal, gn, cp, tet Filimonova
flu, gra, et al., 2014;
sps, gro, Sidorov et al.,
px 2015
17 San Cristóbal Bolivia Extensional intra-arc 6.6 19125t Ag 1000 Andesite-dacite Breccias, andesite- bar, q, py, gn, sp, 252–323 4.6–6.7 Buchanan,
Ag-Zn-Pb dome complex dacite domes and hem tet, Ag, 2000;
volcaniclastic- acan, jam, Phillipson,
lacustrine sediments fam, stro, 2000; Beuchat
pyr, plb, fre, et al., 2004
bou
18 Tsav Ag-Pb-Zn Mongolia Extensional 128 ± 5 6.4 Mt @ 256 g/t Ag, ND Shoshonitic Shoshonitic volcanic q, rdc, cld, py, gn, sp, 112–254 2.1–6.7 Gantumur et al.,
environment 15.6 Mt @ 5.4% Pb, volcanic rocks rocks oli, cal, cp, asp, ten, 2005; Nie et al.,
16.4 Mt @ 3.04% Zn Mn-sid, tet, Ag, Au, 2015 and
ep, chl ssf references
therein
19 Yerranderie Australia Post-orogen 372 341.18 t Ag, 28,027 t 548 Subvolcanic or Early Devonian q, mus, ill, py, sp, gn, ND ND Downes, 2007
Ag-Pb extension Pb, 0.623t Au granite? dacitic-rhyolitic carb, ank tet-ten, cp,
volcanic rocks minor asp,
trace bn
20 Elshitsa HS-IS Bulgaria Compressional 85.6? 4.5 Mt @ 1.13% Cu, 10 Granodioritic Rhyodacitic volcanic q, ill, py, py, cp, ten, 210–240 1.0–11.5 Kouzmanov
Cu-Au island arc 1.5 g/t Au, 15 g/t Ag subvolcanic and subvolcanic rocks bar, cal sp, gn, mar, et al., 2009
rocks bn, ten, Cu-
Bi-Au-Ag
tellurides,
Au, Ag
(continued on next page)
Ore Geology Reviews 107 (2019) 434–456
 Table 2 (continued)

No. Deposit Country Tectonic setting Mineralization Tonnage and grade Ag/Au Genetically Host rock Gangue Ore minerals Th of main Salinity of main References
age/Ma related minerals stage/℃ stage/wt.% NaCl
L. Wang, et al.

magmatic rock eqv.

21 Madjarovo Bulgaria Compressional Alps- 32 17.3Mt @ 1.3% Pb, ND High K calc- Oligocene high K calc- q, chl, py, cp, bis, 160–320 1–8 wt% NaCl Rice et al., 2007
Pb–Zn-Au Himalaya orogen 0.7% Zn; 2 Mt @ 3.9 g/ alkaline alkaline intermediate- hem, bar, gn, sp, Au, equivalent
t Au trachyte dike basic volcanic rock cld, cal, Bi-sulfosalts,
sid Pb-Sb-
sulfosalts,
ten
22 Milin Kamak Bulgaria Compressional high- Late 2.4 Mt @ 5.91 g/t Au, 4.5 Dioritic Potassium q, carb, py, gn, Fe- 238–345 3.7–6.6 Sabeva et al.,
Au K calc-alkaline arc Cretaceous? 26.78 g/t Ag intrusion? trachybasalts and bar poor sp, cp, 2017
shoshonites, andesitic ten, bour,
trachybasalt tellurides,
el, Au, stb
23 Rosia Romania Neutral stress 12.85 400 Mt @ 1.3 g/t Au, 4.6 Calc-alkaline Breccia pipes and q, adu, py, Fe-poor 200–270 0.2–3.4 Manske et al.,
Montana Au collision belt of 6 g/t Ag dacite lavas Montana dacite Mn-rich sp, gn, cp, 2006; Wallier
African-European and tuffs carb tet, Au et al., 2006
continent
24 Sacaramb Au Romania Neutral- 13–14 85 t Au+Ag 1–10 Calc-alkaline Miocene andesitic q, Ca-Mn py, ala, gn, 200–300 0–6(q) Alderton and
compressional stress andesite stock, stocks and lava flows, carb, py, sp, cp, stb, Fallick, 2000
magmatic arc lava and surrounding bar, rea bour, bl, tet,
sedimentary rocks pet, kre, stu,
nag, muth,
kra, syl
25 Çöpler Au Turkey Neutral stress arc 44? 122.8 Mt @ 1.7 g/t Au, 2.8 Calc-alkaline Late Paleozoic- q, Mn-cal, py, As-py, 235–293 4–15 İmer et al.,
4.8 g/t Ag, 0.1 wt % Cu diorite to Mesozoic sedimentary rdc, rea, asp, mar, cp, 2016
granodiorite rocks and carbonate orp ten/tet, gn,

441
porphyry rocks sp
26 Sahinli Pb-Zn- Turkey Neutral stress arc Eocene- Pb+Zn+Cu > 21%, 51 Calc-alkaline Calc-alkaline dacite q, cld, bar, py, sp, gn, 220–322 4.3–6.9 Yilmaz et al.,
Cu-Au-Ag Pliocene? Au 1.1 g/t, Ag 57 g/t andesite, dacite and andesite ill-ser, ill- cp, minor 2010
sme ten, el
mixed-
layer clays
27 Tespih Dere Turkey Neutral stress arc Eocene- Pb+Zn+Cu > 20%, 13 Calc-alkaline Calc-alkaline andesite q, bar, ill, py, gn, sp, ND ND Yilmaz et al.,
Pb–Zn–Cu–Au Pliocene? Au 1.7 g/t, Ag 23 g/t andesite, dacite and dacite ill-sme cp, ten, bn, 2010
mixed- el
layer clays
28 Abolhassani Iran Neutral- Oligocene? 6.4 % Pb, 1.2 % Zn, 35 Monzodiorite Andesitic volcanic q, cal, bar gn, sp, py, 234–340 6.7–18.7 Shamanian
Pb-Zn-Cu compressional stress 0.83 % Cu, 0.85 g/t Au, plug? rocks cp et al., 2004
magmatic arc 29.5 g/t Ag
29 Rozália Au- Slovakia Compressional 10.5–12.5? 83.5 t Au, 4000 t Ag, 48 Granodiorite Andesite q, sid, Fe- py, sp, cp, 230–330 0–4 Koděra et al.,
Ag-Zn-Pb Carpathian arc 70,000 t Zn, 55,000 t pluton dolo, Mn- gn, el, Au, 2005
Pb, 8,000 ton Cu cal, rdc, tet, plb, hes,
rho, ank, alt, bn
cal, bar,
mag, hem
30 Zhengguang China Compressional- 481? 13.23Mt @ 2.59 g/t 6 Granodioritic Ordovician andesite, q, Mn-cal, py, sp, cp, 150–220 0.3–10.4 Deng et al.,
Au-Zn neutral Duobaoshan Au, 7.08 Mt @ 1.05 % intrusion? andesite porphyry, dolo gn, tet/ten, 2013; Wang
continental arc Zn, 7.09 Mt @ 12.03 g/ andesitic tuff el, Au, hes, et al., 2018
t Ag pet
31 Chitose- Japan Neutral stress calc- Pliocene 10t < Au < 100 t 4.7 Unknown Volcanic complex q, adu, py, el, Au, ND ND Watanabe, 2002
Maizuru Au- alkaline arc ser, chl, arg, plb, stp, and references
Ag cal pyr, cp, sp, therein
gn, stb, ten,
agu
(continued on next page)
Ore Geology Reviews 107 (2019) 434–456
 Table 2 (continued)

No. Deposit Country Tectonic setting Mineralization Tonnage and grade Ag/Au Genetically Host rock Gangue Ore minerals Th of main Salinity of main References
age/Ma related minerals stage/℃ stage/wt.% NaCl
L. Wang, et al.

magmatic rock eqv.

32 Ohe Mn-Pb-Zn Japan Neutral stress calc- 3.4 40kt < Mn < 4Mt, 44 Andesite, Andesite, quartz q, rdc, ser py, gn, sp, 180–230 ND Watanabe, 2002
alkaline arc Pb < 1Mt, Zn > 10kt quartz diorite diorite cp, ten and references
therein
33 Toyoha Ag-Pb- Japan Neutral stress calc- 2.9 Pb, Zn > 1 Mt 400 Andesitic Miocene clastic rocks- q, ser, py, py, gn, sp, 150–250 (Early ND Watanabe, 2002
Zn-In alkaline arc volcanic rocks pyroclastic rocks chl, cal, po, asp, Ag, stage) 200–315 and references
rdc arg, cs, stn, (Late stage) therein
ten, ssf
34 Kushikino Au- Japan Neutral stress island 3.7–3.4 8.21 Mt @ 6.7 g/t Au, 9 Andesitic Neogene q, cal, py, cp, sp, 170–230 0.6–1 Watanabe,
Ag arc 61 g/t Ag polygenetic hypersthene–augite adu, sid gn, mar, el, 2005; Morishita
volcano andesite and tuff arg, tet, nau, and Nakano,
breccia ssf 2008 and
references
therein
35 Acupan PCD- Philippines Compressional 0.65 400 t Au 1 Dacite Virac granodiorite and q, K-mica, py, sp, cp, 220–310 0–5.1 Cooke and
IS Cu-Au island arc porphyry plug breccia adu, rdc, gn, Au, Au- Bloom, 1990;
Mn-cal Ag tellurides Cooke et al.,
1996
36 Victoria Au Philippines Compressional 1.1–1.6 80 t Au 10 Dacite Dacite q, ill, rdc, py, sp, gn, 150–330 < 2.4(q-cab), Claveria, 2001;
island arc diatreme and rho, gyp, cp, ten, Au, < 4(sph) Sajona et al.,
plug anhy el 2002
37 Kelian Au Indonesia Neutral stress or 20 240 t Au 2 Diatreme and Tuffs, andesite, Muddy adu, ser, py, gn, sp, 290–330 0.5–4.2(q), van Leeuwen
weak extensional rhyolite plugs breccia, rhyolite, q, rdc, cp, asp, Au, 3–10.5(cab), et al., 1990
arc? and dikes sediments ank, dolo, ssf, ten, tet 4.5–6.8(sph)
sid, prl,

442
cin
38 Wafi IS-HS Au Papua New Compressional arc 8.5 136 Mt @ 1.7 g/t Au 1 Calc-alkaline to Meta-sandstone, meta- q, rdc, cal, py, sp, gn, ND ND Rinne, 2015;
Guinea high-K calc-al- conglomerate, meta- sid, adu, cp, ten, asp Rinne et al.,
kaline dioritic siltstone (120-107 Ma) kut 2018
(porphyry)
intrusion
39 Buriticá Au Colombia Neutral stress 7.7 1.11 Mt @ 17.8 g/t Au, 1.6 High-K calc- Plagioclase- ser/mus, py, sp, cp, 210–350 0.4–9.2, 一个达 Lesage et al.,
continental arc 42 g/t Ag, 0.8% Zn alkaline hornblende-augite- adu, q, gn, tet/ten, 23.5(Q), 2013
andesite phyric andesite cal, dolo, stb, Au,, el 2.1–7.6(Sph)
porphyry porphyry kf, mag,
chl, ep,
chl
40 Marmato Au Colombia Neutral stress 5.6 225 Mt @ 2.2 g/t Au ND Subvolcanic Andesite-dacite ser, q, py, sp, gn, 263–331 1.6–8.1 Rosseteni and
continental arc andesite and porphyry adu, cal, cp, asp, po, Colombo, 1999;
dacite minor kao stb, arg, Au, Sillitoe, 2008;
intrusions el Tassinari et al.,
2008
41 Fruta del Ecuador Neutral calc-alkaline 154–160 23.5 Mt @ 9.59 g/t Au, 1.3 Feldspar Andesite, feldspar q, Mn-cal, mar, py, sp, ND ND Leary et al.,
Norte Au continental 12.9 g/t Ag porphyry? porphyry cld, adu gn, cp, ten 2016
magmatic arc
42 Caylloma Ag Peru Compressional 18.4 4Mt @ 775 g/t Ag ND Andesite flow Miocene volcanics and q, cal, rho, py, sp, gn, 220–310 0.5–7.5(q), 4- Echavarria
continental calc- pyroclastic rocks rdc, minor cp, ten 23.5(Sph) et al., 2006
alkaline volcanic arc adu, ill,
bar, hel
43 Finlandia Au- Peru Compressional ∼10 62 g/t Au, 1474 g/t Ag 24 Andesite Tertiary andesitic lava q, mus, py, ten, ssf, 150–270 0.2–13 Kamilli and
Ag volcanic belt porphyry? and tuff sid, bar el, sp, gn Ohmoto, 1977
44 Alto de la Argentina Neutral stress 6.6 2.4 Mt @ 7.74 g/t Au, 18 Monzonite Andesite and Mn-cal, q py, sp, gn, 160–300 2–4 Márquez-
Blenda Au-Ag volcanic arc 137.92 g/t Ag stock monzonite stock ten Zavalía and
Heinrich, 2016
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L. Wang, et al. Ore Geology Reviews 107 (2019) 434–456

Ore minerals- Ag: native silver, Au: native gold, acan: acanthite, acr: acrosite, agu: arguilarite, ala: alabandite, alt: altaite, arg: argentite, asp: arsenopyrite, bee: beegerite, ben: benleonardite, bis: bismuthinite, bn:

gn: galena, hes: hessite, kra: krautite, kre: krennerite, mar: marcasite, mo: molybdenite, muth: muthmannite, nag: nagyagite, nau: naumannite, pet: petzite, plb: polybasite, po: pyrrhotite, py: pyrite, pyr: pyrargyrite, sp:

Gangue minerals- ab: albite, adu: adularia, anhy: anhydrite, ank: ankerite, bar: barite, cal: calcite, carb: carbonate, chl: chlorite, cld: chalcedony, cin: cinnabar, dolo: dolomite, flu: fluorite, gra: graphite, gro: grossular,
gyp: gypsum, hel: helvite, ill: illite, kf: K-feldspar, kut: kutnohorite, mag: magnetite, oli: oligonite, orp: orpiment, pre: prehnite, prl: pyrolusite, px: pyroxene, q: quartz, kao: kaolinite, rdc: rhodochrosite, rea: realgar, rho:
bornite, bour: bournonite, bou: boulangerite, cay: chlorargyrite, cc: chalcocite, cer: cerargyrite, cp: chalcopyrite, crs: cerussite, cs: cassiterite, dig: digenite, el: electrum, jam: jamesonite, fam: famatinite, fre: freibergite,
Silver is a major commercial element in IS deposits, and several Ag-
rich IS deposits have made Mexico the top silver producing country in

Hudson, 2003
Vikre, 1989;
References

the world, for instance, Fresnillo, Taxco, Pachuca-Real del Monte,

Guanajuato, and Zacatecas (Camprubí and Albinson, 2007). There are
mainly four mineral phases of silver in IS including: 1) Ag sulfides, such
as acanthite-argentite, 2) Ag sulfosalts, including pyrargyrite, frei-
stage/wt.% NaCl
Salinity of main

bergite, polybasite-pearceite, and stephanite, 3) Ag tellurides, mainly

< 1 to > 6(q

hessite and petzite, and very sparse 4) native silver (La Colorada; Moller
and sph)

et al., 2001). The most common ore minerals in the IS deposits are
eqv.

compiled in Table 3.
The gangue minerals in IS are primarily quartz, Mn-carbonates,
commonly rhodochrosite and manganoan calcite, as well as adularia
< 235– > 300

(Fresnillo; La Colorada; Real de Angeles). Locally, barite (La Colorada),

Th of main
stage/℃

fluorite (Real de Angeles; Fresnillo), dolomite-ankerite (Fresnillo),

muscovite (Miguel Auza), albite (Tayoltita), and silicate minerals such
as rhodonite and helvite (Caylloma, Victoria) can be seen (Table 2).
Ore minerals

The relative contents of ore and gangue minerals in veins can be

sulfides, el,
base metal

readily used as diagnostic features to distinguish IS and LS deposits in

field. In IS deposits, the productive stages tend to be sulfide (> 5%) and
acan

white mica-rich and quartz poor, whereas in LS deposits, the productive

q, cal, ser,

stages tend to be sulfide poor (< 1%) and rich in quartz and adularia
chl, kf, ab
minerals
Gangue

(Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003; Camprubí and Albinson, 2007).

Notes: Equivalent salinities have not been corrected for the possible presence of dissolved CO2 (Hedenquist and Henley, 1985), ND = no data.

4.2. Morphology and ore textures

sphalerite, stro: stromeyerite, ssf: silver sulfosalts, stb: stibnite, stp: stephanite, stu: stutzite, syl: sylvanite, ten: tennatite, tet: tetrahedrite.

The ores in most of IS deposits occur as veins and/or brecciated

bodies up to several kilometers long, and precious metal-bearing or-
ebodies are found within vertical intervals generally of 300–800 m
Host rock

Andesite

(e.g., Hedenquist et al., 2000; Albinson et al., 2001; Echavarria et al.,

2006). The vertical distribution of ores may vary considerably de-
pending on the fracture connectivity and the deposition mechanism.
andesite-dacite
magmatic rock

For example, the Sombrerete deposit in Zacatecas formed at significant

Calc-alkaline
Genetically

depth (> 1000 m under the paleosurface) over a vertical interval

lavas and
related

domes

of > 800 m (Albinson, 1988; Albinson et al., 2001). In contrast, the

occurrence of precious metal bonanza grades normally occupies a more
restricted central position within the mineralized zone, both in terms of
Ag/Au

grade and width, as in Tayoltita in Durango (Clarke and Titley, 1988;

23

Albinson et al., 2001) and Fresnillo in Zacatecas (Gemmell et al., 1988;

Simmons, 1991). Veins may locally coalesce at depth to form wider
Tonnage and grade

veins (Camprubí and Albinson, 2007). In some cases, the zones where
22Mt @14 g/t Au,

veins coalesce correspond to bonanzas (Camprubí and Albinson, 2007).

Due to the similar structural settings and mineralization level, tex-
340 g/t Ag

rhodonite, ser: sericite, sid: siderite, sme: smectite, sps: spessartine, stn:stannite.

tures of ore and gangue minerals in IS veins share much similarity with
those in LS veins. The most common textures include crustiform
banding, symmetric banding, vugs, cockade and comb textures. Mineral
textures indicating boiling are quite common in IS deposits, such as
Mineralization

colloform quartz and lattice-bladed (or platy) calcite (commonly re-

age/Ma

placed by quartz).
13.7

IS veins and brecciated ore bodies rarely formed under a single

hydrothermal episode. A certain number of IS epithermal deposits have
a polyphase and multi-stage veins (e.g., Gemmell et al., 1988; Albinson
Neutral stress arc
Tectonic setting

et al., 2001; Echavarria et al., 2006) which appear to be the product of

an episodic process of cracking and sealing of veins.
setting

4.3. Top, bottom, and margin of IS deposits

The upper and lower limits of orebodies, commonly called tops and
Country

bottoms, respectively, are critical issues to be addressed in exploration

United
States

for porphyry (Sillitoe, 1973) and epithermal deposits (e.g., Qin and
Ishihara, 1998; Hedenquist et al., 2000; Camprubí and Albinson, 2007).
Table 2 (continued)

With regard to IS deposits, there is one more facet, margins, i.e. the
Lode Au-Ag

possible adjacent lithocaps and HS mineralization. IS veins are com-

Comstock
Deposit

monly hosted by andesitic volcanic rocks, which may be comagmatic

with the causative porphyry intrusion within a PCD system.
Albinson et al. (2001) suggested that the tops of IS-LS orebodies
No.

45

may be marked by (1) fault closure, (2) lateral dispersion of neutral

443
L. Wang, et al. Ore Geology Reviews 107 (2019) 434–456

Table 3
Ore minerals reported in intermediate-sulfidation epithermal deposits.
Most abundant Common Minor to trace

Pyrite FeS2 Tetrahedrite (Cu,Fe)12Sb4S13 Polybasite (Ag, Cu)16Sb2S11

Fe-poor Sphalerite ZnS Tennantite (Cu,Fe)12As4S13 Pearceite (Ag, Cu)16(As, Sb)2S11
Chalcopyrite CuFeS2 Electrum Au-Ag Benleonardite Ag8(Sb, As)Te2S3
Galena PbS Gold Au Freibergite (Ag,Cu,Fe)12(Sb,As)4S13
Arsenopyrite FeAsS Pyrrhotite Fe1-xS
Marcasite FeS2 Hessite Ag2Te
Bornite Cu5FeS4 Petzite Ag3AuTe2
Stibnite Sb2S3 Altaite PbTe
Argentite Ag2S (> 179 °C) Stephanite Ag5SbS4
Acanthite Ag2S (< 179 °C) Pyrargyrite Ag3SbS3
Hematite Fe2O3 Proustite Ag3AsS3
Digenite Cu8+Cu2+S5 Arguilarite Ag4SeS
Chlorargyrite AgCl (Syn. Cerargyrite)
Cerussite PbCO3
Acrosite Ag5SbS
Cervelleite Ag4TeS
Beegerite Ag3Pb3Bi9S18
Bournonite PbCuSbS3
Boulangerite Pb5Sb4S11
Silver Ag

chloride fluids, (3) lack of permeability due to the presence of an ar-
gillic alteration cap, or (4) an upward drop in metal values due to the
presence of a depleted, deeply boiled neutral pH chloride fluid.
The bottom of IS veins may show different characteristics in dif-
ferent IS variations. In many deposits, particularly in Mexico, in which
boiling (evidenced by presence of adularia and bladed calcite) is the
chief depositional mechanism, there is an economic base of ore that is
characterized by a sharp change from high-grade ore to barren rock
over a depth range of a few tens of meters to about a hundred meters
(Albinson et al., 2001; Camprubí and Albinson, 2007). The overall IS
ore system, displaying a vertical extent of over 300 m. For IS deposits
overlying a PCD system, distribution of sparse veins of tennantite –
sphalerite – galena – chalcopyrite appears to be the roots of IS veins
(e.g., Wafi IS-HS, Rinne, 2015).
IS veins may be located on the margin of lithocaps (e.g., Sillitoe,
2010; Chang et al., 2011; Rinne, 2015), which are usually striking in
the field. IS deposits grade outward to illite-smectite halos with widths
that depend on the primary permeability of the host rocks – narrow
halos around fracture-focused ore, or wide areas in permeable rocks.
The clay assemblage is transitional outward to epidote – chlorite –
carbonate (propylitic) alteration that may be district-wide in extent
(Hedenquist et al., 2000). The clay alteration forms as the result of the
generation of CO2-rich steam-heated water on the margin of the system
(Hedenquist, 1990). The mildly acidic (pH = 4–5) water generates
halos of illite, interstratified clays, and smectite as well as kaolinite and
siderite that extend locally to 1000 m depth (Simmons and Browne,
2000). Incursion of this marginal water during the late-stage collapse of
a system may account for the formation of calcite veins and Mn-rich
carbonates (rhodochrosite or manganocalcite) that are commonly
barren (Simmons et al., 2000).
5. Relations with magmatism, tectonic-structure, and favorable
geological conditions for IS
5.1. Role of associated magmatism
IS deposits show less intimate relations with magmatism as HS de-
posits do (e.g., Rye et al., 1992; Hedenquist and Lowenstern, 1994;
Arribas, 1995; Hedenquist et al., 1998; John, 2001), but still exhibit
affinity to magma (e.g., Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003; Echavarria et al.,
2006). The hydrothermal fluid generating Comstock Lode IS bonanzas
in west America contains significant magma components (O’Neil and
Silberman, 1974; Vikre, 1989, Simmons, 1995). In the light of
deuterium-rich fluid from Comstock Lode IS Au-Ag bonanzas plotting
between the area of meteoric water and magmatic water in δD-δ18O
diagram, Vikre (1989) speculated that there was 40% magmatic water
involved in the mineralization. Albinson et al. (2001) compiled mi-
neralization feature of tens of IS deposits in Mexico and found that the
Ag-base metals-rich veins with Ag/Au over 100 had high salinity fluids
(as high as 23 wt% NaCl equiv), and there were also enrichments of
heavy oxygen isotope (up to +10‰ to +20‰) for these high Ag/Au
ratio deposits. Contributions of plentiful magmatic water to the deep
fluids are suggested to explain the high salinity of fluids and enrich-
ments of heavy oxygen isotope (Albinson et al., 2001).
Besides, the analogy of initial Pb isotopes between galena and
magmatic K-feldspar in Madjarovo IS Pb-Zn-precious metal deposit in
Bulgaria indicates that magma played a critical role in the formation of
this deposit (Marchev et al., 2005; Rice et al., 2007). Coincidentally,
Echavarria et al. (2006) found that the highest salinity of fluid inclu-
sions of mineralization stage sphalerite can be as high as 23.5 wt% NaCl
equiv in Caylloma IS Ag polymetallic deposit in southern Peru, which
made them believe that the high-salinity fluid was most likely derived
from magma exsolution (Echavarria et al., 2006). Meanwhile,
Echavarria et al. (2006) got the calculated δ34SH2S of the original hy-
drothermal fluid between −2.9‰ and +2.6‰, consistent to magmatic
sulfur. Based on periodic mineral compositions, textures, and the
abrupt changing of fluids components, Echavarria and his co-workers
supposed that there were injections of cyclic hydrothermal fluid derived
from magma in the whole mineralization processes. In fact, Tosdal et al.
(1995) investigated in the lead isotopes of Caylloma, Orcopampa, Shila
and Arcata deposits in southern Peru and found the metals of all the
studied ore deposits had a same source, and the metal-bearing hydro-
thermal fluids originated from Miocene plutons.
Magmatism acts not only as a metal and heat producer during the
epithermal mineralization, the physicochemical property of which also
determines the types of epithermal systems. Many IS deposits show
close relations with calc-alkaline andesitic-dacitic or monzonitic mag-
matism (Table 2, also see Sillitoe, 1989; Watanabe, 2002). For Miocene-
Early Pliocene epithermal Au-Ag deposits in the northern Great Basin in
western America, John et al. (1999) and John (2001) found that the HS
deposits (e.g. Paradise peak, Goldyke, Santa Fe, Washington Hill, Ma-
sonic, Goldfield) and IS deposits (e.g. Comstock Lode, Ramsey-Com-
stock, Gooseberry, Bodie, Aurora) exhibited close relations with a
western andesite arc, where LS deposits (e.g. Midas, Sleeper, Jumbo,
Mule Canyon, Hog Ranch, Delamar) had a close affiliation with bimodal
volcanic rocks. Magma of western andesite is relatively water-rich

444
L. Wang, et al.
(> 3–5 wt% H2O) and has high oxygen fugacity (Burnham, 1979;
Candela, 1997), and enriched in large ion lithophile elements such as K,
Rb, Sr, Ba etc. compared with high strength field elements, whereas
bimodal volcanic magma is at relatively high temperatures and low
water content (≤3%; Burnham, 1979; Candela, 1997), and low oxygen
fugacity and viscosity (John, 2001). John (2001) noted that the dif-
ference of magma oxidation state matches the difference in oxidation
state of the sulfide assemblages in epithermal systems, i.e., enargite -
tennantite - chalcopyrite - pyrite and tennantite - chalcopyrite - pyrite
in the HS and IS deposits, compared with pyrite - pyrrhotite - arseno-
pyrite in the LS deposits, respectively. This observation shed light on
the inherited connections between mineralization-related magma
nature and types of epithermal deposits (Hedenquist et al., 2000).
To sum up, calc-alkaline arc magmas provides necessary saline
brine, most of sulfur and useful metals, and energy for IS (also true for
HS deposits) (e.g., Richards, 2013; Saunders et al., 2016; du Bray,
2017).
5.2. Role of tectonic settings and structural control
Tectonic regime and related stress field are one of the most critical
elements controlling the hydrothermal deposits types in volcanic arcs
(Sawkins, 1990). On a regional-scale, translithospheric, arc-parallel,
strike-slip structures act as a primary control on magma emplacement
in many volcanic arcs (Richards, 2003), and faults that traverse mag-
matic arcs and intersect arc-parallel structures are known to be favor-
able sites for porphyry-related ore-forming processes (Petersen and
Vidal, 1996; Richards, 2000). Specifically, different hydrothermal de-
posits show their preferable formation environments. PCDs, for ex-
ample, usually formed in the magmatic arc under compressive tectonic
regime (Sillitoe, 1980), while LS deposits generally formed in exten-
sional environments related to arc or post-collisional rifts (Simmons
Fig. 4. Structural control on metal transport and deposition in IS veins. Inspired by discussions with S.F. Cox (person. commu., 2017), as well as concepts presented
by Griffis (1969), Downes (2007), Camprubí and Albinson (2007).
445
Ore Geology Reviews 107 (2019) 434–456
et al., 2005). The tectonic settings hosting IS deposits vary greatly,
including back-arcs, volcano fronts (Watanabe, 2002), and most com-
monly andesitic-dacitic arcs with neutral to weak extensional stress
state similar to HS deposits (Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003) despite a
few occurred in compressive background (e.g. Miguel Auza; Findley,
2010).
In a deposit scale, there are different ideas concerning structure
controlling on IS veins. Findley (2010) believed that normal faults in
tensional ‘basin-range’ region is favorable for the formation of multi-
metallic veins. Watanabe (2002) proposed that strike slip faults, prob-
ably resulted from high differential stress during fast plates converging,
would be more proper for IS mineralization. For example, Toyoha IS
polymetallic deposit, the biggest hydrothermal deposit (Pb, Zn > 1 Mt,
Watanabe, 2002) in Hokkaido with the longest hydrothermal life span
(2.4 m.y.; Sawai et al., 1989) was hosted in the dextral strike slip faults
(Watanabe, 1990), and formed during the Pacific plate subducted or-
thogonally beneath Japan island arc in a high speed [orthogonal con-
vergence rate (OCR) is 99–103 mm/y; Watanabe, 2002]. Besides, strike
slip faults also host IS deposits elsewhere (e.g., Rosia Montana, Ro-
mania; Wallier et al., 2006; Fruta del Norte, Ecuador, Leary et al.,
2016). Anyway, it seems that local extensional and neutral stress
structures are favorable factors for the formation of IS deposits.
In fact, previous workers already noted that epithermal deposits
usually show close relationship with brittle fault-fracture systems and
related zones of brecciation (Sibson, 1987; Sillitoe and Hedenquist,
2003). Faults and related sub-class cracks could offer necessary con-
duits and unloading sites for ore-forming fluids. Similar to LS deposits,
IS deposits show overt control by pre-ore or syn-ore faults and fissures,
particularly secondary faults (person. commu. with S.F. Cox, 2017; e.g.,
Colorada Ag-Zn-Pb, Albinson, 1988; Moller et al., 2001; Comstock Lode
Au-Ag, Vikre, 1989; Fresnillo Ag-Au, Gemmell et al., 1988; Trejo, 2001;
Real de Angeles Ag-Zn-Pb, Pearson et al., 1988; Yerranderie Ag-Au-Pb,
L. Wang, et al.
Downes, 2007; Miguel Auza Ag-Pb-Zn, Findley, 2010; Buriticá Au,
Lesage et al., 2013; Marmato Au, Rossetti and Colombo, 1999). The
most noteworthy example for the feature of fault-control should be Wafi
IS system in Papua New Guinea, in which the Compass fault con-
spicuously controlled the location of the majority of stage IV (main
stage of IS) mineralization. All the fourteen drill holes logged contain
10 m intervals with over 15 g/t Au and all of the high-grade intervals
focus within 50 m of the Compass fault (Rinne, 2015). Moreover, nearly
all of the epithermal mineralized rock containing > 1.5 g/t Au occurs
within 200 m of the same fault (Rinne, 2015).
Ore shoots characterized by elevated Au grades (including IS and
LS) may develop at structural intersection where ore fluids may rise up
along a normal fault and mix with acid sulfate fluids (as exemplified by
hypogene kaolinite/dickite in IS veins in Mexico, Camprubí and
Albinson, 2007) collapsing down along a hanging wall splay (Fig. 2 in
Leach and Corbett, 2008).
The brecciated mineralization, common in porphyry and epithermal
systems, is generated when hydraulic fracturing and concomitant de-
compressive boiling happened in the silica seal area (Kouhestani et al.,
2015). This hydraulic fracturing happens when the overpressure of
mineralizing fluids surpasses the sum of the tensile strength of wall rock
or preexisting silica seal and lithostatic pressure.
In addition, the change of dip angles of faults could act as a control
on IS mineralization. Some investigators reported that IS mineralization
focused on the changing area of strikes and dip angles of faults (Colon
Peaks – Silver Peak, Australia; Downes, 2007). And in Colon Peaks veins
in Yerranderie, quartz veins and sulfides mineralization developed most
commonly in the place where faults dip angles became flat and sulfides-
rich vein got narrower when the fault became steep (Griffis, 1969).
Another intriguing phenomenon is that many IS and LS deposits in
Mexico usually coexist with pre-ore dikes. Though the occurrence of
dikes represents the last hypabyssal magmatic activity before hydro-
thermal events, many epithermal veins closely related to pre-ore dikes
could be interpreted that the contact border between dikes and wall
rocks acted as a physical discontinuous plane, which is more prone to
being reactivated and forming faults and fissures (Camprubí and
Albinson, 2007). The alternative explanation for the driving mechanism
of the dikes may because ‘seismic pumping’ or ‘suction pump’ (terms
coined by Sibson et al. (1975)), due to which the brine entered into the
shallow level when the previous structures were revived (e.g., Sibson
and Scott, 1998).
An integrated structural environment favorable for metal transport
and deposition in IS deposits (and likely HS and LS) was depicted in
Fig. 4 based on the factors mentioned above.
5.3. Mechanisms for metal transport and deposition
The general large amount of Ag and base metal reserves in IS de-
posits is consistent with their high fluid salinity and sulfides content
(cf., Albinson et al., 2001; Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003), in that the Cl-
ion is the chief carrier of Ag and other base metals (Fe, Zn, Pb) (e.g.,
Seward and Barnes, 1997; Pokrovski et al., 2005; Simon et al., 2008),
while Au(HS)2- is the main gold transportable complexes in epithermal
environment (Benning and Seward, 1996; Seward and Barnes, 1997).
Chloride complexes can contribute to Au transport in highly acidic
(pH < 3), chloride-rich (> 10 wt% NaCl equivalent), and strongly
oxidizing (above the oxygen fugacity of the hematite–magnetite (HM)
buffer) solutions above 300 °C (Pokrovski et al., 2015, and references
therein).
An efficient deposition mechanism happened in a restricted space
within crust could concentrate the tenor of the useful metal for tens of
times. Boiling and the concomitant H2S loss in the fracture network and
conduit below the eruption craters was supposed as a common and
efficient deposition mechanism in both geothermal and epithermal
systems (e.g., Hedenquist and Henley, 1985; Cooke and Simmons,
2000; Richards, 2013). The average grade of samples showing
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Ore Geology Reviews 107 (2019) 434–456
colloform texture (178.8 ppm Ag and 1.1 ppm Au) is distinctly higher
than those without this (17.2 ppm Ag and 0.2 ppm Au) in epithermal
Ag-Au deposits at Guanajuato, Mexico (Moncada et al., 2012) con-
firming that boiling (with related cracking and depressurization) and
subsequent sealing (deposition of silica and metals) are efficient pro-
cesses of producing high grade gold in a neutral pH, reduced fluid (e.g.,
Brown, 1986).
The reported precipitation mechanisms in IS deposits mainly in-
clude boiling (e.g., Kamilli and Ohmoto, 1977; Claveria, 2001; Koděra
et al., 2005; Gamarra et al., 2013; Lesage et al., 2013; Kouhestani et al.,
2015), fluids dilution and/or mixing (e.g., Barton et al., 1977; Rossetti
and Colombo, 1999; Shamanian et al., 2004; Downes, 2007; Márquez-
Zavalía and Heinrich, 2016), and wall rock sulfidation (in host rocks
with substantial amount of magnetite and mafic minerals, Muntean
et al. 1990). Among them, boiling or phase separation is supposed to
play the key role in precipitation of IS ores (e.g., Marmato IS Au,
Rossetti and Colombo, 1999; Pallancata IS Ag-Au, Gamarra et al., 2013;
Buriticá IS Au, Lesage et al., 2013; Chah Zard LS-IS Au-Ag, Kouhestani
et al., 2015; and many IS-LS deposits in Mexico, Simmons et al., 1988;
Simmons, 1991; Albinson et al., 2001; Camprubí et al., 2001a, 2006). In
natural ore-forming processes, two or more deposition mechanisms may
cooperate to trigger mass precipitation of metals (Chah Zard, Iran;
Kouhestani et al., 2015).
Fluid mixing with CO2-rich waters in porphyry systems may be
important in the light of the experimental result of Kokh et al. (2017).
They supposed that CO2-rich fluid pulse from underlying magma
chamber can mix with the metal-bearing fluid and addition of ∼20 wt%
CO2 could result in precipitation of more than half of the Au and > 80%
of the Cu and Fe initial load of the aqueous fluid in porphyry Cu–Au
deposits. When encountering permeable structures, this CO2-rich fluid
may pass through the porphyry, mix with epithermal ore fluids, and
trigger precipitation of gold or copper at least in part, forming Ca-Fe-
Mn-Mg carbonate at the same time when HCO3− decomposes and
combines with Ca2+-Fe2+-Mn2+-Mg2+.
5.4. Controlling factors of the occurrence of IS Au veins upon PCDs
Richards (2013) suggested several processes that may impede the
porphyry-epithermal ore formation: insufficient volume and/or dura-
tion of arc magmatism; reducing conditions in the mantle resulting in
early sulfide fractionation; insufficient magmatic water content; magma
emplacement at too great a depth or in impermeable country rocks;
voluminous eruption at surface; or lack of focusing of hydrothermal
fluid flow. However, in what kind of condition can porphyry intrusions
or PCDs own their satellite IS veins? The answer to this question is of
great meaning for explorationists. There is little study or discussions
about the question above, we hope we can find some clues for the
possible answer by reviewing the details of evolution of magmatic
fluids and transitional process from porphyry regime to epithermal
regime.
Previous modelling and experimental study shows that whether Au
can be transported from depth (or possibly PCD) to epithermal en-
vironment largely depends on the composition and the evolution path
of magmatic ore fluid (e.g., Fournier, 1999; Heinrich et al., 2004;
Heinrich, 2005, 2007; Hurtig and Williams-Jones, 2015).
In magmatic-hydrothermal Cu-Au mineralizing systems, the depth
at which the magmatic fluids exsolve (Heinrich, 2007) and the fluids
exsolving rate (Sillitoe, 2010) primarily control the fluid properties and
mineral compositions, and hence the resultant hydrothermal deposit
types. Generally, a deep magma emplacement and fluid exsolution
depth (4–6 km, Hedenquist and Richards, 1998; Heinrich et al., 2004;
Heinrich, 2007) is favorable for the occurrence of the spatially asso-
ciated porphyry Cu-(Au) and high-grade epithermal Au-(Ag) (HS and/
or IS) deposits. Murakami et al. (2010) also suggest that magmatic
vapor cooling at deeper levels (> ∼3 km) and greater confining pres-
sure is likely to precipitate Cu ± Mo only, while sulfur-complexed gold
L. Wang, et al.
remains dissolved in the relatively dense vapor. When cooling, this
dense vapor may contract to a low-salinity epithermal liquid, which can
precipitate epithermal gold deposits (likely IS) several kilometers above
the Au-poor porphyry Cu–(Mo) deposit (Murakami et al., 2010). While
the crystallization of the shallow magma column leads to expulsion of a
high-temperature, low-density magmatic vapor rich in acid volatiles
(SO2, H2S, HCl), but depleting salts and ore metals (e.g., White Island:
Hedenquist et al., 1993; Kudryavy: Taran et al., 1995). In this condi-
tion, metal transport is limited because the low-density fumarole vapor
is incapable for significant hydration of ions and aqueous complexes
(Williams-Jones et al., 2002; Williams-Jones and Heinrich, 2005), and
thus most of them will only generate a barren kaolinite–alunite al-
teration in wall rocks.
The majority of the porphyry Cu mineralization (formed < ∼4 km,
and typically 2–3 km, Hedenquist and Richards, 1998) is introduced by
a two-phase fluid, composed of a small fraction of hypersaline liquid
and voluminous low-density vapor (Fournier, 1999), primarily pro-
duced by the single-phase liquid decompressing, cooling, and inter-
secting its solvus (e.g., Henley and McNabb, 1978; Burnham, 1979;
Cline, 1995). The physical process of vapor (rich in Cu, Au, Ag, S, As,
Sb, Te, and B; e.g., Pokrovski et al., 2008) to liquid contraction and
finally low-pressure boiling could lead to subsequent porphyry Cu ±
Au mineralization as evidenced by abundant chalcopyrite and bornite
and minor pyrite in the inner zone of porphyry deposits. A number of
fluid inclusion microanalysis and experimental studies reveal that
specific elements preferentially partition into hypersaline liquid (Fe, Zn,
Pb, Mn, and possibly Mo) and vapor (Cu, Au, Ag, S, As, Sb, Te, Li, and
B) during phase separation (Heinrich et al., 1999; Heinrich, 2005;
Pokrovski et al., 2005, 2008; Williams-Jones and Heinrich, 2005; Simon
et al., 2007; Nagaseki and Hayashi, 2008; Pudack et al., 2009; Seo et al.,
2009). The co-enrichment of Fe-Zn-Pb-Cu-Au-Ag-S-Te-Sb (as evidenced
by pyrite – sphalerite – chalcopyrite – tennantite/tetrahedrite – galena –
electrum – Au-Ag tellurides – silver sulfosalts assemblage) in IS deposits
indicates that there is no significant phase separation of the original
magmatic ore fluids. The intermediate sulfidation-state fluid (forming
chalcopyrite and tennantite at depth) most likely exsolves more slowly
from the ongoing crystallizing magma under lower temperature con-
ditions and advects slowly and cools, thereby it may not intersect its
solvus. This deeply derived intermediate sulfidation-state liquids may
bypass the lithocap and produce IS mineralization at shallow epi-
thermal levels (Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003).
Based on multicomponent reaction modeling combining thermo-
dynamic data with vapor-inclusion compositions from the Grasberg
porphyry Cu-Au deposit, Heinrich et al. (2004) and Heinrich (2005)
suggested that four steps could favor the transportation of Au from
porphyry depth to epithermal environment. (1) Cooling of the fluid in a
physically constrained environment at elevated pressure to guarantee
the vapor contraction instead of phase separation. (2) Excess of H2S
over Fe + Cu in the initial fluid to ensure enough HS- left to complex
with Au after saturation of Fe-Cu sulfides (CuFeS2, Cu5FeS4, and FeS2)
at high temperature. (3) Fluid transports in restricted feldspar-de-
structive alteration zones (with pyrite but no remaining iron oxide or
ferrous silicate near the central channelway to consume the H2S in
solution through desulfidation reaction) during fluid cooling. (4) Gold
precipitation driven by a high degree of chemical disequilibrium im-
posing a localized drop in gold solubility. Heinrich et al. (2004) fur-
therly predicted that suprahydrostatic P-T conditions in the compres-
sive or low-differential-stress regime surrounding porphyry-related
magma chambers (Tosdal and Richards, 2001) were probably im-
portant to sustain the high pressure required for vapor cooling and
contraction above the critical curve (Fournier, 1999).
By comparing porphyry systems developing adjacent IS veins (e.g.,
Kouzmanov et al., 2009; Chang et al., 2011; Catchpole et al., 2015;
Rinne, 2015; Márquez-Zavalía and Heinrich, 2016) with those without
affiliated IS mineralization (e.g., tensional state during the intrusion of
causative stock in Escondida, Garza et al., 2001; pervasive shattering of
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Ore Geology Reviews 107 (2019) 434–456
wall rock at all stages, lack focused fluid conduit to IS in Chuquicamata,
Ossandón et al., 2001; shallow emplacement depth (< 1 km) of ore-
related P porphyry plus rapid uplift/erosion in Qulong, Yang et al.,
2009), in conjunction with previous results of modeling and experi-
ments, we proposed the following factors which possibly favor the
development of IS Au deposits over a PCD: 1) near neutral to com-
pressive stress regime with higher orthogonal convergence rate
(≥99 mm/y) in magmatic arcs to prevent excessive eruptions (cf.,
Watanabe, 2002); 2) water-enriched (> 4 wt%) and oxidized parental
magmas so as to maximize the metal contents of the resultant aqueous
phase (Candela and Holland, 1986; Dilles, 1987; Candela, 1992;
Richards, 2005); 3) relatively large exsolution depth (> 3–4 km) and
slow exsolving rate of the intermediate-sulfidation ore fluids to prevent
substantial phase separation above the critical curve of the fluid system
which may disperse mineralizing agents, and to ensure a higher H2S/
SO2 ratio at higher pressure which could enhance the solubility of Au
(complex with HS-) in the fluids (e.g., Benning and Seward, 1996;
Fournier, 1999; Heinrich, 2005; Murakami et al., 2010); 4) proper
emplacement depth (∼2–3 km) of the porphyry stocks acting as an
efficient “exhaust valves” to make the ascent of magmatic pregnant
fluids focused (e.g., Sillitoe, 2010); 5) the presence of pre- or syn-ore
dikes (either aplitic or pegmatitic) whose contraction during crystal-
lization and cooling can lead to a local tensile strength field in > 400 °C
plastic rocks, which can favor the open of hydraulic fractures and hence
the quick upflow of the ore fluids (Fournier, 1999); 6) restricted in-
terconnected permeable zone (pre-ore structures, lithologic contacts
between dikes and wall rocks, and/or hydraulic fractures) between the
porphyry stock and lithocap and its adjoining area; 7) thick volcanic
piles (> ∼1 km) and limited uplifting and erosion for an intact pre-
servation.
6. Subclassification of IS deposits
6.1. Variations and relationship with PCD, HS and LS
6.1.1. Variations of IS
Overprinting, water-rock interaction, and local fluctuation of sulfi-
dation state could make the hydrothermal mineralogy of IS quite
complex. It would be challenging to identify an IS deposit if it over-
printed upon other magmatic hydrothermal mineralization types, the
most common of which includes porphyry mineralization (Acupan,
Philippines, Cooke and Bloom, 1990; Wafi, Papua New Guinea, Rinne
et al., 2018), sometimes HS mineralization (Elshitsa, Bulgaria,
Kouzmanov et al., 2009), less commonly skarn mineralization (Dukat,
Russia, Sidorov et al., 2015), and rarely greisen REE mineralization
(Zhaxikang, China, Xie et al., 2017).
The presence of low-sulfidation sulfides, such as arsenopyrite and
pyrrhotite, in some IS deposits can be resulted from water-rock inter-
action between ore fluids and reduced basement (graphite-bearing
schist in Marmato, Colombia, Rossetti and Colombo, 1999) or host rock
(phyllite and shale in Cerro de Pasco, Peru, Baumgartner et al., 2008;
black shale in Zhaxikang, China, Xie et al., 2017), or local fluctuation of
sulfidation state in the epithermal activities (e.g., Giggenbach, 1992;
Einaudi et al., 2003). An alternative explanation is that they did not
reach chemical equilibrium (Einaudi et al., 2003).
6.1.2. Relationship with PCDs-HS
A genetic relationship between porphyry systems and its spatial
adjacent HS deposits is a consensus (e.g., Hedenquist et al., 1998;
Muntean and Einaudi, 2001; Valencia et al., 2008; Pudack et al., 2009).
Similar to HS deposits, some IS deposits also shows close relations with
PCDs. Quite many IS deposits are reported abutting PCDs in neutral-
compressional magmatic arcs, for example, Kelian in Indonesia (van
Leeuwen et al., 1990), Far Southeast (PCD) – Lepanto (HS) – Victoria
(IS) in the Philippines (Chang et al., 2011), Tahonas (PCD) – Batopilas
(IS) in Mexico (Wilkerson et al., 1988; Valencia-Moreno et al., 2007),
L. Wang, et al. Ore Geology Reviews 107 (2019) 434–456

Acupan in the Philippines (Cooke and Bloom, 1990), Fruta del Norte in

Földessy et al. (2004), Földessy and Szebényi

Ecuador (Leary et al., 2016), and Golpu (PCD) – Wafi (IS) in Papua New
Guinea (Rinne, 2015) (Table 4). The shortest distance between an IS

Mao et al. (2011) and references therein

Corbett and Leach (1998); Rinne (2015)

Márquez-Zavalía and Heinrich (2016)
Hao et al. (2016), Wang et al. (2018)
deposit and a PCD can be < 1 km (e.g., Claveria, 2001; Rinne, 2015;

Claveria (2001), Sajona et al. (2002)

Table 4). Epithermal deposits can be a continuum of PCDs in deeper
part, with HS deposits closely abutting intrusion (Hedenquist, 1987;
Hedenquist et al., 1998) and IS veins generally locating in the distal

Kouzmanov et al. (2009)

Catchpole et al. (2015)

areas. Since IS deposits occur in areas with PCDs (John et al., 1999),

Harvey et al. (1999)

Hedenquist (2015)
Hedenquist et al. (2000) thought there may be a genetic relationship
between IS veins and PCDs.
Besides, there is also increasing recognition of the potential for IS

Tan (1991)
References
veins adjacent to HS deposits (e.g., Victoria IS Au veins adjacent to

(2008)
Lepanto HS Cu-Au in the Philippines, Claveria et al., 1999). Hedenquist
et al. (2000) speculated that there was a similar chemical evolution of

HS-IS/km
the fluid responsible for IS veins and the post-enargite, Au-rich stage of
HS deposits due to very similar ore-mineral assemblage between Vic-

<1

<1
∼2
toria and the post-enargite gold-rich stage of Lepanto (Hedenquist et al.,
1998).

PD-IS/km
In fact, previous workers have examined the genetic relations be-

<1

<1
<1

<1
∼2
tween HS-IS and PCD. Vlaykov Vruh PCD and Elshitsa HS-IS Cu–Au

4
5

1
deposit in Panagyurishte region in Bulgaria are only 1 km apart from
each other, and the lead isotope compositions of sulfides and bulk rock

PD-HS/
are generally the same, supporting the idea that the porphyry miner-

<1
<1

<1
∼1
km
alization and HS-IS epithermal mineralization are a single ore-forming
event and they share a common metal source (Kouzmanov et al., 2009).

Toromocho HS-IS Zn-Pb-Ag-Cu (5.7 Ma)

One of the most classic example for discussing the relations of IS and

Victoria-Teresa Au (1.42–1.1 Ma))

Alto de la Blenda Au-Ag (6.6 Ma)
PCD-HS should be Golpu-Wafi porphyry-HS-IS epithermal system in

Zhengguang Au-Zn (∼480 Ma)

Papua New Guinea (Rinne, 2015; Rinne et al., 2018). The spatio-
Intermediate-sulfidation (IS)

Chiufen and Wutanshan Au

Yinshan HS-IS Ag-Pb-Zn-Cu

Wafi Wafi IS Au (8.51 Ma)

temporal configuration of veins and alteration assemblages at Golpu
and Wafi indicate that the Golpu dioritic porphyry was the causative

Elshitsa HS-IS Cu–Au

Canahuire Au-Ag-Cu
intrusive complex for both porphyry and epithermal mineralization.

Au occurrences
The fact that IS carbonate-base metal sulfide veins occur in an arcuate

(175–178 Ma)

Parád Au-Ag
belt that extends with depth into the Golpu porphyry possibly implies
that the epithermal veins were (partially) precipitated from fluids de-
rived from the porphyry (Rinne, 2015). The reason why Wafi-Golpu is
Spatially coexisting IS veins and PCD and/or HS deposits and their mutual distances from each other.

unusual is that its HS lithocap had developed IS deposits along its

Barren Chucapaca lithocap

Golpu HS Cu-Au (8.67 Ma)

margins. And observations indicating a genetic relationship between

Lepanto Cu-Au (1.42 Ma)

Yanachocha Norte Au

the Wafi HS and IS mineralization include (Rinne, 2015): (1) There is

High-sulfidation (HS)

lateral transition from HS to IS mineral associations, from alunite ±

Penshan Cu-Au
covellite ± tennantite assemblages, outwards to kaolinite – muscovite
Lahóca Cu-Au

– pyrite ± sphalerite, to gold-bearing IS carbonate – base metal sulfide

assemblages. Disseminated and vein sphalerite occurs across the tran-
sition from HS to IS assemblages. (2) High grade epithermal gold
formed at the transition from HS to IS alteration assemblages, possibly
implying that gold precipitation occurred during a transition from
Bajo de la Alumbrera Cu–Au–Mo

alunite- to carbonate-stable conditions.

Sillitoe and Hedenquist (2003) proposed two possibilities for IS
Toromocho Cu-Mo (7.0 Ma)
Vlaykov Vruh Cu (85.6 Ma)
Dexing Cu-Au-Mo (170 Ma)

Far Southeast Cu (1.41 Ma)

fringing HS centers, 1) the deep fluids bypass the lithocap along some
Golpu Cu-Au (8.67 Ma)

Recsk Deeps Cu-Au-Mo

Tongshan Cu (474 Ma)
Porphyry deposit (PD)

furthersome fractures directly to form IS veins in distal positions, 2) a

deep IS fluid evolves to HS conditions when entering the unbuffered
Kupfertal Cu-Au

lithocap, followed by sufficient neutralization during outward flow and

water-rock reaction to return to IS stability (Sillitoe, 1999; Einaudi
(7.1 Ma)

et al., 2003). The second model was supported by features in Wafi to-
gether with previous district-scale observations elsewhere (e.g.,
Wallace, 1980).
Southern Panagyurishte, Bulgaria

Golpu-Wafi, Papua New Guinea

6.1.3. Relationship with PMDs and LS

Farallón Negro, Argentina

Interestingly, Some IS deposits formed in post-collisional orogenic

Duobaoshan, NE China

belts show close spatiotemporal-genetic relationship with porphyry

Lepanto, Philippines

Chinkuashi, Taiwan
Dexing, East China

molybdenum mineralization (e.g., Jiawula Ag-Pb-Zn, Qin et al., 1995;

Morococha, Peru

Chucapaca, Peru
District, location

Yanacocha, Peru
Recsk, Hungary

Nie et al., 2015; Chalukou PMD-IS Mo-Pb-Zn, Jin et al., 2015; Hen-
derson PMD-IS Mo-Pb-Zn, Seedorff and Einaudi, 2004), while those in
back arcs show intimate spatial relationship with LS veins but exclusive
to economic PCDs or HS deposits, as exemplified by IS veins in Mexican
Table 4

Altiplano back-arc environment (e.g., Bacís, La Guitarra, Saladillo, Za-

No.

10
11

catecas in Mexico, Camprubí and Albinson, 2007; person. commu. with

1
2

3
4

5
6
7
8

448
L. Wang, et al.
T. Albinson, 2019).
A previous consensus is that the possibility of transition between IS
and LS veins is low, chiefly considering about their distinct forming
tectonic settings (e.g., John, 2001; Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003). For
instance, in the Great Basin of Nevada in the United States IS and LS
deposits exhibits mutually exclusive features in time and space (John,
2001). However, IS and LS veins in Mexico coexist in a single area,
formed in the same geologic period, and even occur in a single deposit
(Camprubí and Albinson, 2007). The coexistence of IS and LS deposits
in extensional environment in Mexico has challenged our previous
knowledge of the exclusiveness of IS deposits and LS deposits.
Fig. 5. Ag/Au ratio histograms of E-type IS (A) and NC-type IS (B) epithermal deposits (data from references in Table 2). Note the generally distinct high Ag/Au ratios
of IS deposits formed within extensional region.
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Ore Geology Reviews 107 (2019) 434–456
Some study shows that the transition from IS mineralization to LS
mineralization actually reflected the spatiotemporal evolution of epi-
thermal fluids. La Guitarra vein in Temascaltepec district in Mexico
exhibits marked transition from IS to LS (Camprubí et al., 2001a). There
existed similar evolution path for all the mineralization stages, starting
from the base metal minerals and ending with precious metal minerals.
For example, in stage I the FeS of sphalerite from early base metal-rich
mineralization is 0.04 mol, while it rises to 0.25 in the later Ag mi-
nerals-rich associations. On the other hand, the maximum FeS contents
of sphalerite decreased with time, from 0.25 mol in stage I to 0.16 mol
of stage II to 0.12 mol of stage III. The brine responsible for base metal
L. Wang, et al.
sulfide associations in stage I (the most possible IS mineral assemblage)
became more diluted with time elapsing, and this dilution matched well
with gradual increasing FeS contents (gradual neutralization)
(Camprubí et al., 2001b). And the phenomena described above in-
dicates that the coexistence of IS and LS mineralization is a response to
the initial sulfidation state locating into IS area and evolving from IS
stable area to LS area. And this feature is the result of neutralization of
mineralization fluids with wall rock and early vein materials
(Giggenbach, 1987). As the hydrothermal pulses became weak, this
neutralization reaction (continuously cooling and consuming of sulfur
leading to the drop of sulfidation state, Fig. 1) dominates the chemical
characteristics of the fluids.
6.2. Subdividing of IS deposits and their controlling factors
6.2.1. Subdivision of IS
The metallogenic features of the IS deposits worldwide (Table 2)
and affinity to different hydrothermal deposits makes it clear that IS
deposits has two endmembers. The first group (No. 1–19 in Table 2),
mainly distributed in Cordilleras (Fig. 2), generally has a Ag-Au or Ag-
Pb-Zn metal associations with a high Ag/Au ratio (> 60, maximum up
to ∼ 1400; Fig. 5A) and develop in extensional intra-arc settings, post-
collisional belts (some related to PMDs), back arcs (some related to LS
deposits). While the second group (No. 20–45 in Table 2), occurring in
neutral-compressive arc settings, usually has an Au-rich features with a
low Ag/Au ratio (generally < 60, minimum about 1, with one excep-
tion, Toyoha; Fig. 5B) and shows close relations with PCDs-HS. In ad-
dition, the second group IS deposits generally have higher average Au
grade than the first group (Fig. 6A), whereas in general deposits in first
group are of greater importance considering silver reserves and tenor
than those of second group (Fig. 6B).
According to the IS variations discussed above, we subdivided IS
deposits into two subsets based on their distinct tectonic settings (stress
states) and associated metallogenic features (Fig. 7). The first IS subtype
chiefly occurs in compressional or near-neutral stress settings which is
represented by subduction-stage magmatic arc (especially continental
arcs and mature island arcs), named “Neutral-Compressional IS (shor-
tened as NC-type IS)” deposit (Fig. 7A and C). The other subtype that
can be concisely called “Extensional IS (shortened as E-type IS)” de-
posit, commonly located in extensional settings represented by broad
extensional intra-arc, post-collisional stage belts, and back-arcs
Fig. 6. Au grade vs. ore tonnage plot (A) and Ag grade vs. ore tonnage (B) of two subtypes of IS epithermal deposits (data from references in Table 2). Includes both
production and reserves, but with various cut-off grades. AB = Alto de la Blenda, Argentina; Bu = Buriticá, Colombia; Ca = Caylloma, Peru; CL = Comstock Lode,
Nevada; CM = Cerro Moro, Argentina; Co = Çöpler, Turkey; Du = Dukat, Russia; El = Elshitsa, Bulgaria; FN = Fruta del Norte, Ecuador; Fr = Fresnillo, Mexico;
Gu = Guanajuato, Mexico; Ji = Jiawula, China; Ke = Kelian, Indonesia; Ku = Kushikino, Japan; LC = La Colorada, Mexico; MA = Miguel Auza, Mexico;
Ma = Madjarovo, Bulgaria; MK = Milin Kamak, Bulgaria; Mm = Marmato, Colombia; Pa = Pallancata, Peru; RA = Real de Angeles, Mexico; RM = Rosia Montana,
Romania; Ta = Tayoltita, Mexico; To = Tonopah, Nevada; Ts = Tsav, Mongolia; Wa = Wafi, Papua New Guinea; Za = Zacatecas, Mexico; Zg = Zhengguang,
Northeast China, Zx = Zhaxikang, Tibet.
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Ore Geology Reviews 107 (2019) 434–456
(Table 5, Fig. 7B–D).
NC-type IS deposits primarily occur in regions which develop por-
phyry Cu-Au deposits and/or HS deposits and show close relationship
with calc-alkaline andesitic igneous rocks (e.g., Hedenquist et al., 2000;
John, 2001). And IS veins constituting PCD-HS-IS or HS-IS system
usually belong to NC-type IS (e.g., Victoria-Teresa, Chang et al., 2011;
Wafi, Rinne, 2015; Chiufen-Wutanshan, Tan, 1991; Toromocho,
Catchpole et al., 2015, Table 4). The NC-type IS related intrusive rocks
usually have higher oxygen fugacity due to the dehydration of the
down-going oceanic plate, which is favorable for large gold deposit
(e.g., Sillitoe, 1997). Sometimes the E-type IS formed in post-collisional
stage associated with porphyry molybdenum mineralization may also
show elevated oxygen fugacity and intermediate sulfidation state (e.g.,
as the occurrence of anhydrite and sphalerite-galena-chalcopyrite-Zn-
tetrahedrite in Chalukou PMD-IS Mo-Pb-Zn, Jin et al., 2015). This ab-
normal high fO2 may result from the remelting of subduction-modified,
volatile-metasomatized lithosphere (e.g., Richards, 2011).
The fluid evolution for NC-type IS deposits was presumably re-
presented by trajectory ② in Fig. 1, which shows an increase first then a
decrease of sulfidation with decreasing temperature, largely due to lack
of neutralization during earlier ascending within an unbuffered lithocap
and later sufficient neutralization during outward flowing to IS position
(Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003). Trajectory ③ depicts the fluid evolution
of E-type IS, demonstrating less variations in sulfidation as the fluids
evolve because of relatively deep emplacement of intrusions and con-
tinuing fluids neutralization (Person. Commu. with T. Albinson, 2019).
6.2.2. Controlling factors of subtypes of IS
Why there are two endmembers for IS deposits? Previous workers
believe that the ore mineralogy and metal endowment of epithermal
systems are largely controlled by the composition of the ore fluids
(Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003) and the fS2 and fO2 of the fluids (e.g.,
Barton et al., 1977; Einaudi et al., 2003) probably relying on the oxi-
dation state of the magma (Hedenquist et al., 2000). Albinson et al.,
2001 and Albinson (Person. Commu., 2019) suppose that the main
controlling factor of the two subtypes of IS is the emplacing depth of the
causative intrusions, with NC-type IS having a shallow intrusion depth
and E-type IS Ag-Au or Ag-Pb-Zn deposits having deep intrusions (most
likely > 5 km; Albinson et al., 2001). Another opinion supposes that IS
subtypes rely on the content of silica of parental magmas, with E-type IS
(in the eastern margin of Pacific Rim) showing close relations with
L. Wang, et al. Ore Geology Reviews 107 (2019) 434–456

Fig. 7. Schematic diagram showing the tectonic subclassification of two IS subtypes. A. Subduction stage with a neutral-compressional stress state (modified from
Richards (2011)); B. Extensional post-collision stage (modified from Richards (2011); C. Anatomy of a telescoped porphyry Cu system showing spatial inter-
relationships of a centrally located porphyry Cu ± Au and NC-type IS Au ± Ag system or porphyry Mo ± Cu and E-type IS Ag ± Pb ± Zn system along with
possible HS deposit in a multiphase porphyry stock. Note that PMD-E-type IS are usually formed under extensional intra-arc or continental margin arc. Adapted after
Sillitoe (2010); D. General model for E-type IS deposits, adapted after Sillitoe and Hedenquist (2003). SCLM = sub-continental lithospheric mantle.

Table 5
Camparison features of two subtypes of intermediate-sulfidation epithermal deposits.
NC-type IS E-type IS

Setting Continental arc or mature island arc Intra-arc, post-collisional orogenic belt, back arc
Tectonic stage Subduction Post-collision or after collision
Stress state Neutral to compressive Extensional
Major metals Au ± Ag ± Zn Ag-Au ± Pb ± Zn ± Cu ± Mn ± Sb ± In
Magma origin Metasomatized mantle wedge Mainly continental crust
Host rock Andesite, dacite Shoshonite, andesite, trachyandesite, dacite, andesite, rhyolite
Related igneous rock Calc-alkaline granitoids Alkali-rich granotoids and calc-alkaline
Exsolving depth of > 3 km > 5 km
fluid
Relations with other Close spatial and temporal relations, sometimes show Sometimes show genetic relationship with porphyry Mo mineralization or LS veins
deposits genetic relations with porphyry Cu-Au deposit
Examples Zhengguang Au-Zn, Wang et al. (2018); Wafi Au, Rinne Tsav Ag-Pb-Zn, Gantumur et al. (2005); Yinshan Ag-Pb-Zn-Cu, Mao et al. (2011); Jiawula Ag-
(2015); Victoria-Teresa Au, Chang et al. (2011); Acupan Pb-Zn, Nie et al. (2015); Zhaxikang Pb-Zn-Sb, Xie et al. (2017); Chalukou PMD-IS Mo-Pb-Zn,
Au, Cooke and Bloom (1990), Cooke et al. (1996) Jin, 2016; Henderson PMD-IS Pb-Zn, Seedorff and Einaudi (2004); Real de Angeles Ag-Zn-Pb,
Pearson et al. (1988)

highly differentiated felsic igneous rocks and NC-type IS (in the western
Pacific margin) with more mafic volcanic rocks (Graybeal and Smith,
1987; Albinson et al., 2001).
Here we propose a tectono-magmatic control on different IS sub-
types. The abundances of Mo, Ag, Pb in continental crust
(Mo = 0.8 ppm, Ag = 0.056 ppm, Pb = 11 ppm, Rudnick and Gao,
2003) are about one magnitude higher than those in primitive mantle
(Mo = 0.05 ppm, Ag = 0.008 ppm, Pb = 0.15 ppm, McDonough,
2003), and the abundance of Zn in continental crust (72 ppm, Rudnick
and Gao, 2003) is also higher than that of primitive mantle (55 ppm,
McDonough, 2003). Based on these facts, felsic magmas generated from
partial melting of continental crust seems more efficient to generate a
porphyry Mo deposit and IS Ag-Pb-Zn veins (e.g., Graybeal and Smith,
1987; Albinson et al., 2001; Seedorff and Einaudi, 2004; Catchpole

451
L. Wang, et al.
et al., 2015; person. commu. with Li and Hui, 2018). Extensional tec-
tonics accompanying delamination of thickened lower crust (e.g., Kay
et al., 1999) or slab break-off or tearing (e.g., Hou et al., 2004) are
favorable for the melting of the continental crust due to the upwelling
of asthenosphere (Fig. 7B). This was exemplified by most porphyry Mo
deposits showing close relationship with high-K calc-alkaline to
shoshonite series granitic rock, originating from crust-sourced melt
during collision, rift or subduction (e.g., Seedorff et al., 2005; Chen
et al., 2017).
On the contrary, copper and gold are both strongly chalcophile
elements and they are generally supposed to derive from melting of the
asthenospheric mantle (e.g., Richards, 2003), sulfides-pyroxenite cu-
mulates in the mantle-crust boundary (Lee et al., 2012), and possibly
oceanic crust (Albinson et al., 2001). The subduction of oceanic plate,
usually resulting in neutral-compressive environment (volcanic arcs),
favors the melting of mantle wedge and sulfide cumulates and forma-
tion of porphyry Cu-Au systems (Groves and Bierlein, 2007; Wilkinson,
2013; Hou et al., 2015; Fig. 7A). Thus, NC-type IS deposits (Chang
et al., 2011; Rinne, 2015) usually show close relations with inter-
mediate composition-like magma (e.g., Rinne et al., 2018) and occur in
neutral-compressive arc settings.
Our hypothesis was supported by geological observations. In south
Tibet, the contrasting occurrence of Jurassic subduction-related Cu-Au
with depleted mantle being the dominant source and Miocene collision-
related Cu-Mo porphyry deposits with certain amount of old continental
crust evolved (5–30%) indicates continental crust-resulted magma are
prone to produce Mo (and possibly Ag-Pb-Zn)-rich magma, while
magma from depleted mantle favor the Cu-Au-rich ore deposits (Hou
et al., 2015). Besides, northwestern part of Central America (El Sal-
vador, Guatemala, and Honduras) is underlain by continental crust and
accommodates Ag-rich deposits with elevated Ag/Au ratios (70–3700),
whereas southeastern part of Central America (Panama, Costa Rica, and
Eastern Antilles) is based by young oceanic crust and hosts Au-rich
deposits with markedly low Ag/Au ratios (0.2–2.1) (Nelson, 1990), also
showing the affinity between Ag-rich E-type IS deposits and continental
crust.
To sum up, in neutral-compressional magmatic arc, the partial
melting of mantle wedge or juvenile lower crust, and particularly sul-
fide cumulates triggered by subduction dehydration (e.g., Kimura et al.,
2009; Lee et al., 2012; Hou et al., 2015) can generate Cu-Au-rich
magma (Fig. 7A, Table 5), and form NC-type IS veins, sometimes PCD-
HS-IS Cu-Au systems in proper conditions when magma ascending to
the proper level (Fig. 7C). In post-collisional orogenic belts, the dela-
mination of sub-continental lithospheric mantle (SCLM) and/or thick-
ened lower crust and resultant upwelling of asthenosphere could induce
the partial melting of Mo-Ag-base metal-rich ancient continental crust
(Richards, 2011; Fig. 7B, Table 5). The consequent highly fractionated
felsic magmas are prone to produce PMDs and associated E-type Ag-
base metal IS veins (Fig. 7C). While in extensional intra-arc (maybe
precursor of intra-plate rift) or back arc settings (Fig. 7A), the decom-
pression caused by tectonic extension can also facilitate the melting of
the continental crust (Ag-base metal-rich), thus usually resulting in
Ag ± base metal-rich E-type IS (Fig. 7D). A few NC-type IS deposits
with both gold and Ag-base metals as economic commodity (e.g., Sa-
hinli Pb-Zn-Cu-Au-Ag and Tespih Dere Pb–Zn–Cu–Au in Turkey,
Zhengguang Au-Zn in China) are likely the products of hybrid magma
originated from mantle (or juvenile crust) and continental crust. The
relative endowment of Au and Ag-base metals likely depends on the
relative volume of mantle-derived magma and crust-derived magma
involved, respectively, which can be quantified by knowing the bulk-
rock εNd and zircon εHf values (Hou et al., 2015).
6.3. General model and exploration strategy
The proposal of subtypes of IS deposits is likely to provide some
conducive implications for exploration and prospecting.
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Ore Geology Reviews 107 (2019) 434–456
During strategic exploration of IS deposits in the favorable belt (e.g.,
volcanic arcs and post-collisional orogenic belts), the plate-scale tec-
tonics is the first-rate consideration. NC-type IS (Au ± Ag ± Zn) veins
usually occur in neutral to compressive magmatic arc where there de-
velop clusters of porphyry and HS Cu ± Au deposits (e.g., Victoria Au
deposit in the Mankayan District of Philippines; Zhengguang Au-Zn
deposit in Duobaoshan orefield in Northeast China; Wafi Au in Papua
New Guinea; Fig. 7A and C). While for E-type IS, either adjacent to
porphyry Mo deposits in post-collisional orogen (e.g., Chalukou PMD-IS
Mo-Pb-Zn in Northeast China; Henderson PMD-IS Mo-Pb-Zn in Col-
orado in the US; Fig. 7B and C), or coexisting with LS Au ± Ag veins in
back arcs (Fresnillo, Zacatecas, Guanajuato in Altiplano back-arc in
Mexico; person. commu. with T. Albinson, 2019; Fig. 7A and D) usually
develop in extensional settings.
Thus, it seems logical and scientific to explore for NC-type IS Au
( ± Ag ± Zn) deposits in magmatic arcs which host PCDs and HS de-
posits. In a regional scale, there is great hope to explore for NC-type IS
veins or associated porphyry Cu( ± Au) system in CAOB as IS deposits
in CAOB are to large extent underestimated in terms of IS mineraliza-
tion potential (e.g., Western Tianshan, Zhao et al., 2014, Dong et al.,
2018; Northeast China; Wang et al., 2018). While it would be a wise
choice to look for E-type IS deposits in extensional intra-arc settings
(e.g., areas affected by subduction and breakoff of Mongol-Okhotsk
plate in east CAOB, Nie et al., 2015), post-collisional belts (e.g., Hi-
malaya, Xie et al., 2017), and back-arcs (e.g., Mexico, Albinson et al.,
2001; Bolivia, Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003).
In a district scale, the alteration assemblage and zonation, illite
crystallinity, together with geochemical and geophysical anomalies
may improve the targeting of such a vein prospect. In a moderate
erosional area (e.g., Victoria IS veins, Mankayan, Philippines), there are
subtle alteration (illite to interstratified illite/smectite to smec-
tite + pyrite) and geochemical (As, Se) expressions (Chang et al.,
2011). Usually the IS vein systems can be tentatively related to a zone
of probable demagnetization, probably showing a negative magnetic
anomaly (consistent with the feldspar-decomposing alteration, Chang
et al., 2011) and/or only weak chargeability and resistivity anomalies
(Leary et al., 2016) in geophysical exploration. Furthermore, due to the
close mutual spatiotemporal-genetic relationship between PCD, HS and
IS, the known PCDs or HS, or both of them, or even barren lithocap
could be evidence of the existence of IS deposits. And the flanks or
margins of the lithocap should be paid more attention for the possibility
of IS. Conversely, known IS veins, particularly those with associated
skarn-type alteration, should be considered for deeper porphyry
(Hedenquist, 2015) and HS Cu ± Au potential. Meanwhile, we should
note that economic deposits of NC-type/E-type IS and PCDs/PMDs
cannot always form together, because emplacement level of causative
intrusion, local conditions of fluid evolution, transport, and deposition
processes may favor ore deposition in one or the other environment but
not necessarily both of them (cf., Albinson et al., 2001; Kerrich et al.,
2005).
Because of a late start, however, there are quite many questions
about IS deposits, both genetic as well as exploration related, despite
the studies completed to date. Some of these, and possible answers,
follow (latter in parentheses). (1) Why is IS deposits relatively less in
Central Asian Orogenic Belt and Tethys-Himalaya? (Eroded or not
identified yet due to complicated modification of accretion and colli-
sion history?) (2) Is there any other region hope for Ag-rich IS veins
besides Mexico? (Other back-arc settings with thicker volcanic piles
behind paleo-arcs should be preferably considered) (3) What is the
source of gold for NC-type IS deposits? Does the gold of IS share the
same source with porphyry Cu-Au systems? (Mantle wedge or a Cu-Au-
rich sulfide cumulates?) (4) What are the main factors controlling the
bulk Ag/Au ratios of IS deposits? (magma property or fluid salinity?)
(5) What is the role of the manganese carbonates in IS mineralization?
(An efficient fluid pH buffer similar with other carbonates?) To solve
these questions, detailed case study and regional comparative
L. Wang, et al.
investigations of IS deposits in the Central Asian Orogenic and Tethys-
Himalaya Belts as well as extensional back arcs in terms of erosion and
preservation, isotope tracing, and elaborate ore forming process are
needed.
Acknowledgements
This study was financially supported by the National Key R & D
Program of China (2017YFC0601306) and the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (grant No. 41390444, 41572064). We acknowl-
edge support from the UCAS Joint PhD Training Program. We are
grateful to Jeffrey W. Hedenquist for his constructive comments on the
contents and organization of the manuscript. Discussions with Stephen
F. Cox, Tawn Albinson, Zhenzhen Li, and Kaixuan Hui and assistance
from Keiko Hattori are acknowledged. We thank Tawn Albinson and an
anonymous reviewer for their comments which helped to improve the
manuscript.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2019.02.023.
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