Edulearn@I.atc Module 03

EASA Part 66
Module 3: Electrical Fundamentals
Compiled by Engr. Hamza Asharf

Approved by Engr. Muhammad Ehsan Ullah
Notes Change Record
Name Details of Change Date
Module 03–Electrical Fundamentals
Code – IATC- 1103
Index
1. Atomic Structure 12
1.1 Matter 12
1.1.1 States of Matter 12
1.2 Chemical Classification 12
1.3 Molecules 12
1.4 Atoms 13
1.4.1 The Structure of an Atom 13
1.4.2 The Fundamental Particles 13
1.4.3 Particle function 14
1.5 Ions 15
1.6 Electrical Materials 15
1.6.1 Electron Distribution 15
1.6.2 Ionization 16
1.6.3 Energy Levels 16
1.6.4 Conductors 16
1.6.5 Insulators 16
1.6.6 Semi-Conductors 17
2. Static Electricity 18
2.1 Fundamental Law of Electrostatics 18
2.2 Unit of Charge 18
3. Electrical Terminology 19
3.1 Voltage 19
3.1.1 Potential 19
3.1.2 Potential Difference 19
3.1.3 Electromotive Force – EMF 19
3.2 Current 20
3.2.1 Movement of Charge 20
3.2.2 Conventional Flow 20
3.2.3 Electron Flow 21
3.3 Resistance 21
3.3.1 Factors Affecting Resistance 21
3.3.2 Units of Resistance 21
3.4 Conductance and Conductivity 21
4. Production of Electricity 23
4.1 By Friction 23
4.2 By Pressure 23
4.3 By Magnetism 24
4.4 By Heat 24
4.5 By Light 24
4.6 By Chemical Action 25
5. Cells & Batteries 26
5.1 Principles 26
5.1.1 Cell & Battery Symbols 26
5.1.2 Construction & Chemical Action 26
5.1.3 Primary &Secondary Cells 27
1
FOR TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY
© Edulearn @ i.ATC, Institute of Space Technology. All rights reserved

Rev: 00
Proprietary document. Copies are controlled. Confirm revision status through the IST-Internet/Intranet. Date: 16-05-2014
© AVIATION TRAINING CENTRE
Aircraft Maintenance Engineering Training Notes

This document is issued to you on the understanding that this is
intended for your self-study. This document is up to date but if
amendments are made, subject to new advancements in the field, then
you will be provided with the amended document. It is to be noted that
this document does not in any way constitute an authorized document
for use in aircraft maintenance.
All rights reserved
No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or

transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying,
recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior
written permission of the edulearn@i.ATC, Institute of Space
Technology.
Code – IATC- 1103
5.1.4 Cell Emf 27

5.1.5 Cell Capacity 27
5.1.6 Interconnection of Cells 28
5.1.7 Lead Acid Batteries 28
5.1.8 Conventional Construction 28
5.1.9 Solid Block Type Construction 29
5.1.10 Chemical Action 30
5.1.11 Voltage & Specific Gravity Characteristics 31
5.1.12 Common Lead Acid Battery Faults 31
5.2 Nickel Cadmium Batteries 32
5.2.1 Construction 32
5.2.2 Chemical Action 33
5.2.3 Advantages &Disadvantages 34
5.2.4 Thermal Runaway 34
5.3 Small Alkaline Cells 34
6. Ohm’s Law 36
6.1 Transposition of Ohm’s Law 36
6.2 The Ohm’s Law Triangle 36
7. Electrical Measuring Instruments 38
7.1 Connecting Meters to a Circuit 38
7.1.1 Voltmeters 38
7.1.2 Ammeters 38
7.1.3 Ohmmeters 39
7.1.4 Analogue Multimeters 39
7.1.5 DC Voltage Measurements 40
7.1.6 DC Current Measurements 41
7.1.7 DC High-Current Measurement 42
7.1.8 AC Voltage Measurements 43
7.1.9 Resistance Measurements 43
7.1.10 Continuity Testing 45
7.1.11 Battery Testing 45
7.1.12 DO's & DON'Ts of Using An Analogue Multimeter 46
7.1.13 Digital Multimeters 47
7.1.14 DC Voltage Measurements 48
7.1.15 DC Current Measurements 48
7.1.16 High Current Measurements 48
7.1.17 AC Voltage Measurements 49
7.1.18 Resistance Measurements 49
7.1.19 Capacitor Measurements 50
7.1.20 Continuity Testing 50
7.1.21 DO's & DON'Ts of Using a Digital Multimeter 51
8. Resistance & Resistors 52
8.1 Resistivity 52
8.2 Changes Of Resistance With Temperature 52
8.3 Temperature Co-Efficient of Resistance 53
8.4 Resistors 54
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8.4.1 Fixed Resistors 54

8.4.2 Color Codes 55
8.4.3 Preferred Values and Tolerances 56
8.4.4 Letter &Digit Codes 57
8.4.5 Power Rating 57
8.4.6 Potentiometers 57
8.4.7 Rheostats 57
8.4.8 Voltage Dependent Resistors 58
8.5 Thermistors 58
9. Resistors In Circuits 59
9.1 Resistors In Series 59
9.1.1 Kirchoff’s Second Law 59
9.1.2 Voltage division 60
9.1.3 The Potential Divider 60
9.1.4 Voltages Relative to Earth 61
9.2 Internal Resistance 61
9.3 Resistors in Parallel 62
9.4 Two Resistors in Parallel 63
9.4.1 Equal Resistors Connected in Parallel 63
9.4.2 Effective Value of Resistors in Parallel 64
9.4.3 Resistor Size and Current Flow 64
9.4.4 Kirchoff’s First Law 64
9.5 Resistors in Series / Parallel Combinations 64
9.5.1 Physical arrangement of resistors 65
9.5.2 Solution Of Resistor Networks Using Ohm’s Law Only 65
9.6 The Effects of Open Circuits 67
9.7 The Effects of Short Circuits 67
10. The Wheatstone Bridge 68
10.1 Construction 68
10.2 Calculating Unknown Resistances 68
10.3 Uses on Aircraft 68
11. Energy & Power 70
11.1 Electrical Work 70
11.2 Electrical Energy 70
11.3 Electrical Power 70
11.4 Power Ratings 70
11.4.1 Power Ratings of Resistors 71
11.4.2 Size and Power Rating 71
11.4.3 The Kilowatt Hour 71
11.5 Maximum Power Transfer 72
12. Capacitance & Capacitors 73
12.1 Charging a Body 73
12.2 The Basic Capacitor 73
12.3 Capacitance 74
12.4 Factors Affecting Capacitance 74
12.5 Energy Stored in a Capacitor 74
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12.6 Capacitor Construction 75

12.6.1 Fixed Capacitors 75
12.6.2 Variable Capacitors 75
12.6.3 Electrolytic Capacitors 75
12.6.4 Safe Working Voltage 75
12.7 Capacitor Symbols 75
13. Capacitors in Circuits 76
13.1 Capacitors in Series 76
13.2 Capacitors in Parallel 76
13.3 Capacitors in Series / Parallel Combinations 77
13.4 Charge & Discharge Characteristics 77
13.4.1 Charging a Capacitor 77
13.4.2 Time Constant 78
13.4.3 Discharging a Capacitor 79
13.4.4 A capacitor in a dc circuit 79
13.5 The Effects of Open & Short Circuits 80
13.6 Safety & Testing 80
13.7 Circuits Involving Capacitive Decay 80
14. Magnetism 82
14.1 Magnetic Theories 82
14.1.1 Molecular Theory 82
14.1.2 Domain Theory 82
14.2 Magnetic Properties 83
14.2.1 Magnetic Poles 83
14.2.2 Magnetic Field 83
14.2.3 Lines of Flux 83
14.3 The EARTH’S Field 84
14.4 Magnetic Materials 84
14.4.1 Ferromagnetic Materials 84
14.4.2 Paramagnetic Materials 85
14.4.3 Diamagnetic Materials 85
14.5 Production of a Magnet 85
14.5.1 Stroke Method 85
14.5.2 Induction 86
14.5.3 Use of electrical current 86
15. Electromagnetism 88
15.1 Production of a Bar Magnet 88
15.1.1 End Rule 88
15.1.2 Right Hand Gripping Rule 88
15.2 The Magnetic Circuit 89
15.2.1 Magnetomotive Force (MMF) 89
15.2.2 Magnetizing Force 89
15.2.3 Flux & Flux Density 89
15.2.4 Permeability 90
15.2.5 Reluctance 90
15.2.6 Composite paths and airgaps 90
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15.3 BH Curve 91
15.4 Hysteresis Loop 92
15.5 Comparison of Electrical & Magnetic Circuits 93
16. Magnetic Screening 94
17. Induction 95
17.1 Electricity from Magnetism 95
17.1.1 Factors Affecting Induced EMF 95
17.1.2 Faradays Law 96
17.1.3 Lenz’s Law 96
17.1.4 Flemings Right Hand Rule 96
17.2 Self Inductance 97
17.3 Mutual Inductance 97
17.4 Coupling Factor 98
17.5 Energy Stored in Magnetic Field 98
17.5.1 Spark suppression 98
17.6 Construction 99
17.7 Inductor Symbols 99
18. Inductors in Circuits 100
18.1 Inductors in Series 100
18.2 Inductors in Parallel 100
18.3 Inductors in a DC Circuit 100
18.3.1 When DC Current is Applied 101
18.3.2 Time Constant 101
18.3.3 When DC Current is Removed 103
18.3.4 Safety 103
18.4 Simple Single Loop Generator 104
18.4.1 Induced EMF 105
18.4.2 Output Frequency 105
18.5 Commutation 106
18.6 Ring Wound Generator 107
18.7 Practical DC Generator 108
18.7.2 Lap Wound Generator 110
18.7.3 Wave Wound Generator 111
18.7.4 Internal Resistance 111
18.7.5 Armature Reaction 112
18.7.6 Reactive Sparking 113
18.8 Generator Classifications 115
18.8.1 Series Generator 115
18.8.2 Shunt generator 115
18.8.3 Self Excitation 116
18.8.4 Compound Generator 116
19. DC Motors 117
19.1 Simple Single Loop Motor 117
19.2 Commutation 118
19.3 Practical DC Motors 118
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19.3.2 Back EMF 119
19.3.3 Starting D.C. Motors 119
19.3.4 Torque 119
19.3.5 Armature Reaction 119
19.3.6 Reactive sparking 120
19.3.7 Speed control 120
19.3.7.1 Field Control 120
19.4 Motor Classifications 121
19.4.1 Series Motor 121
19.4.2 Shunt Motor 122
19.4.3 Compound Motor 123
19.4.4 Split Field Motor 124
19.5 Rating 125
19.6 Production of a Sinewave 130
19.7 The Sinewave 131
19.7.1 Peak and Peak-to-Peak Values 131
19.7.2 Average Values 132
19.7.3 RMS Values 132
19.7.4 Form Factor. 133
19.7.5 Periodic Time 133
19.7.6 Frequency 133
19.7.7 Angular Velocity. 134
19.7.8 Phase Difference (Angular Difference). 134
19.8 Phasor or Vector Diagrams 134
19.8.1 Addition of Phasors 135
19.9 Addition of AC & DC 136
19.10 Measuring AC Using Oscilloscopes 136
19.10.1 The cathode Ray oscilloscope 136
19.10.2 Types of Oscilloscopes 139
19.10.3 Using the Oscilloscope 143
19.10.4 Other types of waveforms 154
19.10.5 Square waves 154
19.10.6 Triangular or sawtooth waves 154
19.10.7 AC voltage & current 155
19.10.8 Resistive loads 155
19.10.9 Capacitive loads 155
19.10.10 Inductive loads 156
19.10.11 Impedance 157
19.11 ac power 158
19.11.1 Resistive loads 158
19.11.2 Inductive loads 158
19.11.3 Capacitive loads 159
19.11.4 The total load on a generator 160
19.11.5 Apparent Power & actual current 160
19.11.6 True power & Real Current 161
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19.11.7 Reactive power & reactive current 161

19.11.8 Power Factor 162
19.11.9 Series l/c/r circuits 162
19.11.10 Inductance and resistance in series 162
19.11.11 Capacitance and resistance in series 163
19.11.12 Inductance, capacitance and resistance in series 163
19.11.13 Series resonance 164
19.11.14 Voltage magnification 166
19.11.15 Selectivity 166
19.11.16 Bandwidth 167
19.11.17 Parallel l/c/r circuits 168
19.11.18 Inductance and capacitance in parallel 168
19.11.19 Parallel resonance 169
19.11.20 Impedance 170
19.11.21 Current MAGNIFICATION 170
19.11.22 Bandwidth 170
19.11.23 Selectivity 171
20. TRANSFORMERS 172
20.1 Power transformers 172
20.2 circuit symbols & dot codes 173
20.3 Losses 173
20.3.1 Iron losses 174
20.3.2 Copper losses 174
20.3.3 Flux leakage losses 174
20.3.4 Skin Effect 174
20.4 Turns ratio 175
20.5 Power transference 175
20.6 transformer efficiency 175
20.7 Transformer regulation 176
20.8 Loading a transformer 176
20.8.1 No load conditions 176
20.8.2 Resistive load 177
20.8.3 Inductive load 177
20.8.4 Capacitive load 178
20.8.5 Combination loads 178
20.9 178
20.10 reflected impedance 178
20.11 Impedance matching transformers 179
20.12 Autotransformers 179
20.13 mutual reactors 180
20.14 Current transformers 181
20.15 three phase transformers 182
20.16 Differential transformers 183
20.17 Filters 183
20.17.1 High pass filters 184
20.17.2 Low pass filters 185
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20.17.3 Band pass filters 185

20.17.4 Band stop filters 187
20.17.5 Smoothing & decoupling circuits 189
20.18 Attenuators 190
20.18.1 ‘T’ type attenuator 191
20.18.2 Two section attenuator 192
20.18.3 Variable attenuators 192
20.18.4 '' type attenuators 193
20.18.5 Balanced & unbalanced networks 193
20.18.6 Attenuator symbols 193
21. AC generation 195
21.1 Principles 195
21.1.1 Output voltage 195
21.1.2 Output frequency 196
21.1.3 Effects of a resistive load 197
21.1.4 Effects of an inductive load 197
21.1.5 Effects of a capacitive load 197
21.2 Practical generator construction 198
21.2.1 Rotating armature type 198
21.2.2 Rotating field type 198
21.2.3 Single phase generator 199
21.2.4 Two phase generator 199
21.2.5 Three phase generator 200
21.3 star& delta systems 200
21.3.1 Delta connection 202
21.3.2 Star connection 202
21.3.3 Power in ac systems 203
21.4 Production of a rotating field 203
21.4.1 Single phase 203
21.4.2 Two phase 204
21.4.3 Three phase 204
21.5 Types of ac motor 205
21.5.1 Induction motor 205
21.5.2 Synchronous motor 206
21.5.3 Shaded pole motor 208
21.5.4 Hysteresis motor 209
21.6 Applicable requirements 209
21.6.1 Airworthiness codes 209
21.6.2 Design responsibility 210
21.6.3 Approval of cables 211
21.6.4 Modification & repair 211
21.7 cable classification 212
21.7.1 Airframe cables 212
21.7.2 Interconnect cables 213
21.7.3 Equipment wire 213
21.7.4 Fire resistant cables 213
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21.7.5 Fireproof cables 213

21.7.6 Multi-core, Screened and Jacketed cables 214
21.7.7 Data Bus 214
21.7.8 Ignition cables 214
21.7.9 Thermocouple cables 214
21.7.10 Co-axial cables 214
21.8 Specification& cable type identification 214
21.8.1 British Standards Specifications 215
21.8.2 UK Military Specifications 215
21.8.3 US Military Specifications 215
21.8.4 Constructor’s Specification 215
21.8.5 International (including European) Standards 215
21.8.6 Cable Manufacturer’s Specifications 216
21.9 Cable performance 216
21.9.1 Application 216
21.9.2 Temperature 216
21.9.3 Cable size 217
21.9.4 Voltage rating 217
21.9.5 Current rating 217
21.9.6 Flammability & toxicity 218
21.9.7 Wet Arc Tracking 218
21.9.8 Mechanical properties 218
21.9.9 Fluid contamination 219
21.10 cable construction 219
21.10.1 Conductors 219
21.10.2 Conductor Plating 219
21.10.3 Dielectric materials / cable types 220
21.11 Cable failure 221
21.11.1 Wet Arc Tracking 221
21.11.2 Minyvin 221
21.11.3 BMS 13-28 221
21.11.4 Abrasion 221
21.11.5 Conductor 'Knuckling through' 221
21.11.6 Red Plague 222
21.11.7 Glycol Fires 222
21.11.8 Poor Solderability 222
21.12 Caa approved cables 222
21.12.1 B.I.C.C. 223
21.12.2 Rists Wire and Cable Ltd. 225
21.12.3 Raychem Limited 226
21.12.4 SOCIETE FILOTEX 228
21.12.5 KABELWERKE REINSHAGEN GMBH 229
21.12.6 HUBER AND SUHNER AG 229
21.13 caa obsolescent cables 230
21.13.1 B.I.C.C 230
21.13.2 FOTHERGILL AND HARVEY LIMITED 230
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21.13.3 RISTS WIRE AND CABLES LTD 230

21.13.4 SOCIETE FILOTEX 230
21.13.5 FILECA 230
21.14 cable identification 231
21.14.1 Manufacturers’ identification marks 231
21.14.2 Country of origin identification marks 231
21.15 Identification of installed cables 232
21.15.1 Basic cable coding system 232
21.15.2 Manufacturers coding 235
22. cable installations 236
22.1 Support of cabling 236
22.2 Lacing 236
22.3 Protecting cables 237
22.3.1 Synthetic rubber sleeves 237
22.3.2 Heat Shrink Sleeving 237
22.3.3 Wrapping 238
22.3.4 Rubber beading & grommets 238
22.3.5 Conduits 238
22.3.6 Cable seals 238
23. Terminating cables 240
23.1 Crimped terminations 240
23.1.1 Crimping ring, tag and spade type terminations 240
23.1.2 Erma crimping machine 249
23.1.3 Crimping of connector pins & sockets 250
23.1.4 Terminating screened cables 252
23.2 Soldering 259
23.2.1 Soldering Irons 259
23.2.2 Solder 260
23.2.3 Flux 260
23.2.4 Heat Sinks 261
23.2.5 Anti-Wicking tool 261
23.2.6 Soldering procedure 262
23.2.7 Inspection of soldered joints 262
23.2.8 Common soldering faults 263
23.2.9 Desoldering methods 264
23.3 Wire-wrapping of electrical connections 266
23.3.1 Types of Wire-Wrap 266
23.3.2 Tools 266
23.3.3 Wire-Wrapping procedure 267
23.3.4 Incorrect Wire-Wrapping 268
23.3.5 Modification and Repairs 268
23.3.6 Methods of inspection 269
24. Interconnecting Cables 270
24.1 Terminal strips 270
24.1.1 SBAC terminal blocks 270
24.1.2 Plessey terminal blocks 271
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24.1.3 Ward Brook terminal blocks 271

24.1.4 Terminal Junction Module 272
24.2 Connectors 273
25. Measuring INSTRUMENTS 285
25.1 Basic moving coil type 285
25.1.2 Principle of operation 287
25.1.3 Damping 288
25.1.4 Parallax error 288
25.1.5 Meter position 289
25.1.6 Extending the meter range 289
25.1.7 Meter loading 290
25.1.8 Ohm’s per volt 291
25.1.9 Measuring resistance 291
25.2 Ratiometer type instruments 293
25.2.1 The Bonding tester 294
25.2.2 The Insulation Resistance tester 296
25.2.3 Carrying out an insulation resistance test 297
25.3 Large commercial aircraft 298
25.3.1 ATA 100 298
25.4 Light aircraft manuals 304
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1. Atomic Structure
1.1 Matter
Matter is defined as anything that occupies space and may be classified in a number
of ways.
1.1.1 States of Matter
There are three normal states of matter:
Solid. A solid has definite mass, volume and shape.
Liquid. A liquid has definite mass and volume but takes the shape of its
container.
Gas.A gas has definite mass but takes the volume and shape of its
container.
1.2 Chemical Classification
From a chemical view we again have three divisions:
Elements. An element is a substance which cannot by any known chemical process
be split into two or more chemically simpler substances.
Eg: Hydrogen; Oxygen; Copper; Iron; Aluminum; carbon.
Compounds. A compound is a substance which contains two or more elements
chemically joined together.
Eg: Water (Hydrogen and Oxygen); Salt (Sodium and Chlorine); Sulphuric Acid
(Hydrogen, Oxygen and Sulphur).
Mixtures. A mixture consists of elements or compounds which are brought together
by a physical process.
Eg: Salt and Sand; Earth and Sawdust; Carbon and Iron Filings.
However, material may also be classified according to the particles it contains, this is
the atomic view of matter. This view gives us a better understanding of electrical
and electronic phenomena and is the view we shall concentrate upon.
1.3 Molecules
Let us take a piece of matter, for example, a drop of water and see what happens
when it is sub-divided into smaller and smaller portions.
The drop is first cut in half, each half drop-let halved and so on indefinitely. The
resulting smaller and smaller droplets will soon become invisible to the naked eye,
but it is known what happens if the process could be carried far enough; a point
would eventually be reached where the particles of water are of such a size that
further sub-division would split them into the hydrogen and oxygen of which they
are composed. These last minute particles of water are known as molecules and are
the smallest particles of water which can exist alone and still behave chemically as
water.
Every material is built-up from molecules and there are as many different molecules
as there are different substances in existence.
Molecules. The molecule of an element or compound is the smallest particle of it
which can normally exist separately. It consists of one or more atoms, of the same
or different types joined together.
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1.4 Atoms
If a water molecule could be magnified sufficiently it would be seen to consist of
three smaller particles closely bound together. These three particles are ATOMS,
two of hydrogen and one of oxygen.
The water is a compound, the oxygen and hydrogen are elements. Every element
has atoms of its own type. There are 92 naturally occurring elements and therefore
92 types of naturally occurring atoms.
Every molecule consists of atoms. Molecules of elements contain atoms of the same
types, for example the hydrogen molecule consists of two atoms of hydrogen joined
together, the oxygen molecule consists of two atoms of oxygen joined together, but
the molecules of compound contain different atoms joined together.
Most molecules contain more than one atom but some elements can exist as single
atoms. In such a case the atom is also the molecule. For example the Helium atom
is also the Helium molecule.
An atom is the smallest indivisible particle of an element which can take part in a
chemical change.
1.4.1 The Structure of an Atom
The Nucleus and Electrons. Atoms themselves are also composed of even
smaller particles. Let us take an atom of hydrogen as an example. A
hydrogen atom is very small indeed (about 10 –10 in diameter), but if it
could be magnified sufficiently it would be ‘seen’ to consist of a core or
nucleus with a particle called an electron travelling around it in an elliptical
orbit.
The nucleus has a positive charge of
electricity and the electron an equal
negative charge; thus the whole atom
is electrically neutral and the electrical
attraction keeps the electron circling
the nucleus. Atoms of other elements
have more than one electron
travelling around the nucleus, the
nucleus containing sufficient positive charges to balance the number of
electrons.
Protons and Neutrons. The particles in the nucleus each carrying a positive
charge are called protons. In addition to the protons the nucleus usually
contains electrically neutral particles called neutrons. Neutrons have the
same mass as protons whereas electrons are very much smaller – only
1
1836 of the mass of a proton
1.4.2 The Fundamental Particles
Although other atomic particles are known, the three fundamental ones
are:
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Protons. The proton has unit mass and carries a unit positive charge.
Neutron. The neutron has unit mass but no electrical charge.
1
Electron. The electron has only 1836 unit of mass but it carries a unit
negative charge.
Thus although we have 92 types of naturally occurring atoms, they are all
built-up from different numbers of these three fundamental particles.
Thus our picture of the structure of matter is as shown below.
1.4.3 Particle function
Material
Molecule
Atoms
Hundreds of different kinds
Protons Neutrons Electrons

1.4.3.1 Protons
The number of protons in an atom determines the kind of material:
eg.
Hydrogen 01 proton
Helium 02 protons
Lithium 03 protons
Beryllium 04 protons
Copper 29 protons
Uranium 92 protons
The number of protons is referred to a the atomic number, thus the atomic
number of copper is 29.
1.4.3.2 Neutrons
The neutron simply adds to the weight of the nucleus and hence the atom.
There is no simple rule for determining the number of neutrons in any
atom. In fact atoms of the same kind can contain different numbers of
neutrons. For example chlorine may contain 18 – 20 neutrons in its
nucleus.
The atoms are chemically indistinguishable and are called isotopes. The
weight of an atom is due to the protons and neutrons (the electrons are
negligible in weight), thus the atomic weight is virtually equal to the sum of
the protons and the neutrons.
1.4.3.3 Electrons
The electron orbits define the size or volume occupied by the atom. The
electrons travel in orbits which are many times the diameter of the nucleus
and hence the space occupied by an atom is virtually empty! The electrical
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properties of the atom are determined by how tightly the electrons are
bound by electrical attraction to the nucleus.
1.5 Ions
A neutral atom contains an equal number of positive charges (protons) and negative
charges (electrons). Atoms however do not always exist in the neutral form and it is
possible for atoms to gain and lose electrons.
An atom (or possibly a group of atoms) which loses an electron has lost one of its
negative charges and is therefore left with an excess of one positive charge; it is
called a positive ion. An atom that gains an electron has an excess of negative charge
and is called a negative ion.
1.6 Electrical Materials
Materials which allow an electric current to flow easily are known as conductors and
those which prevent the flow of an appreciable current are known as insulators.
Conductors and insulators are used in electrical circuits to provide paths for and to
control the flow of, electric current. Practically all normal materials are either good
conductors or good insulators. There are, however, a few materials which fall
between these two categories and these are called semiconductors.
Semiconductors will be studied in detail when we begin the electronics phase of the
course.
The best electrical conductor is silver, but for most purposes its high cost is
prohibitive so copper is the standard conductor material. Aluminum is an
alternative, but it is not such a good conductor. Brass, which is harder than copper,
is commonly used for terminals, switches etc. Tungsten and nickel are used in the
construction of lamps and thermionic valves.
1.6.1 Electron Distribution
The atoms of a solid have electrons rotating in orbits around the positive
nucleus. This is true of gases and liquids as well. These orbiting electrons
exist in energy shells or levels.
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The potential energy (energy of position) increases with distance out from
the nucleus. The outermost occupied energy level is called the valence
shell. This is a higher energy level than the energy levels of electrons in the
other shells since the electrons are rotating further from the nucleus.
The electrons in the valence shell can most easily pass from one atom to
another and thus constitute an electric current. Furthermore, the valence
electrons are the ones that go into chemical reactions, or combinations,
with other atoms.
When an outside influence such as an electronic field or addition of heat is
applied a valence electron may acquire sufficient energy to jump through a
forbidden (energy) gap and on into the conductor band where it is free of
any influence of the positive nucleus and becomes a carrier of electricity,
ready to take the place of another electron that has just left its own atom,
in the same manner.
1.6.2 Ionization
If the amount of external energy is large enough the valence electron can
gain sufficient kinetic energy (energy of movement) to be removed
completely from its atomic orbit and may not be replaced by another
accelerated electron. This process is known as ionization, since an atom
which now contains one more proton than can be neutralized by the
remaining electrons is a positive ion. Gas-filled devices such as Neon tubes
make use of this process. In a solid where atoms are close together, simple
ionization does not occur as with individual items.
1.6.3 Energy Levels
The energy levels, measured in electron volts (e.v.) in which orbiting
electrons exist comply with a law of physics which states that energy can
be given to electrons only in discrete amounts (quanta) which means that
there are energy values that an electron cannot acquire. From this it can
be deducted that there is a forbidden energy gap between each of the
allowed energy bands K to O.
The width of the forbidden energy gap between the top of the valence
band and the bottom of the conduction band determine the electrical
conducting properties of materials.
1.6.4 Conductors
Elements with 1 or 2 electrons in their outer orbits readily transfer them
from atom to atom, because there is an overlap between the valence and
conduction bands. Silver and copper elements are good conductors.
1.6.5 Insulators
Elements with 6 to 8 valence electrons cannot have electrons-in the
conduction bands because the forbidden gap is to large. Sulphur and
rubber elements are insulators.
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1.6.6 Semi-Conductors
The elements Germanium and Silicon have four electrons in their valence
shells. In conductivity they lie between good conductors and good
insulators, i.e.; they are semi-conductors.
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2. Static Electricity
If electrons are removed from one material and placed on another or if they are moved
from one region of a material to another we have a separation of charge. The material or
area receiving electrons becomes negatively charged and the material or region having
lost electrons, positively charged. If these accumulations of charge remain stationary
after their transfer then the buildup of charge is referred to as static electricity.
2.1 Fundamental Law of Electrostatics
It is observed that if negatively charged bodies are made to approach each other
there is a force of repulsion between them and similarly with two positively charged
bodies. If however a positively charged body is brought close to a negatively
charged body they attract each other. Hence:
Like Charges Repel, Unlike Charges Attract.
2.2 Unit of Charge
The charge on an electron is very small, therefore a more practical unit of charge
called a Coulomb, has been chosen:
One Coulomb = 6.29 x 1018 electrons
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3. Electrical Terminology
3.1 Voltage
Voltage is the electrical equivalent of mechanical potential. If a person drops a rock
from the first story of a building, the velocity it will reach when dropped will be fairly
small. However, if the rock is dropped from the twentieth floor, it will have reached
a much greater velocity on reaching the ground. On the twentieth floor the rock had
much more potential energy.
The potential energy of an electrical supply is given by its voltage. The greater the
voltage of a supply source, the greater it’s potential to produce a current flow. Thus,
a 115 volt supply has 115 times the potential to produce a current flow than a 1 volt
supply.
3.1.1 Potential
If one coulomb of electrons is added to a body and one joule of work has
been done, then the body will acquire of potential of – 1 volt. If the
electrons had been removed, then the body would have acquired a
potential of +1 volt. The unit of potential is the volt.
3.1.2 Potential Difference
When charges move from one point to another, it is not the actual values
of potential at those points which are Important, but the potential different
(pd) through which the charge has travelled. Just as lifting weight in the
gymnasium, the height above sea level is not important, but the distance
between the gym floor and the height of one’s body. In cases where an
actual level of potential is required, the zero of potential is taken as Earth
and whenever the potential at a point is given, it means the difference in
potential between the point and the earth’s surface.
If one coulomb of electricity requires one joule of work to move it between
two points, then there is a potential difference of 1 volt between them
If a current flows round a circuit, then a potential difference must exist
between any two points in that circuit and each point in the circuit must be
at a different potential. However because there is very little opposition to
current flow in conducting wires, very little potential difference is required
to push the current along the wires and it is normally assumed to be zero.
Whenever the opposition to current flow is not negligible, then a potential
different exists across that component to push the electrons through the
device.
The converse is also true, if no current is flowing, then no potential
difference exists. The larger the potential difference the larger the current.
3.1.3 Electromotive Force – EMF
To make use of electricity by provision of an electric current, the potential
different must be maintained. That is, the positive and negative charge
must be continuously replenished. A cell (or battery) uses chemical energy
to maintain the potential difference.
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Another device used for this purpose is the generator, which uses electro-
mechanical energy to maintain the potential difference. The potential
difference across the terminals of the source (cell, battery or generator)
when it is not supplying current, is called Electromotive Force (EmF), since
this is a measure of the force available to push electrons around the circuit.
In a circuit with a current flowing, the potential difference across the
terminals of the source is always less than the EmF and is referred to as the
terminal voltage.
3.2 Current
The SI unit of current is the ampere (A). Although it is known that electric current is
a flow of electrons, this flow cannot be measured directly.
3.2.1 Movement of Charge
Although electric current is referred to as the flow of electrons through a
conductor, it should be noted that more exactly, any movement of electric
charge constitutes an electric current. Thus, passage of electricity may
occur through a:
 Conductor such as metal, due to the movement of the loosely held
outer electrons of the atoms.
 Vacuum or gas, due to the movement of electrons.
 Gas, due to the movement of the ionised gas molecules.
 Liquid, due to the ionisation of certain molecules, particularly those of
acids and salts in solution (e.g. Electrolytes).
The ampere may be defined in terms of the mechanical units of force and
length, a more helpful picture is that of moving electrons. When a current
of one ampere is flowing in a conductor, one coulomb (6.29 x 1018
electrons) of charge passes any point in the conductor every second.
The ampere is thus a measure if the rate of flow of electrons.
The Coulomb and the Ampere
Since:
 One coulomb = 6.29 x 1018 electrons
 One ampere = a rate of flow of 6.29 x 1018 electrons per second,
Then one ampere = one coulomb per second
i.e. Ampere = Coulomb Q
or I 
Seconds T
3.2.2 Conventional Flow
An applied emf causes directional flow. Using conventional flow the charge
carriers are considered to be positive, that is they leave the positive
terminal of a supply and return to the negative terminal.
This form of flow was decided upon before anybody knew exactly what
‘current flow’ was, however it is still widely used in Britain and will be
assumed throughout the course, unless stated otherwise.
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3.2.3 Electron Flow

It is now known that current flow is a movement of negatively charged
particles. I.e., electrons. Electrons flow from the negative terminal to the
positive terminal. This form of flow is referred to as electron flow and is
used extensively in the United States.
3.3 Resistance
An electric current is a flow of free electrons through a conductor. The size of
current flowing through a conductor for a given applied voltage depends on:
 The number of free electrons.
 The opposition to free movement of the electrons caused by the structure of the
material.
These two factors taken together give an effective opposition to current flow which
is called resistance. To simplify matters it is usual to ignore the second factor and
equate good conductors to a large number of free electrons and poor conductors to
fewer free electrons. Hence, a good conductor is a material which has low
resistance, i.e. a large number of free electrons, and allows a large current to flow.
Conversely a poor conductor has a high resistance, i.e. few free electrons and allows
only a small current to flow for the same applied voltage. Because the value of the
current flowing is determined by the resistance in the circuit, current flow can be
controlled by varying the resistance.
Even the best conductors have resistance.
3.3.1 Factors Affecting Resistance
The four factors that affect the resistance of a wire conductor are:
 Material. Some materials conduct better than others.
  Length . Resistance is directly proportional to length thus if the
length is doubled (other factors remaining constant), resistance is
doubled.
 Cross Sectional Area (A). Resistance is inversely proportional to A.
Thus if the cross sectional area is doubled, resistance is halved.
 Temperature. Temperature affects the number of free electrons and
hence resistance.
3.3.2 Units of Resistance
Resistance is measured in ohms, symbol  (omega). The resistance of a
piece of material is one ohm if a potential difference of one volt applied
across it causes a current of one ampere to flow.
3.4 Conductance and Conductivity
Also, the conductance, G of a material is the reciprocal of its resistance and is;
1 1 a
G    
R /a 
The conductivity of a material is the reciprocal of it’s resistively. It is given the Greek
symbol  (sigma) and has the units siemens per metre (s/m).
Thus at 0C copper has a conductivity of;
1 1
    64  52  106 s/m
 1 55  10- 8 21

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Conductance and conductivity are rarely used in the course, but a mention is
required.
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4. Production of Electricity
Very large amounts of electrical energy lie dormant in the atoms of every speck of
material in the universe. Whilst the atoms remain electrically balanced however, this
electricity cannot be put to any practical use. What is needed is some form of external
energy that will separate the electrons from their nuclei. In this way, the external energy
that is applied will give rise to electrical energy.
There are six sources of external energy that are capable of separating the electrons from
their nuclei, these are friction, pressure, magnetism, heat, light and chemical action.
4.1 By Friction
Static electricity that is the separation and build-up of charge is an everyday
phenomenon that is often caused by friction – the physical stripping of electrons
from one body and depositing on another. Early examples in science were the
rubbing of a glass rod (which loses electrons and gains a positive charge) with a silk
stocking! ( gains electrons, receives negative charge) and the rubbing of an ebonite
rod (receives negative charge) with cats fur (becomes positively charged). Everyday
examples are:
 Combing the hair (dry). The comb attracts the individual hairs and the hairs
repel each other and stand on end.
 Removing a shirt (especially nylon). The shirt crackles and sparks may be seen,
the shirt is also attracted to the body.
 The receiving of ‘electric shock’ from cars (also aircraft) when touching them on
the outside. Here the charge has been produced by the friction of air passing
around the vehicle.
 The rapid collection of dust by records. The dust is attracted by the charge built
up on the record produced by friction of handling and playing.
 Lightning flash is a result of the build-up of static electricity in clouds.
Although not used to produce electricity for any aircraft systems, static electricity is
generated by friction as the aircraft moves through the air and will therefore be
considered at various points throughout the course.
4.2 By Pressure
Certain crystals and semiconductors produce an emf between two opposite faces
when the mechanical pressure on them is either increased or decreased (the polarity
of the emf is reversed when the pressure changes from an increase to a decrease).
This emf is known as the piezoelectric emf.
This effect is used in a number of devices including semi-conductor strain gauges
and vibration sensors. As the mechanical pressure on the crystal is altered, a varying
voltage which is related to the pressure is produced by the crystal. The voltage can
be as small as a fraction of a volt or as large as several thousand volts depending on
the crystal material and the pressure. Aircraft systems employing the piezoelectric
effect generally only produce very small emf’s, the very high voltages produced by
materials such as lead zirconate titanate are used in ignition systems for gas ovens
and gas fires.
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4.3 By Magnetism
Magnetism itself is not used as the direct source of external energy. In a manner
which will be studied in great detail later in the course, large amounts of electrical
energy are produced by machines called generators. Energy is used to drive the
generator, which when it turns, makes use of the properties of magnetism to
produce the external energy necessary to break the electrons away from their nuclei
and so make it possible for electric current to flow.
4.4 By Heat
The Seebeck effect – the thermocouple. When two different metals are brought
into contact with one another, it is found that electrons can leave one of the metals
more easily than they can leave the other metal. This is because of the difference in
what is known as the work function of the two metals. Since electrons leave one
metal and are gained by the other, a potential difference exists between the two
metals; thus the emf is known as the contact potential or contact emf.
If two metals, say copper and iron, are joined at two points as shown in the diagram
above, and both junctions are at the same temperature, the contact potentials
cancel each other out and no current flows in the loop of wire. However, Thomas
Johann Seebeck (1770 –1831) discovered that if the two junctions are kept at
different temperatures, there is a drift of electrons around the circuit, that is to say,
current flows.
The magnitude of the voltage produced by this method is small – only a few
millivolts per degree centigrade – but it is sufficient to be measured. The current
flow is a measure of the difference in temperature between the ‘hot’ junction and
the ‘cold’ junction.
Each junction is known as a thermocouple and if a number of thermocouples are
connected in series so that alternate junctions are ‘hot’ and the other junctions are
‘cold’, the total emf is increased; this arrangement is known as a thermopile.
On aircraft, thermocouples are used for temperature measurement and will be
examined in more detail at a later date.
4.5 By Light
The Photovoltaic Cell or Solar Cell. A photovoltaic cell generates an emf when light
falls onto it. Several forms of photovoltaic cell exist, one of the earliest types being
the selenium photovoltaic cell in which a layer of selenium is deposited on iron and
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any light falling on the selenium produces an emf between the selenium and the
iron.
Modern theory shows that the junction at the interface between the two forms,
what is known as a semi-conductor p-n junction in which one of the materials is p-
type and the other is n-type. The most efficient photovoltaic cells incorporate semi-
conductor p-n junctions in which one of the regions is a very thin layer (about 1m
thick) through which light can pass without significant loss of energy. When the light
reaches the junction of the two regions it causes electrons and holes to be released,
to give the electrovoltaic potential between the two regions.
A better understanding of this action will be obtained later in the course when semi-
conductor materials and devices are studied.
4.6 By Chemical Action
The final method of producing electricity is by chemical action. It is the particular
kind of chemical action that takes place in ‘electric cells’ and ‘batteries’ which is put
to practical use in the production of electricity.
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5. Cells & Batteries

To study electrical principles further we require a source of emf. Although an emf can be
produced by any of the six methods discussed above, large amounts of useable power can
only be produced chemically or by generation. Generation requires a more in depth study
of magnetism and therefore cells and batteries will be studied first.
On an aircraft the battery may be used for engine starting, but far more importantly, the
battery is the source of emergency power when the generator fails. Although aircraft
battery systems and servicing will be studied at a later date, battery principles and battery
construction will be studied now and will not be repeated.
5.1 Principles
A Cell is a portable device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy. A
group of interconnected cells is known as a battery. Cells operate on a principle of
the exchange of charges between dissimilar metals.
5.1.1 Cell & Battery Symbols
The circuit symbols for cells and batteries are shown below. To identify the
polarity of the terminals, a long thin line is used to represent the positive
terminal and a short thick line the negative terminal. Sometimes the
terminal voltage is indicated.
5.1.2 Construction & Chemical Action

In cells, an electrolyte separates two charge collecting materials called
electrodes, to which external connections are
made. The electrolyte pushes electrons onto
one of the plates and takes them off the
other. This action results in an excess of
electrons, or a negative charge, on one plate
and a loss of electrons, or a positive charge,
on the other plate.
Electrolytes are chemical solutions
manufactured to allow the generation and
free movement of both types of ions, and are
normally acid or alkaline pastes or liquids.
The action of the electrolyte in carrying
electrons from one plate to the other is
actually a chemical reaction between the electrolyte and the two plates.
This action changes chemical energy into electrical charges on the cell
plates and terminals.
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With nothing connected to the cell terminals, the electrons would be

pushed onto the negative plate until there was no more room. At the same
time the electrolyte would take electrons from the positive plate to make
up for those it had pushed onto the negative plate. Both plates would then
be fully charged and the movement of electrons would cease.
If a wire were connected between the negative and positive terminals of
the cell, electrons on the negative terminal would leave the terminal and
travel through the wire to the positive terminal. The electrolyte would
carry more electrons across from the positive plate to the negative plate.
Whilst the electrolyte is carrying electrons you would see the negative
plate being used up and you would see bubbles of gas at the positive plate.
5.1.3 Primary &Secondary Cells
In a primary cell, current will continue to flow until chemical action had
dissolved the negative plate into the electrolyte, at which point the cell
would be exhausted and of no further use.
In a secondary cell, the chemical action that takes place whilst the cell is
producing a current flow is reversible, enabling the cell to be re-used. The
process of reversing the chemical action is referred to as charging and
entails passing a current through the cell in the opposite direction to the
discharge current.
5.1.4 Cell Emf
The size of a cell has no bearing on the emf that it will produce, the
generated emf being determined solely by the materials used in its
construction. Another point to note is that the potential difference, or
voltage measured across the terminals of a cell, is not the same as the emf
generated by the cell. The terminal voltage of a cell depends on the:
 internal resistance of the cell.
 size of the discharge current.
 charge state of the cell.
As a general rule, whenever a cell is providing current, the terminal voltage
will be less than the cell emf. The larger the discharge current, the greater
the difference between the cell emf and its terminal voltage.
All sources of electricity have internal resistance which affects the terminal
voltage, this will be examined in more detail later in the notes.
5.1.5 Cell Capacity
The amount of electrical energy that a cell can provide from new to the end
of its useful voltage on load is called the cell capacity and is quoted in
Ampere-hours (A-h).
Capacity varies with the amount of current drawn from the cell, the greater
the current the lower the capacity, therefore capacity is normally quoted at
a standard rate. The 1hr rate is the internationally accepted standard for
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Nickel Cadmium cells, with 10 hr or 20 hr rates being used for Lead Acid
cells.
A cell quoted at 40A-h at the 10 hr rate will provide 4 Amps continuously
for 10 hours.
A battery quoted at 40A-h at the 1 hr rate will provide 40 Amps
continuously for 1 hour.
A 40 A-h cell will only be able to provide a discharge current of 80 amps for
approximately 20 minutes, not 30 minutes as may be expected by
calculation. Similarly, it will be able to supply a discharge current of 20
amps for longer than the expected 2 hrs.
The capacity of a cell is also affected by its age, the older a cell, the lower
its capacity, therefore the only way of determining actual capacity is to
measure it.
5.1.6 Interconnection of Cells
Cells may be connected in series, parallel or any combination of the two in
order to form a battery. When cells are connected to form a battery they
should be of similar construction, and have the same terminal voltage,
internal resistance and capacity.
Series connection. When connected in series:
The battery voltage is the total of the individual cell voltages.
The battery resistance is equal to the total of the individual cell resistances.
The battery capacity is the same as the capacity of a single cell.
Parallel connection. When connected in parallel:
The battery voltage is the same as the voltage of a single cell.
The battery resistance is equal to the parallel total of the cell resistances.
The battery capacity is equal to the total of the individual cell capacities.
These rules can also be applied when connecting batteries together in
series, parallel or any combination of the two.
5.1.7 Lead Acid Batteries
Lead acid cells have a nominal voltage of 2 Volts, therefore a typical 24V
aircraft battery would consist of 12 cells connected in series. The active
material in the positive plates is Lead Peroxide (Pb02) the negative plates,
Spongy Lead (Pb). The electrolyte is dilute sulphuric acid (2H2SO4).
5.1.8 Conventional Construction
There are two forms of Lead Acid battery construction, conventional and
solid block, often referred to as
a Varley type battery.
In the conventional battery the
plates consist of lead grids into
which the active materials are
pressed. The positive and
negative plates are then
interleaved and connected to a
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lug that forms both a mechanical support and the terminal.

Cells are generally constructed with an additional negative plate, making
both outside plates negative. This ensures that chemical action takes place
on both sides of each positive plate. When chemical action only takes place
on one side of a positive plate it tends to buckle.
The plate arrangement is then inserted into a composite material container
which is fitted with a lid. The inside of the container is ribbed to provide
additional support for the plates, which are raised clear of the bottom of
the container to prevent shorting by any sediment that forms.
To provide further support for the plates and to ensure they cannot touch,
separators are fitted, these were originally cedar wood but modern
batteries use micro-porous plastic materials.
Each cell is fitted with a special non spill valve that allows gasses to escape,
but prevents the spillage of electrolyte, this valve can be removed for
checking and adjusting the electrolyte level.
The electrolyte used is sulphuric acid diluted with pure distilled water, the
specific gravity of the electrolyte used is determined by the manufacturer,
however, it is generally lower than 1300.
5.1.9 Solid Block Type Construction
In the solid block type battery the electrolyte is completely absorbed into a
compressed block consisting of porous plates and separators.
The plates are completely supported and therefore a more porous active
material paste can be used, this gives better absorption and an enhanced
electrochemical activity.
The support given to the plates means practically no distortion and no
shedding, therefore no sludge gap is required, all the space inside the cells
being used for the plates.
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All of these advantage result in a battery that is stronger, less susceptible

to vibration damage and has a higher capacity to weight ratio than its
conventional counterpart.
5.1.10 Chemical Action
When the lead acid battery is delivering current, the sulphuric acid breaks
up into Hydrogen ions (H2) carrying a positive charge and Sulphate ions
(SO4) carrying a negative charge. The SO4 ions combine with the lead plate
(Pb) and form lead sulphate (PbSO4). At the same time they give up their
negative charge, thus creating an excess of electrons on the negative plate.
The H2 ions go to the
positive plate and combine
with the oxygen of the
lead peroxide (PbO2)
forming water (H2O),
during the process they
take electrons from the
positive plate. The lead of
the lead peroxide
combines with some of
the SO4 ions to form lead
sulphate on the positive
plate.
The result of this action is a deficiency of electrons on the positive plate
and an excess of electrons on the negative plate.
When a circuit is connected to the battery, electrons flow from the
negative plate to the positive plate. This process will continue until both
plates are coated with lead sulphate. The lead sulphate is highly resistive,
and it is mainly the formation of the lead sulphate which gradually lowers
the battery capacity until it is discharged.
During charging, current is passed through the battery in a reverse
direction. The SO4 ions are driven back into solution in the electrolyte,
where they combine with the H2 ions of the water, thus forming sulphuric
acid. The plates are thus returned to their original compositions.
The sulphuric acid is effectively used up as the battery is discharged, and
returned to the electrolyte as it is charged, a test of the specific gravity of
the electrolyte will give a good indication of the state of charge of the
battery.
5.1.10.1 A simple overview of the charge and discharge characteristics
During discharge the plates are converted into lead sulphate, the water
content of the electrolyte increases, the internal resistance of the cell
increases and the terminal voltage decreases.
By passing a current through the battery in the opposite direction these
effects are reversed. The plates are converted back to their original form,
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the water content of the electrolyte decreases, the internal resistance

decreases and the terminal voltage increases. The process of recharging
takes approximately 8 to 10 hours.
During most of the charge and discharge cycle the battery terminal voltage
remains constant at 1.95V, it therefore gives no indication as to the
battery’s state of charge.
The specific gravity of the electrolyte however changes at a regular rate as
the battery is charged, or discharged and can therefore be used to
determine the battery’s state of charge.
5.1.11 Voltage & Specific Gravity Characteristics
The voltage and specific gravity figures for a lead acid battery are:
 Fully charged and still connected to the charging board charge:
2.5 to 2.7 Volts 1270 to 1280 SG
 Fully charged and off charge:
2.2 to 2.5 Volts 1270 to 1280 SG
 Fully Discharged:
1.8 Volts 1150 SG
The battery will be damaged if allowed to go below the above discharged
values.
5.1.12 Common Lead Acid Battery Faults
Careful treatment of lead acid batteries prevents damage and early failure,
however, some common faults associated with lead acid batteries are:
Sulphation is the formation of hard, permanent lead sulphate on the plates
and appears as random greyish white patches. Sulphation causes an
increase in the internal resistance of the battery, leading to possible
overheating and buckling of the plates.
Sulphation is caused by continually undercharging the battery or by
discharging below 1.8 Volts or 1150 SG and is severe there is no cure,
however if mild it can sometimes be cured by giving the battery a long low
charge.
Buckling is twisting and bending of the plates. Because the active material
is squeezed out of the plates the capacity of the battery may be reduced, if
severe it can lead to internal shorting of the battery.
Buckling is caused by excessive charge and discharge currents being
imposed on the battery and by the effects of sulphation.
There is no cure for buckling only prevention.
Sedimentation is the collection of discarded active material from the plates
at the bottom of the cell.
Sedimentation may result in shorting of the plates and complete loss of
capacity, slight shedding is normal in a well maintained battery.
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5.2 Nickel Cadmium Batteries

5.2.1 Construction
The plates of a nickel cadmium battery are made by sintering a nickel
plated steel screen with nickel carbonyl powder. The resultant plaques are
then impregnated with the active materials, Nickel salts on the positive,
cadmium salts on the negative. The plaques are then placed in electrolyte
and subjected to a small current to convert them to their final form.
After washing and drying the plaques are cut into plates, each one having a
nickel tab welded to it. The plates are then stacked alternately to produce a
cell.
Whilst producing the stack a continuous separator is wound between the
plates to prevent them shorting.
Terminals are then welded to the plates and the stack-up is inserted into its
container, which is sealed and pressure tested.
The separator used is normally a triple layer type, one layer of cellophane,
two of woven nylon cloth. Cellophane is used because it has a low
resistance and is a good barrier material, it prevents metal particles from
shorting the plates whilst allowing current to flow. The cellophane also acts
as a gas barrier, preventing oxygen given off by the positive plate during
overcharge, from passing to the negative plates. At the negative plates the
oxygen combines with the cadmium, reducing the cell voltage and
producing heat.
The electrolyte, a solution of potassium hydroxide and distilled water, with
a SG of between 1240 and 1300, is then injected into the cell under a
vacuum. Fitted to the top of each cell is a special vent that allows the
escape of gas but prevents electrolyte spillage.
In a typical Ni-Cad battery the cells are mounted in a metal case that
incorporates 2 venting outlets, carrying handles, a quick release connector
and a lid. Each cell is separated from its neighbour by its moulded plastic
case and electrically connected by nickel plated steel links between the
terminals.
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5.2.2 Chemical Action

As the battery discharges, hydroxide ions (OH) from the electrolyte
combine with the cadmium in the negative plates and release electrons to
the plate. The cadmium is converted to cadmium hydroxide during the
process. At the same time, hydroxide ions from the nickel hydroxide
positive plates go into the electrolyte carrying extra electrons with them.
Thus electrons are removed from the positive plate and delivered to the
negative plate during discharge.
The composition of the electrolyte remains a solution of potassium
hydroxide because hydroxide ions are added to the electrolyte as quickly as
they are removed. For this reason the specific gravity of the electrolyte
remains essentially constant at any state of charge. It is therefore
impossible to use the specific gravity as an indication of the charge state of
the battery.
When the battery is charged, the hydroxide ions are caused to leave the
negative plate and enter the electrolyte. Thus the cadmium hydroxide of
the negative plate is converted back to metallic cadmium. Hydroxide ions
from the electrolyte recombine with the nickel hydroxide of the positive
plates, and the active material is brought to a higher state of oxidation. This
process continues until all the active material of the plates have been
converted. If charging is continued, the battery will be in overcharge, and
the water in the electrolyte will be decomposed by electrolysis. Hydrogen
will be released at the negative plates and oxygen at the positive plates.
This combination of gases is highly explosive.
5.2.2.1 A simple overview of the charge and discharge characteristics
During charging and discharging the electrolyte acts only as an ionised
conductor, transporting electrons from one plate to the other, its specific
gravity remaining constant.
On discharge the terminal voltage initially falls rapidly and then remains
constant for most of the discharge cycle, dropping rapidly again when the
battery is nearly fully discharged.
When charged, the terminal voltage initially rises rapidly and then settles
to a gradual increase. A second rapid rise takes place as the battery reaches
the fully charged condition, at this time gassing takes place, hydrogen being
released at the negative plates, oxygen at the positive plates, and this
combination of gases is explosive. Prolonged gassing should be avoided as
it reduces the water content of the electrolyte and causes overheating of
the battery, a slight amount of gassing, however, is necessary to ensure
charging is complete.
The terminal voltage remains constant for most of the batteries life and the
specific gravity of the electrolyte remains unchanged, the only way of
determining the state of charge of the battery therefore, is to carry out a
full charge followed by a capacity test.
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During discharge the plates absorb electrolyte to such an extent that the
level may disappear from view. As the battery is charged, the electrolyte is
forced back out of the plates, a point to note when topping up the cells.
5.2.3 Advantages &Disadvantages
A Nickel Cadmium battery has the following advantages over a Lead Acid
battery:
 They have a longer life
 The terminal voltage remains almost constant during the discharge
cycle
 They can be charged and discharged at much higher currents without
causing cell damage
 They can be discharged to a very low voltage without causing cell
damage
But have the following disadvantages:
 They are far more expensive to buy and maintain
 Each cell has a lower voltage, therefore more cell are required to
produce a battery.
 They are more susceptible to thermal runaway.
5.2.4 Thermal Runaway
The battery looses heat by conduction and radiation. Provided the rate of
heat loss is greater than the rate at which heat is generated there is no
problem.
Should the battery not be able to loose heat so quickly it will start to get
hot. As its temperature goes up the internal resistance decreases and the
current increases. This increase in current leads to an increase in chemical
activity within the battery, this generates more heat and the cycle repeats.
Nickel Cadmium batteries are very susceptible to thermal runaway which
can result in the battery boiling, or even being totally destroyed.
5.3 Small Alkaline Cells
Hermetically sealed Ni-Cad cells are produced in the same size and shape as their
primary counterparts. They are small, portable and maintenance free, but have the
added advantage of being rechargeable.
The plates are constructed in a similar manner to the larger Ni-Cad cells, the
separator being a thin porous material. The electrolyte is fully absorbed by the
plates and separator in a similar manner to the Varley type cell. With steel or plastic
being used for the case.
Special vents are fitted to each cell, these allow the escape of gas but prevent the
entry of oxygen and electrolyte leakage.
The nominal voltage of a fully charged cell is 125 volts and these can then be
interconnected to form batteries.
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A 10 hour rate capacity is generally used with an end of life voltage of 1.1 volts, it is
possible to discharge the cells further but damage will occur if allowed to go below 1
volt.
Charging should be carried out using a constant current at the 10 hour rate, total
charge taking approximately 14 hrs, the end of charge “on charge” voltage being
145 volts. Overcharging should be avoided, it produces heat and shortens the long
term life of the cell.
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6. Ohm’s Law
So far you have been introduced to the concepts of electric current (as a movement of
free electrons through a conducting material), to voltage (or potential) and potential
difference and to the resistance to current flow by any conducting material. The
relationship which exists between these quantities was discovered by a physicist called
Ohm and is now referred to as Ohm’s Law. This is the most fundamental law in all
electric’s and electronics.
Ohm’s law states: For a fixed metal conductor, the temperature and other conditions
remaining constant, the current through it is proportional to the potential difference
between its ends.
Mathematically this is expressed as:
IV
Thus the ratio V

 Constant
I
and this ratio is called the resistance of the conductor.
Hence we may write V = R where V is in volts
I I is in amperes
R is in ohms
6.1 Transposition of Ohm’s Law
By transposition it is seen that Ohm’s law may be written in three forms:
R thus resistance may be calculated if V and I are known.

=
V
I = thus current may be calculated if V and R are known.

V
thus voltage may be calculated if I and R are known.

V
=
IR
6.2 The Ohm’s Law Triangle
One simple way of memorizing Ohm’s law is the Ohm’s law triangle – see below.
I
R
By covering up the unknown quantity, the relationship between the remaining two
is directly observed. You may check this against the equations in the above sub-
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chapter. This is not necessary if you are able to remember one form of the equation
and derive the other two directly by transposition.
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7. Electrical Measuring Instruments

Quantities of electrical current, voltage and resistance are measured using instruments
called meters. Until the advent of electronic displays and semiconductor components,
meters comprised a movement, working on the motor principle, driving a needle across a
scale. These types of meters were called 'moving coil meters' or 'analogue meters'.
Moving coil meters will be studied in some depth later in this module, because the
principle behind their operation is the same as the principle employed in many aircraft
instruments.
Modern meters are referred to as a 'digital meters' or 'digital voltmeters', more commonly
abbreviated to DVM's, although they measure far more than just voltage. Digital meters
are cheaper, more reliable, more robust and generally considered more accurate than
their analogue counterparts, although some would argue that, used correctly, an
analogue instrument is just as accurate.
It is essential that you are confident in the use of both types of meter. There are instances
where a digital meter cannot be used, leaving no choice but to revert to an analogue
meter.
7.1 Connecting Meters to a Circuit
Irrespective of whether the meter is digital or analogue, the way that it is connected
to the circuit under test is the same.
7.1.1 Voltmeters
Voltmeters are used to measure emf's and more commonly potential
differences. The two probes of the meter are therefore connected to the
two points between which the potential difference is required.
If the potential at A with respect to B is
required, the red lead is connected to
point A, the black lead point B.
If the potential at B with respect to A is
required, the red lead is connected to
point B, the black lead point A.
If the potential between a point and Earth
or ground is required. The red lead is connected to the point and the black
lead is connected to ground or Earth.
7.1.2 Ammeters
Ammeters are used to measure current flow, as such they need to be
inserted in series with the circuit under test so that the current to be
measured flows through the meter. This means the circuit must be broken.
To connect an ammeter, the power
must be switched off. The circuit is
broken at the point where the current is
to be measured. The meter is then
inserted into the circuit in such a way
that, 'conventional current' flows into
the red lead and out of the black lead.
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Once the meter is connected, circuit power is restored and the

measurement taken.
To disconnect the meter, the circuit power must again be switched off.
Once the meter is removed from the circuit, the circuit must be
reconnected.
7.1.3 Ohmmeters
The use of ohmmeters is somewhat more
involved. Most importantly when
measuring resistance the circuit power
must be switched off, power is derived
from within the instrument. Secondly, great
care must be taken to ensure there are no
parallel paths that would affect the
measurement. This is generally best
confirmed by removing the component or
device, or by disconnecting one end of it from the circuit concerned.
Thirdly, it is essential that an analogue meter is zeroed before it is used.
To measure resistance, the meter is simply connected across the
component or device to be measured. The polarity of the leads is not
important unless semiconductor type devices are present. (this will be
discussed in a later module).
When making resistance measurement, care must be taken to ensure the
correct range is used. It is easy to mistake a low resistance value for a zero
reading or short circuit.
7.1.4 Analogue Multimeters
Even the most basic analogue multimeter can prove to be invaluable when
in the hands of an experienced user. Simple measurements of voltage,
current and resistance can provide useful information on the state of
almost any circuit. What matters, of course, is the interpretation put on
the readings obtained. To get the best from such a simple instruments it is
not only necessary to select an appropriate measurement function and
range, but also to be aware of the limitation of the instrument and the
effect that it might, or might not, have on the circuit under investigation.
The diagram below shows the controls and display provided by a simple
analogue multimeter. The range selector allows you to select from a total
of twenty ranges and six measurement functions. These functions are:
 DC voltage (DC, V)
 DC current (DC, mA)
 AC voltage (AC, V)
 Resistance (OHM)
 Continuity test (BUZZ)
 Battery check (BAT)
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7.1.5 DC Voltage Measurements

Examples of how to make DC voltage measurements are show in the two
diagrams below. In both cases, the red and black test leads are connected
to the '+' and '-' sockets respectively.
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In the first diagram, the range selector is set to DC, V, 50V. The pointer is
reading just less than 45 on the range that has 50 as its full-scale indication
(note that there are three calibrated voltage scales with maximum
indications of 10V, 50V and 250V respectively). The reading indicated is
thus 45V, approximately.
In the second diagram, the range selector is set to DC, V, 250V. The pointer
is positioned midway between the 50 and 100 scale markings and this
indicates a voltage reading of 75V.
7.1.6 DC Current Measurements
An example of how to make a DC current measurement is shown in the
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diagram below. Once again, the red and black test leads connected to the
'+' and '-' sockets respectively. The range selector is set to DC, 50mA. The
pointer is reading just less than midway between 45 and 50 on the range
that has 50 as its full-scale indication. The actual reading indicated is thus
slightly less than 47.5mA, or approximately 47mA.
7.1.7 DC High-Current Measurement

In common with many simple multimeters, both analogue and digital, the
high current range (e.g. 10A) is not only selected using the range selector
switch but a separate input connection must also be made. The reason for
this is simply that the range switch and associated wiring is not designed to
carry a high current. Instead, the high-current shunt is terminated
separately at its own '10A' socket.
The connections and range selector settings to permit high-current DC
measurement are shown below. The range selector is set to DC, 10A and
the red and black test leads are connected to '10A' and '-' respectively. The
pointer is reading midway between 8 and 10 on the range that has 10 as its
full-scale indication. The actual reading indicated is thus 9A.
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7.1.8 AC Voltage Measurements

An example of how to make AC voltage measurements is shown in the
diagram below. Once again, the red and black test leads are connected to
the '+' and '-' sockets respectively. The range selector is set to AC, 10V.
The pointer is reading midway between 0 and 2 and the indicated reading
is 1V, approximately.
7.1.9 Resistance Measurements

Examples of how to make resistance measurements are shown in the
diagrams below. In all three cases, the red and black test leads are
connected to the '+' and '-' sockets respectively. Before making any
measurements it is absolutely essential to zero the meter. This is achieved
by shorting the test leads together and adjusting the 'zero adj' control until
the meters reads full-scale (i.e., zero on the ohms scale). In the first
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diagram, the range selector is set to OHM,  1. The pointer is reading

midway between 0 and 10 and the resistance indicated is approximately
5.
In the second diagram, the range is set to OHM,  10. The pointer is
reading exactly 30 and the resistance indicated is 30  10 or 300.
In the third diagram, the range selector is set to OHM,  1k. The pointer is
reading exactly 5k and the resistance indicated is 5k  1k or 5M.
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7.1.10 Continuity Testing

An example of how to make continuity tests is shown below. The red and
black test leads are connected to the '+' and '-' terminals respectively. The
range selector is set to BUZZ. When there is a low-resistance path between
the two test probes, an audible buzz will be produced. No meter indication
is produced on the continuity range.
7.1.11 Battery Testing

Several analogue multimeters provide a battery testing facility. The
diagram below shows how to carry out a battery test on a 9V battery (e.g.,
PP3, PP9, etc.). It is important to note that a battery test should not merely
be a measurement of the battery terminal voltage and ideally such a
measurement should be carried out with the battery on-load (i.e. supplying
current to a load resistance within the meter). The range selector is set to
BAT, 9V. The indication on the meter shows that the battery is 'good' (but
will need replacing in the near future).
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7.1.12 DO's & DON'Ts of Using An Analogue Multimeter

 Do ensure that you have selected the correct range and measuring
function before attempting to connect the meter into a circuit.
 Do ensure that the correct polarity of the probes, where appropriate, is
observed before connecting the meter into the circuit.
 Do select a higher range than expected and then progressively increase
the sensitivity as necessary to obtain a meaningful indication.
 Do remember to zero on the ohms range before measuring resistance.
 Do switch the meter to the 'off' position (if one is available) before
attempting to transport the meter.
 Do check and, if necessary, replace the internal batteries regularly.
 Do use properly insulated test leads and prods.
 Don't attempt to measure resistance in a circuit that has the power
applied to it.
 Don't rely on voltage readings made on high-impedance circuits (the
meter's own internal resistance may have a significant effect on the
voltages).
 Don't rely on voltage and current readings made on circuits where high
frequency signals may be present (an analogue meter may produce
readings that are wildly inaccurate or misleading in such circumstances.
 Don't subject the instrument to excessive mechanical shock or
vibration (this can damage the sensitive meter movement).
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7.1.13 Digital Multimeters

Digital multimeters offer a number of significant advantages when
compared with their more humble analogue counterparts. The display
fitted to a digital multimeter usually consists of a 3½ digit seven-segment
display - the '½' simply indicates that the first digit is either blank (zero) or
1. Consequently, the maximum indication on the 2V range will be 1.999V
and this shows that the instrument is capable of offering a resolution of
1mV on the 2V range. The resolution obtained from a comparable
analogue meter would be of the order of 50mV, or so, and thus the digital
instrument provides a resolution which is many times greater than its
analogue counterpart.
The controls and display provided by a simple digital multimeter are shown
in the diagram below. The mode switch and range selector allows you to
select from a total of twenty ranges and eight measurement functions.
These functions are:
 DC voltage (DC, V)
 DC current (DC, A)
 AC voltage (AC, V)
 AC current (AC, A)
 Resistance (OHM)
 Capacitance (CAP)
 Continuity test (buzzer)
 Transistor current gain (hFE)
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7.1.14 DC Voltage Measurements

An example of how to make DC voltage measurements is shown in the
diagram below. The red and black test leads are connected to the 'V-'
and 'COM' sockets respectively. The mode switch and range selector is set
to DC, 200V and the display indicates a reading of 124.5V.
7.1.15 DC Current Measurements
An example of how to make a DC
current measurement is shown
below. Here, the red and black test
leads are connected to the 'mA'
and 'COM' sockets respectively.
The mode switch and range
selectors are set to DC, 200mA, and
the display indicates a reading of
85.9mA.
7.1.16 High Current Measurements

In common with simple
analogue multimeters, the
meter used a shunt which is
directly connected to a separate
'10A) terminal. The diagram
below shows the connections,
mode switch and range selector
settings to permit high-current
DC measurements. The mode
switch and range selectors are
set to DC, 200mA (2A), and the
red and black test leads are connected to '10A' and 'COM' respectively.
The display indicates a reading of 2.99A.
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7.1.17 AC Voltage Measurements

An example of how to make a AC voltage measurement is shown below.
Once again, the red and black test leads are connected to the 'V-' and
'COM' sockets respectively. The mode switch and range selectors are set to
AC, 2V, and the display indicates a reading of 1.736V.
7.1.18 Resistance Measurements

An example of how to make resistance measurements is shown below. As
before, the red and black test leads are connected to the 'V-' and 'COM'
sockets respectively. The mode switch and range selectors are set to OHM,
200, and the meter indicated a reading of 55.8. Note that it is not
necessary to 'zero' the meter by shorting the test probes together before
taking any measurements (as would be the case with an analogue
instrument).
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7.1.19 Capacitor Measurements

Many modern digital multimeters incorporate a capacitance measuring
facility although this may be limited to just one or two ranges. The diagram
below shows how to carry out a capacitance measurement. The capacitor
on test is inserted into the two-way connector marked 'CAP' whilst the
mode switch and range selector controls are set to DC, 200pF. The display
indication shown corresponds to a capacitance of 329pF.
7.1.20 Continuity Testing

An example of how to make continuity (buzzer) tests is shown in the
diagram below. The mode switch and range selectors are set to DC, buzzer
(note that this is indicated by means of an icon on the front panel of the
instrument) and the red and black test leads are connected to the 'V-'
and 'COM' sockets as usual. When there is a low-resistance path between
the two test probes, an audible buzz will be produced. No meter indication
is produced (instead, the meter displays an 'over-range' indication with the
leading digit illuminated).
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7.1.21 DO's & DON'Ts of Using a Digital Multimeter

 Do ensure that you have selected the correct range and measuring
function before attempting to connect the meter into a circuit.
 Do ensure that the correct polarity of the probes, where appropriate, is
observed before connecting the meter into the circuit.
 Do select a higher range than expected and then progressively increase
the sensitivity as necessary to obtain a meaningful indication.
 Do switch the meter to the 'off' position in order to conserve battery
life when the instrument is not being used.
 Do check and, if necessary, replace the internal battery (often a PP3)
regularly.
 Do use properly insulated test leads and probes.
 Do check that a suitably rated fuse is used in conjunction with the
current ranges.
 Don't attempt to measure resistance in a circuit that has the power
applied to it.
 Don't rely on voltage and current readings made on circuits where high
frequency signals may be present (as with analogue instruments, digital
meters may produce readings that are wildly inaccurate or misleading
in such circumstances).
 Don't rely on measurements made when voltage/current is changing or
when a significant amount of AC may be present superimposed on a DC
level.
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8. Resistance & Resistors

8.1 Resistivity
The factors affecting the resistance of a conductor of a given material at constant
temperature are related by the expression:
A
 (length) R
R 
A (cross sectional area)

R  Constant 
A

R Ohms
A
The constant depends on whether the material itself is a good or a poor conductor;
this constant is called ‘resistivity’ of the material. Resistivity has the symbol  (Rho)
and is measured in ohm meters (check this from) and is defined as ‘the resistance
between the ends of a piece of material one metre long which has a cross sectional
area of one square metres (i.e. between the faces of a one metre cube).
Typical values of  at 0C are:
 Silver 1.5 x 10-8  - m
 Copper 1.6 x 10-8  - m
 Manganin 41 x 10-8  - m
 Carbon 7000 x 10-8  - m
8.2 Changes Of Resistance With Temperature
The resistance of all materials changes with changes in temperature. The resistance
of all pure metal increases with temperature. The resistance of electrolytes,
insulators, carbon and semi-conductors decreases with increasing temperatures.
If it is assumed that the resistance change is in proportion to the temperature
change, then the ratio provides an indication of the material behaviour. It is
necessary however, to relate the change of resistance to its initial value. A large
value resistor will change its value more than a small value resistor for the same
temperature change.
Suppose the resistance of a material at 0ºC (to) is Ro
and at same other temperature (t) the resistance is Rt
the change of resistance is Rt - Ro.
But the change of resistance is per unit value of the original resistance is given by;
Rt - Ro
R = R
o
this resistance change ha been brought about by a temperature change t equal to t -
to (to being 0º).
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Hence the change in resistance, caused by a 1ºC change in temperature is;

R Rt - Ro Rt - Ro
T = = Rot
Ro (t - to)
This ratio is called the temperature co-efficient of resistance.
8.3 Temperature Co-Efficient of Resistance
The temperature co-efficient of resistance is defined as;
The Fractional change in resistance from 0ºC, per degree temperature change.
and may be represented graphically as shown below.
The graph is reasonably linear for many materials over a moderate temperature
range (0º - 200ºC).
The units are ºC because the ohms cancel out in the
calculation.
Materials whose resistance increases with increasing
temperature have a positive temperature co-efficient
of resistance.
Materials whose resistance decreases with increasing
temperature have a negative temperature co-
efficient of resistance.
Some materials have very small temperature co-
efficients of resistance and are used where it is
important that the resistance does not change with
temperature. Examples are Manganin and Eureka.
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8.4 Resistors
The electrical component used to introduce resistance into a circuit is called a
resistor. Resistors can be fixed or variable. Symbols used in circuit diagrams are
shown below:
Resistor Type Old Symbol New Symbol

Fixed resistor
Fixed resistor
with fixed
tapping point
Variable resistor
Resistor with
pre-set
adjustment
Voltage divider
(potentiometer)
Pre-set
potentiometer
The physical size of a resistor does not give any clue to the resistance value of the
component. This value must be marked on individual components. Two codes are
currently used to indicate resistor values: a Color Code and a Letter and Digit Code.
8.4.1 Fixed Resistors
Fixed resistors may be:
 Wire wound. Special resistance wire is wound onto a former. The wire
wound resistor can dissipate heat easily and is therefore used when
larger currents are expected (the larger the current the greater the heat
produced). These resistors are usually larger than other types. The
student should note that size does not indicate resistance value, but
depends upon the heat to be dissipated.
 Carbon Composition, Metal Oxide and Metal Film. Resistors made
from carbon composition or from metal films and oxides are usually
small. They are therefore used where the currents are kept small.
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8.4.2 Color Codes

The current method of color code
marking of resistors is the Band
System.
Close to one end of the resistor are
four colored bands (there may
appear to be only three, in this case
the forth band is ‘no color’ – see
diagram below). They are known as
bands 1 – 4. Bands 1 and 2 give the
first two numbers of the resistor
value, band 3 gives the
multiplication factor, i.e. the number of zeros, the fourth band gives the
tolerance, which indicates how close the actual value may be to the stated
value.
Color First band Second band Third band Fourth
(or body) (or tip) (or spot) band
First figure Second figure Multiply by Tolerance
Black 0 0 1 -
Brown 1 1 10 +1%
Red 2 2 100 + 2%
Orange 3 3 1000 -
Yellow 4 4 10,000 -
Green 5 5 100,000 + 0.5%
Blue 6 6 1,000,000 + 0.25%
Violet 7 7 10,000,000 + 0.1%
Grey 8 8 - -
White 9 9 - -
Gold - - 0.1 + 5%
Silver - - 0.01 + 10%
No color - - - + 20%
Certain resistors remain very close to their stated value, despite

temperature changes. These are called ‘high stability’ resistors and this is
shown by a fifth band colored ‘pink’.
High value resistors. High value resistors may have three significant
figures. If the color code is used here, the first three bands represent
figures, the fourth band is the multiplier and the fifth band is the tolerance.
For example, a resistor of value 249,000+ 1% would be coded as shown
below:
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First band Red is 2

Second band Yellow is 4
Third band White is 9
Fourth band Orange is 3 zeros
Fifth band Brown Tolerance + 1%
Note: To avoid possible confusion, the fifth band is 1.5 times to 2 times
wider than the other bands.
8.4.3 Preferred Values and Tolerances
In practical electrical circuits the precise value for a resistor is not usually
critical. It is more economic to produce large tolerance resistors than low
tolerance ones. The number of resistor values required to cover a given
range of resistance depends on the tolerance of the resistors being used.
An example of resistor Preferred Values for 10% is given in the table below.
1 10 100
1.2 12 120
1.5 15 150
1.8 18 180
2.2 22 220
2.7 27 270
3.3 33 330
3.9 39 390
4.7 47 470
5.6 56 560
6.8 68 680
8.2 82 820
Note that the upper and lower tolerance resistance limits of each preferred
value cover the complete range;
eg. 2.2K+ 10% = 1.98K to 2.42K
2.7K+ 10% = 2.43K to 2.97K
3.3K+ 10% = 2.98K to 3.63K
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8.4.4 Letter &Digit Codes

In this code the numbers are printed on the body of the resistor to indicate
its value. In addition, letters are used to indicate the multiplying factor (eg,
M) and the tolerance as shown below.
Multiplying Factor Tolerance %
X1 R (resistor)  0.1 B 5 J
X103 K K 0.25 C 10 K
X10 6 M M 0.5 D 20 M
X10 9 G 1.0 F 30 N
G
X10 1 T 2 G
T
2
The position of the multiplying letter is also used to indicate the decimal
point position.
eg. 470R is 470
4K7 is 4.7
R47 is 0.47
4R7 is 4.7
The tolerance letter is added on the end.
eg. 1M5 B is 1.5M+ 0.1%
2K2 N is 2.2K+ 30%
Other markings may also be used in the code to represent date of
manufacture. They are placed after the value and tolerance markings.
8.4.5 Power Rating
Resistors are rated according to their resistance value and also to the rate
at which they can dissipate heat. Rate of heat dissipation is measured in
watts. (The watt will be discussed later in the course). The higher the
wattage rating the more current it can carry.
8.4.6 Potentiometers
A variable resistor arranged so as to control
voltage in a circuit is called a ‘Potentiometer’
and controls the potential difference between
two points in a circuit. It is used to ‘tap off’
part of the supply or signal voltage for
connection to a load. See diagram.
8.4.7 Rheostats
Variable resistors can be made to vary either
current or voltage. A variable resistor
arranged to control current is called a
‘Rheostat’ and controls the current by varying
the resistance in the circuit. See diagram.
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8.4.8 Voltage Dependent Resistors

Some components do not obey Ohm’s law that is the current flow through
them does not vary linearly as the applied voltage is varied. These
elements are known as non-linear resistors or non-linear conductors.
Transistors, diodes and voltage dependent resistors all fall into this group.
The current through a voltage dependent resistor increases at a
progressively rapid rate as the voltage across it increases, such a device is
used for protecting circuits against voltage surges or as a voltage stabilizer.
8.5 Thermistors
Insulators and semi-conductors behave in a different way when the temperature
increases, because their resistivity decreases. That is: the resistance of an insulator
and of a semi-conductor decreases with temperature increase, (their resistance-
temperature coefficient is negative!). This feature can be used to advantage as the
following example shows.
One example of this effect occurs in a thermistor, which is a thermally sensitive
resistor whose resistance alters with temperature; a negative temperature
coefficient (n.t.c.) thermistor is one whose resistance reduces with increase in
temperature. A thermistor is used in the cooling-water temperature-measuring
circuit of a car or lorry; it is inserted in the cooling water and connected in series
with the battery and temperature gauge. As the water temperature rises, the
resistance of the n.t.c. thermistor falls and allows more current to flow through the
temperature gauge; this causes the gauge to indicate variations in water
temperature.
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9. Resistors In Circuits
9.1 Resistors In Series
Components are said to be in series when they are connected end-to-end providing
only one path for the current. Thus the same current passes through all the
components (including the power supply). See diagram below.
When a current flows through a resistor (or a component having resistance) there is
a potential difference between its ends. Thus where two or more resistors are
connected in series the potential difference between the extreme ends is the sum of
the individual potential differences.
Hence E = V1+ V2 + V3
But from Ohm’s Law V = IR
Therefore E = IRTOTAL
So V2 = IR1 V2 = IR2 V3 = IR3
Thus IRTOTAL = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
= I (R1 + R2 + R3)
So RTOTAL = R1 + R2+ R3
9.1.1 Kirchoff’s Second Law
This law states that in any closed
circuit the sum of all the potential
differences (voltage drops) is equal to
the total applied voltage in that circuit.
Thus the potential difference across
R2is given by: VR2 = 9 – 7 = 2V
9.1.1.1 Example of kirchoff’s second law
There are four possible routes around

the circuit shown and whichever one
is taken, Kirchoff’s law is true:
Note that Q is at a higher potential
than R. Also a potential drop is
positive and a potential rise is
negative.
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Route MPQSNM 3 + 7 – 10 = 0
Route MPRSNM 4 + 6 – 10 = 0
Route MPQRSNM 3 + 1 + 6 –10 = 0
Route MPRQSNM 4 – 1 + 7 –10 = 0
It should also be noted that within the resistor network;
Route PRQP 4 – 1 – 3 = 0 Route PQRP 3 + 1 – 4 = 0
Route RSQR 6 – 7 + 1 =0 Route RQSR -1 + 7 – 6 = 0
9.1.2 Voltage division
In a series circuit Ohm’s law applies for each component. However, since
the current is common to all components we have:
V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2, V3 = IR3
Therefore V1 R1, V2  R2, V3  R3
I.e. Vn Rn
Hence the voltage drops across each resistor can be calculated from the
ratio of the resistance values.
It should also be noted, that for any given applied
voltage we may derive any smaller voltages we
wish by inserting resistors of the appropriate
values in series. The following example shows
how voltages of 8V, 4V and 24V can be derived
from a 36V supply.
RTOTAL = 12 + 6 + 36 = 54
 54 36V and 1 36/54V
 12 = 36/54  12 = 8V across AB
and 6 = 36/54  6 = 4V across BC
and 36 = 36/54  36 = 24V across CD
9.1.3 The Potential Divider
A device which employs voltage division and
which is commonly used in electrical and
electronic circuits is the potential divider. Here
two or more resistors are used to divide a given
input voltage to achieve a specified output
voltage. See diagram.
The potential divider is also known as a voltage
divider or scaling circuit.
Note that if current is drawn from the output then
the effective resistance of the circuit changes and the output voltage vOUT
changes.
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9.1.4 Voltages Relative to Earth

It is very common in electrical circuits to have an earth connection. This
earth connection has no effect on potential differences across components,
however it does affect the values of the potentials or voltages at points in
the circuit.
The earth is a reference point and considered to be at zero volts. Potential

differences between earth and the negative terminal of the supply result in
negative voltages and potential differences between earth and the positive
terminal result in positive voltages. It should be noted that due to static
build up on the airframe, the earth connection (airframe) of an airborne
aircraft is unlikely to be at zero potential with respect to the ground
You should also note that earth connections, for example to the chassis of
an equipment or the airframe of an aircraft, are often used as the current
return lead in an electrical circuit.
9.2 Internal Resistance
As mentioned earlier in the section on batteries, every source of electricity, such as a
cell or generator has resistance to current flow called internal resistance.
 Cells (and batteries): The internal resistance is mainly due to the resistance of
the electrolyte. This varies considerably with temperature and concentration of
the electrolyte.
 Generators. Internal resistance is mainly the resistance of the wires which form
the internal windings.
 Electronic Power Supplies. Here the internal resistance is due to the resistance
of components within the power supply.
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When the source forces electrons around a closed

circuit they must pass through the internal
resistance of the source, thus causing a drop in
voltage within the source itself, i.e. the source has
to do work to push current through itself. This loss
of potential or ‘voltage drop’ may be referred to as
lost volts, since they are not available in the
external circuit, thus the terminal voltage is less
than the emf by the value of the lost volts when
current is drawn from the supply.
CLOSED CIRCUIT TERMINAL VOLTAGE = EMF – LOST VOLTS
Loss of potential only occurs when current flows from the source. If therefore the
external circuit is open, no current flows and the terminal voltage is equal to the
emf.
OPEN CIRCUIT TERMINAL VOLTAGE =
EMF
The Size of the ‘lost voltage’ is determined by the internal resistance and the current
flowing (Ir). For a given emf the larger the external resistance, the smaller the
current and the smaller the ‘lost volts’. Thus if the internal resistance is much
smaller than the external resistance the ‘lost volts’ is very small and the terminal
voltage is almost equal to the source emf.
9.3 Resistors in Parallel
Components are said to be in parallel when they are
connected in such a way as to provide alternative
paths for current flow.
The characteristics of such a parallel combination
are:
 The voltage across each component is the
same.
 The current through each component is determined by the resistance of that
component
 Ohm’s law applies to each component connected in parallel.
In the diagram below. V1 = V2 = V3 = V
and I = I1 + I2 + I3 (by Kirchoff’s first law)
From Ohm’s law
Therefore
V V1 V 2 V3 V V V
     
R TOTAL R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3
V
I
R
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and 1 1 1 1
  
R TOTAL R1 R2 R3
Hence the three resistors shown above may be replaced by a single resistor of value
RTOTAL which may be computed using the above equation. Note that the most usual
error which occurs when using this equation is to forget that the calculation on the
right hand side of the equation gives the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance 1
and therefore needs inverting to find RTOTAL.
RTOTAL
To avoid this possible error the equation may be remembered in the form:
1
R TOTAL 
1 1 1 1
   ......
R1 R2 R3 Rn
Having found RTOTAL it is now possible to use Ohm’s law to calculate either V or I,
providing one of the two is known. Knowing V (= V1 = V2 = V3 etc) it is now possible
to find the current values through the branches I1, I2, I3 etc (provided of course that
R1, R2, R3 etc are known).
As a check, the total resistance of any parallel combination of resistors should
always be less than the value of the lowest resistor in the network.
9.4 Two Resistors in Parallel
When we have only two resistors in parallel then the general equation may still be
used. However a simpler formula can be derived.
Using the general equation we obtain:
1 1 1 R2  R1
  
R TOTAL R1 R2 R1  R2
Therefore
R1  R2 Product
R TOTAL  
R1  R2 Sum
9.4.1 Equal Resistors Connected in Parallel

Where we have two or more resistors of equal value connected in parallel
1 1 1 1 1 4
    
R TOTAL R R R R R
then:
Therefore,
R
RTOTAL = 4
Generally, when any number of equal value resistors are connected in
parallel, the effective resistance (RTOTAL) is equal to the value of one resistor
divided by the number of resistors.
R
R TOTAL 
The total number of resistors connected in parallel
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9.4.2 Effective Value of Resistors in Parallel

If a second resistor is connected in parallel with a first, the voltage across
the second is equal to the voltage across the first. The first resistor still
draws the same current and the second now also draws current. Thus the
total current drawn from the supply has increased and therefore the
effective resistance (RTOTAL) has decreased. Since the supply of current is
now greater than either individually would draw, the effective resistance of
the two is less than the resistance of either individually. This is generally
true and for any number of parallel resistors the effective resistor (R TOTAL) is
less than the value of any single resistor in the parallel combination. An
important point to note here is that the supply current has increased and
unless the supply wiring can cope with it, it may be damaged (e.g. begin to
melt).
9.4.3 Resistor Size and Current Flow
Ohm’s law states that the current flowing is inversely proportional to
resistance provided that the voltage remains constant. In a parallel
network the voltage across each component is the same, therefore the
current through each component is inversely proportional to its resistance.
Simply stated, this means that the largest current always flows through the
smallest resistor and vice-versa. This is a simple check that may often be
useful in numerical calculation.
9.4.4 Kirchoff’s First Law
Kirchoff’s first law states that at any circuit junction, the sum of the
currents flowing towards the junction is equal to the sum of the currents
flowing away from it.
1 2
9 7
 Current flowing towards junction = 2 + 7 + 9 = 18A 8

 Current flowing away from junction = 10 + 8 = 18A
9.5 Resistors in Series / Parallel Combinations
In the previous units we have used Ohm’s law to solve combinations of resistors in
series or in parallel. It is possible to solve combinations of resistors in both serial
and parallel by Ohm’s law provided sufficient information is given. However in some
cases solution is not possible without the use of Kirchoff’s laws.
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9.5.1 Physical arrangement of resistors

Before we look at some problems it is necessary to warn you that physical
appearances can be deceptive. When components are mounted they are
usually done so in a manner as to reduce the space they occupy to a
minimum. Care must be taken to decide whether they are mounted in
series or parallel or in a combination of both.
Thus on the Tag Board above, the resistors may appear to be in parallel,
however, only R3 and R4 are in parallel.
9.5.2 Solution Of Resistor Networks Using Ohm’s Law Only
Many problems may be solved by combining series and parallel groups of
resistors and applying Ohm’s law. Remember that Ohm’s law involves
three quantities – I, V and R, thus to find any one quantity the other two
must be known or be capable of determination. Where resistors appear in
both series and parallel they may be reduced to a single effective
resistance using a step-by-step sequence as follows.
 Combine any simple series groupings within branches
( R = R1 + R2 + --- ).
 Replace any simple parallel groups by single equivalent resistors
1 1 1
  ----
R R1 R 2
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combine any simple series groupings

( R = R1 + R2 + --- ).
 Replace any simple parallel groups.
 Determine the single equivalent resistance.
At this point the total circuit current (Is) may be found if Vs is given, or Vs
found if Is is given. Having determined Vs or Is, as appropriate, the current
in any branch and the voltage drop across any resistor can be found by
working backwards through the sequence in the first paragraph of this
section, applying Ohm’s law at each stage.
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9.6 The Effects of Open Circuits

An open circuit is essentially a break in the circuit. An open circuit in a series circuit
will prevent the flow of current through the circuit. With no current flowing in the
circuit there can be no voltage drop across any resistors, and therefore the supply
potential will be measured at all points between the positive terminal and the break.
In a circuit with parallel paths, an open circuit path will cause an increase in the
circuit resistance and a reduction in the circuit current. The change in current flow
will cause the voltages measured around the circuit to change.
9.7 The Effects of Short Circuits

A short circuit is a path for current where a path should not exist, the path is
generally considered to have a low resistance. If a short circuit is placed across a
resistor, the current will flow through the short circuit rather than through the
resistor.
Short circuits across series or parallel connected resistors will result in a decrease in
the circuit resistance and an increase in the current drawn from the supply. Short
circuits may result in the fuse blowing, the circuit breaker tripping or the circuit
burning out if no protection devices are fitted.
If the definition of a short circuit is taken to be 'an unwanted current path’, then
high resistance short circuits are also possible.
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10. The Wheatstone Bridge

You have already solved resistor networks using Ohm’s law and Kirchoff’s laws. In this
unit we are going to look at a special arrangement of series and parallel resistors called a
Wheatstone Bridge.
10.1 Construction
The Wheatstone Bridge circuit and other
similar variants were widely used in test
equipment to determine the value of an
unknown resistor by comparison with
other resistors whose values are
accurately known.
The normal arrangement in a Wheatstone
bridge used for resistance measurement
is for two resistors, usually R1 and R2, to
be fixed and of known value and R4 to be
an accurate variable resistor adjusted by means of a calibrated dial. The resistor R3
is then the unknown whose value is to be measured.
10.2 Calculating Unknown Resistances
The current through the galvanometer (G) – a very sensitive ammeter, is reduced to
zero by adjusting R4. The bridge is then said to be balanced. When the bridge is
balanced, the voltage at A is equal to the voltage at B and no current flows between
A and B.
Hence VR1 = VR2
therefore I1  R1 = I2 R2 ------------- (1) (by Ohm’s law)
Also VR3 = VR4
therefore I1 R3 = I2 R4 ------------- (2)
Dividing (1) by (2) then R1 R 2


R3 R 4
R1 x R4
Therefore the unknown resistor R3 = R2 (all known values)
In calculations it is possible for any of the four resistors to be unknown. However,
provided that the bridge is balanced, the theory remains the same and all that is
required is to transpose the equation to find the unknown. Thus, for example:
R1  R 4
R2 
R3
10.3 Uses on Aircraft
Whilst the Wheatstone bridge may be used to determine the value of an unknown
resistor, it is far easier to use an Ohmmeter. The Wheatstone bridge is however
extremely useful for measuring and displaying remote indications.
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On aircraft, Wheatstone bridge circuits are used for the measurement and display of
temperatures, pressures, positions and quantities. In each case, the item being
measured varies the value of resistor R3, causing a voltage imbalance that produces
a current flow through the galvanometer. The amount of current through the
galvanometer, and the amount of pointer deflection depend upon the potential
difference across the bridge, which in turn depends upon the change in resistance of
R3. The galvanometer can therefore be calibrated to give the appropriate indication.
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11. Energy & Power

11.1 Electrical Work
Electrical work is done if a quantity of charge (coulombs) is moved between two
points which are at different electrical potentials.
 The SI unit of work is the ‘joule’. One joule of work is done when a charge of one
coulomb moves through a potential difference of one volt.
Electrical Work (joule) = Charge (coulomb)  Potential Difference (volt)
Work = Q  V joules
 Since one coulomb is one ampere second
Q = I t
then Work = V  It joules
11.2 Electrical Energy
Electrical energy is the ability of an electrical system to do work.
Energy is expended when work is done and the amount of energy used is equal to
the work done. The units of energy and work are the same, that is joules and the
same equation is used for both.
Energy = Work = W = VIt joules
The energy a body contains may be determined by calculating the electrical work
done on the body to give it that energy. Conversely, the work that a body could do if
it used up all its energy may be determined by calculating how much energy it
contains.
This assumes that no energy is lost in the conversion. In practice energy is often
‘lost’ in the form of heat.
However no energy is actually destroyed, it is simply converted into some other
form. This is stated in the Law of Conservation of Energy - energy can neither be
created nor destroyed but merely changed into other forms.
11.3 Electrical Power
Electrical power (symbol P) is the rate at which work is done or the rate of
conversion of energy by an electrical system.
The SI unit of power is the watt which is a rate of work of 1 joule per second.
 Power (watts) = Work done (joules) = VIt
Time taken (seconds) t
Therefore P = V  I
That is watts = volts  amps
By substituting V = IR in the above formula, two other expressions for electrical
power are obtained:
P = VI = I2R = V2 watts
R
11.4 Power Ratings
Electrical equipment can only stand a certain amount of heat production without
damage and the safe power which a piece of equipment can consume without
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damage is its ‘power rating’ or ‘wattage rating’. Each component is given a wattage
rating and if this is exceeded the component will overheat.
The more power consumed by a device the more heat or light it produces in a given
time; a 100w lamp gives more light than a 60w lamp. The rating 6V 12W on a lamp
means that if is connected to a 6V supply, its resistance is such that it develops 12W
of power and that it is intended to work at this rating.
Note that:
 The above bulb consumes 12W only at the correct voltage. If the voltage is
increased more power is developed and the component may be damaged.
 A fluorescent tube of 12W rating produces more light than a 12W filament bulb
because the tube produces much less heat and is therefore more efficient.
11.4.1 Power Ratings of Resistors
This power rating has a different meaning from that of a bulb. In this case
we must always keep below the stated value.
To keep below the stated power value, there are maximum permissible
values of voltage and current, which may be calculated as follows:
Maximum Current P = I 2R
Therefore P and this is the maximum current to avoid damage

I
to R
the resistor.
Maximum Voltage P =V2
R
Therefore V =P R and this is the maximum voltage to avoid damage to
the resistor.
11.4.2 Size and Power Rating
The surface area and therefore the size of a component determines the
rate at which heat is dissipated from the component to its surroundings.
Generally therefore the larger a component, the higher its power rating.
Carbon resistors of the same resistance value are commonly available in
ratings between ¼W and 2W. When higher wattage is required wire-
wound resistors may be used, the normal range here is 1W to 200W.
11.4.3 The Kilowatt Hour
The unit of electrical energy is the joule which may be expressed in terms
of power as a Watt second.
The joule however is a very small unit and it is therefore often more
convenient to measure energy used in kilowatt hours where:
1kWh = 1000 watt hours
= 1000  3600 watt seconds or joules
= 3 600 000 J or 3.6 MJ
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11.5 Maximum Power Transfer

Every source of EMF has internal resistance. If it is required to develop the
maximum possible amount of power in an external load, then the load resistance
must be equal in value to the internal resistance of the source.
This may be shown by calculating the power developed in RLoad for different values
of RLoad.
This illustrates that maximum power is developed in the load when RLoad equals
RInternal.
Matching is very important in electronic circuits which usually have a fairly high
source resistance. A typical example is the ‘matching’ of a loudspeaker to an audio
amplifier. Note however that:
 For a power source with variable internal resistance and given load (RL), the
smaller the internal resistance, the higher the power transfer to the load. The
highest power transfer is achieved here when the internal resistance is zero.
 Batteries, generators and other power supply systems are not operated under
maximum power transfer conditions, since to do so would result in the same
amount of power being dissipated in the source as was supplied to the load,
which is wasteful of energy. Thus power systems are designed to have the
minimum internal resistance to minimise loses in the power supply.
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12. Capacitance & Capacitors

When the voltage applied to a capacitive circuit changes, then there is a change in the
electric flux. The ease with which this change takes place is a measure of the capacitance
of the circuit.
In d.c. circuits, capacitance is only effective when the voltage is switched on and off, but in
a.c. circuits where the voltage varies continuously, the effect of capacitance is continuous.
A device used specifically to introduce capacitance into a circuit is known as a capacitor
(sometimes called a condenser).
12.1 Charging a Body
A conductor is given a positive charge when electrons are forcibly removed from the
conductor, eg, by connecting it to the positive pole of a d.c. source. Similarly, when
additional electrons are pushed on to a conductor, it is given a negative charge.
The use of force means that energy has been expended by the source of d.c. and this
energy is stored in an electric field. An electric field is represented by lines of flux
whose direction is the direction of force which would be experienced by a free
positive charge placed in the field. Lines of electric flux behave in an analogous
manner to lines of magnetic flux.
As the charge on a body increases, it repels further charge with greater force until
eventually the repelling force equals the charging force and the conductor is fully
charged.
The charge on a fully charged body may be changed by changing the voltage
supplying the charging force, but the conductor will oppose this charge due to the
charge it already possesses.
Any conductor will hold a charge, the magnitude of the charge depends upon the
magnitude of the voltage applied, but for a single conductor, even a large voltage
produces only a relatively small charge.
12.2 The Basic Capacitor
If we have two metal plates close together,
but separated by an insulator or dielectric
(which could be air) and we apply a voltage
across them, electrons are removed from one
plate and applied to the other and each
becomes charged. The charge held by the
combination may be very large because of the
concentration of the electric field between
the plates. This represents a basic capacitor.
Thus, a capacitor is a device which opposes voltage change in a circuit through its
capacity to store electrical energy (or charge) in the form of an electric field.
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12.3 Capacitance
If we increase the voltage between the plates, the charge increases, but the ratio of
charge to voltage remains the same. This ratio gives the capacitance (C) of the
capacitor.
Charge
Voltage = A constant called capacitance
When the charge (Q) is in coulombs and the voltage (V) in volts, then the
capacitance (C) is in farads (F).
Q Q
C = V (and also Q = VC, V = C )
A capacitor has a capacitance of one Farad when a charging current of one ampere,
flowing for one second, causes a change of voltage of one volt between its plates.
The Farad is a huge unit and smaller units are used in practice.
1 microfarad (F) = 10-6 farad
1 picofarad (pF) = 10-12 farad
12.4 Factors Affecting Capacitance
The factors which affect the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor are:
 Overlapping area of the plates (A). The capacitance increases as the area of
overlap increases since a larger plate area provides more room to accommodate the
increase charge.
 Distance between the plates (d). The capacitance increases as the distance
between the plates decreases, since the electric field then becomes more
concentrated.
 Material between the plates. This introduces a constant called the absolute
permittivity (). Other things being equal, if waxed paper is inserted between the
plates instead of air, the capacitance is multiplied by about three. The constant  is
actually the product of two constants, the permittivity of space (o) and the
comparison of the material with free space, the relative permittivity (r)
We may summarise this in equation form as:
C = A
The units d
of ‘C’ are Farads if the units of the other quantities are:
 Area (a) – square metres (m2).
 Distance between plates (d) – metres (m).
 Absolute permittivity () – farads per metre (Fm-1).
12.5 Energy Stored in a Capacitor
Energy is stored in the electric field of a charged capacitor. If a dielectric is inserted,
extra energy is stored above that stored in free space, due to the distortion of
electron orbits in the atoms. The energy stored in given by the equation:
Energy = ½CV2 joules
= ½QV since CV = Q
= ½Q2/C since V = Q/C
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12.6 Capacitor Construction

12.6.1 Fixed Capacitors
Fixed capacitors usually consist of sheets of metal foil between which is
sandwiched the dielectric, or alternatively the metal, such as aluminum, is
deposited onto both sides of the dielectric. The characteristics and quality
of the capacitor depends mainly on the dielectric, which may be paper,
chemically impregnated paper, plastics mica or ceramic.
12.6.2 Variable Capacitors
Variable capacitors are usually meter plates with air as the dielectric. The
variation is achieved by varying the area of overlap of the plates.
Preset capacitors may use air, mica or ceramics as the dielectric.
12.6.3 Electrolytic Capacitors
Electrolytic capacitors use the metal oxide as the dielectric which is formed
directly on the metal plates. High values of capacitance can be achieved
here with small physical size. Most electrolytic capacitors must be
connected into circuit with the correct polarity or damage (possibly
including explosion) may result.
12.6.4 Safe Working Voltage
The safe working voltage is the maximum d.c. voltage that can safely be
applied to a capacitor without causing the dielectric to break down.
When breakdown occurs, the electric field is strong enough to ‘tear’
electrons free from their orbits. A current then flows with the production
of a large amount of heat. The dielectric is commonly burned through
rendering the capacitor unserviceable.
Higher voltage require thicker dielectrics, but this reduces capacitance.
Thus, a given value of capacitance requires a larger capacitor (greater plate
area ‘a’) for greater voltage working.
12.7 Capacitor Symbols
The diagram below gives the symbols for capacitors. The pre-set capacitor
(sometimes referred to as a padder or trimmer) allows slight variations to be made
about its fixed value.
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13. Capacitors in Circuits

13.1 Capacitors in Series
When three capacitors are connected in series. If one electron moves from the
negative terminal of the cell to the right hand plate of C3, and one electron moves
from the left hand plate of C1 to the positive terminal of the cell, one electron will
move between C1 and C2 and between C2 and C3. Thus, the total charge moved is
one electron and the charge on each capacitor is one electron. Thus:
QTOTAL = Q1 = Q2 = Q3
but V = V1 + V2 + V3 (Kirchoff’s second law)
also V = Q
C
Therefore Q = Q + Q + Q
CTOTAL C1 C2 C3
Hence 1 = 1 + 1 +
1
C C1 C2 C3
Therefore, the three single capacitors may be replaced by a single capacitor whose
capacitance (C) is given by the above equation, provided its safe working voltage is
of a sufficiently high value to withstand the applied voltage.
13.2 Capacitors in Parallel
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Three capacitors are connected in parallel. If on closing the switch S a current I flows
in the circuit, then from Kirchoff’s first law:
I = I1 + I2 + I3
therefore It = I1t + I2t + I3t (where ‘t’ is the time)
but Q = It
therefore QTOTAL = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
therefore
QTOTAL = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
V V V V
but Q = C
V
Therefore C = C1 + C2 + C3
Thus, we may replace capacitors in parallel by a single capacitor whose value is given
by the above equation.
13.3 Capacitors in Series / Parallel Combinations
When capacitors are connected in series and parallel combinations, the process of
finding the total capacitance is basically the same as that used to find the total
resistance of a resistor network. It must of course be noted, that the formulae used
for capacitors in series and parallel are different from those used for resistors
connected the same way.
Where capacitors appear in both series and parallel, they may be reduced to a single
effective capacitance using a step-by-step sequence as follows;
 Combine any simple parallel groupings within branches.
 Replace any simple series groups by a single equivalent capacitor.
 Repeat the process until a single capacitor remains.
13.4 Charge & Discharge Characteristics
A capacitor opposes voltage change in a circuit; indeed, if we had a perfect d.c.
circuit and a perfect capacitor, then only an instantaneous current would flow,
charging the capacitor instantaneously to equal the applied voltage (but in the
reverse sense) and so preventing further current flow. However, in any real circuit,
resistance is present in the form of:
 the connecting wires.
 Internal resistance within the d.c. source.
This causes the capacitor to take a finite time to charge up.
13.4.1 Charging a Capacitor
In the diagram below all
resistances are taken together
and shown as the single resistor
R.
With S1 closed and S2 open, the

capacitor will charge up. Note
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that Kirchhoff’s second law always applies, that is:

E = V R + VC
The charging sequence is as follows:
 On closing S1, no current has yet flowed, the capacitor plates have no
charge on them and hence, there is no voltage across it. Therefore, the
whole of the applied voltage is developed across the resistor:
VR = E
 The initial charging current is equal to the current through the resistor:
VR E
IINIT  
R I
 As C charges up, its potential difference (VC) increases, opposing the
applied voltage (E) so that the charging current is progressively reduced.
 Finally the capacitor is fully charged (VC = E) and current ceases
(consequently VR = O).
 This sequence is shown graphically below.
The curves are called ‘exponential’ curves and it can be seen that the
dVc
slopes dt
dI
anddt are progressively decreasing as time increases.
13.4.2 Time Constant
It is found that the time taken to charge up the capacitor depends on the
product of capacitance and resistance. This product is called the ‘time
constant’ of the circuit and its value is in seconds, providing R is in ohms
TIME CONSTANT = CR
and C in farads.
The time constant is defined as either:
 The time which would be taken for the capacitor voltage to reach its
maximum value if it continued to increase at the initial value, or
 The time for the capacitor voltage to reach 0.632 of its maximum value
(or 63.2%, this is sometimes taken as 2/3 in calculations).
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It is difficult to say at exactly what point the capacitor is fully charged,

however, for all practical purposes it may be considered fully charged after
five time constants:
Time to Fully Charge = 5CR seconds
13.4.2.1 Proof of Time Constant

When C is fully charged, then Q = CE. The time taken to fully charge at the
initial charging rate is equal to the time constant (TC).
Thus E E so
CE   TC CE   TC
R R
Therefore E
Q  Iinitial  TC (but Iinitial  )
R
Hence Time Constant TC = CR
13.4.3 Discharging a Capacitor
On opening S1 and closing S2 (after the capacitor is fully charged), the
capacitor discharges, thus current flows (in the opposite direction to the
original current) and the voltage across the capacitor falls to zero
exponentially.
In this case the voltage across the capacitor falls by 63.2% to 0.368E in CR
seconds and takes 5CR seconds to fall to zero (0.368 is sometimes taken as
1/3 in calculations).
13.4.4 A capacitor in a dc circuit

It can be seen that although current does flow for a period of time in a d.c.
circuit containing a capacitor (until the capacitor is fully charged), the
current is eventually reduced to zero. Thus, a capacitor inserted in a d.c.
circuit prevents current flow and is sometimes called a dc blocking
capacitor. Two points should be noted;
Current does not flow through a capacitor, it only appears to, because the
number of electrons arriving at one plate is the same as the number
leaving the other plate.
Alternating current always appears to pass through a capacitor. The degree
of opposition to a.c. current flow is determined by a variety of factors
which will be studied later in a.c. circuits. The study of capacitors in a.c.
circuits will also provide additional reasons for using them in d.c. circuits.
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13.5 The Effects of Open & Short Circuits

A capacitor is in effect an open circuit, however, if the connection to a capacitor
were to go open circuit then it would be unable to charge and there would be
absolutely no current flow. If this occurred in a parallel combination, the total
capacitance of the circuit would decrease, in a series combination the capacitors
would be ineffective because of the lack of current flow.
When a capacitor is short circuited it is unable to charge, if one capacitor in a
parallel combination is short circuited it will prevent the other paralleled capacitors
from charging. In a d.c. circuit, a shorted capacitor will no longer act as a d.c. block
and will allow the flow of both d.c. and a.c. current.
The effects of open and short circuited capacitors will be examined in more detail as
there uses in various circuits are studied.
13.6 Safety & Testing
A charged capacitor can store a large amount of energy which it releases on
discharge. It is therefore important to ensure that capacitors, especially large ones,
are discharged before you attempt to touch them. Particular care is required when
servicing faulty high voltage equipment.
A capacitor can be tested using an ohmmeter. When connected across a capacitor,
the ohmmeter's battery charges the capacitor. The charging of the capacitor is
indicated by a changing value of resistance, from zero to infinity as the capacitor
charges. If the charging process is too quick to see, a resistor can be placed in series
with the meter and capacitor to slow it down (time constant = CR). In many cases it
is necessary to remove the capacitor from the circuit in order to test its
serviceability.
13.7 Circuits Involving Capacitive Decay
Consider the circuit shown
below. Depending on the time
constant of the circuit, relative
to the period of the square
wave applied to it, the response
of the circuit can vary widely.
Assuming T is half the period of
the square wave.
If CR is slightly less than T, the
waveform in the top diagram is
produced at the output (across
C).
If Cr<<T, the square wave is hardly affected, center diagram.
If CR>>T, the circuit is an integrating circuit, since the output waveform is that of the
integral of the square wave, that is the area underneath it. This is shown in the
lower diagram.
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If the positions of the resistor

and capacitor are reversed and
the voltage across the resistor
measured, then the waveform
produced will be that of the
current, since V=IR.
If CR is short enough then a
stream of pulses is produced
when a square wave is applied
to the input. Shown in the top
diagram.
If CR<<T the circuit is called a differentiating circuit, since the pulses approximate to
the slope of the input waveform as in the center diagram.
When CR>>T the circuit is called a coupling circuit. A coupling circuit allows the
input waveform to pass to the output whilst blocking the passage of any d.c.
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14. Magnetism
Everyone has seen and handled a magnet in the form of a straight or horseshoe-shaped
bar of steel or steel-alloy. The magnet was originally a piece of steel before it was
magnetized.
A material called magnetite is a naturally occurring magnet (also called lodestone) which
was used at sea for primitive navigation.
A magnet is easily recognized by its ability to attract pieces or iron and steel; and if
suspended freely on a piece of string, will swing to align with the earth’s own magnetic
field.
14.1 Magnetic Theories
14.1.1 Molecular Theory
If we continue cutting our magnet into smaller and smaller pieces we would
eventually arrive at the smallest piece, which would be a molecule and this
molecule would be a magnet. Thus the molecular theory of magnetism
states that:
 All materials contain molecules with magnetic properties.
 In unmagnetized substances, these molecules are arranged in a random
manner and no external magnetic effect is produced.
 When the material is being magnetized, we are aligning the molecules.
The number aligned increases, as we further magnetize the specimen and
when all are aligned no further increase in magnetization is possible and the
specimen is said to be magnetically saturated.
 In theory all substances could be magnetized, but in practice it is
impossible to align the molecules of most substances.
14.1.2 Domain Theory
In domain theory it is assumed that magnetic materials are composed of tiny
individual magnets called domains, a single domain is very small - about 1012
atoms.
Considering each atom - orbital electrons not only orbit the nucleus but spin
axially on their own axis.
In nonmagnetic materials the same number of electrons spin clockwise as
anti-clockwise. In magnetic materials more electrons spin one way than the
other way
The unbalanced spin creates twists called magnetic moments.
In unmagnetized state the moments of the electrons are in the same
direction in a single domain, but the domains produce random pockets of
magnetism.
As the magnetic material becomes magnetized the domains become partially
aligned. In fully magnetized material all domains become fully aligned.
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14.2 Magnetic Properties

14.2.1 Magnetic Poles
The two regions near the ends of a magnet at which the attracting forces
appear to be concentrated are called the magnetic poles.
The pole (when freely suspended) which points towards the earth’s
geographic north pole is called the North Seeking Pole ‘N’ (or north pole for
short) and that which points to the south geographic pole, the South Seeking
Pole ‘S’ (or south pole).
It is observed that two north poles repel each other and likewise with two
south poles; however a north pole and a south pole will attract each other.
This is summarised in the fundamental law of magnetism:
Like Poles Repel, Unlike Poles Attract
To test a specimen for the presence of magnetism it is necessary to observe
repulsion. Attraction simply means that the specimen is magnetic but it may
not be magnetized. Thus the test for magnetism is repulsion.
14.2.2 Magnetic Field
The region around a magnet in which it exerts a force is called the ‘magnetic
field’. The magnetic field is three-dimensional and it may be shown visually
by drawing imaginary lines called ‘lines of magnetic flux’.
14.2.3 Lines of Flux
A line of flux is a line indicating the direction in which a free north pole would
travel, if placed in the field at that point. Alternatively it is the direction in
which the north pole of a compass needle would point. The direction which
would be taken is indicated on the lines of flux by arrow heads.
Therefore lines of flux emanate from north poles and re-enter at south poles,
see diagram below.
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14.2.3.1 Properties of Lines Flux

To make the imaginary lines of flux describe the behavior of the magnetic
field we must give them appropriate properties. Thus lines of flux have the
following properties:
 They are imaginary.
 By definition they emerge from a north pole and re-enter at a south pole.
 They are continuous and never ending (thus they travel inside the
magnet from the south to north).
 They never cross each other (a compass placed at a given point can only
point in one direction).
 They can bend, but resist bending or distortion.
 They behave as though elastic (and therefore try to shorten themselves).
 They repel each other sideways (they fill evenly the volume available –
there are no abrupt discontinuities).
14.3 The EARTH’S Field
The earth acts as a magnet and the lines of force produced by it follow the pattern
shown in the diagram below.
If the Earth were completely symmetrical, the north
and south magnetic poles would coincide with the
axis of the Earth. The magnetic poles are, in fact,
separated from the true poles by about 1000 Miles,
the north magnetic pole being in the area 70 - 75
degrees North and roughly 95 degrees West.
Since the North pole of a magnet is really a North
seeking pole and similarly the South pole is really a
South seeking pole it follows that at the Earth's
North pole there must be a south seeking magnet
and similarly at the Earth's South pole there must be
a North seeking magnet. Unfortunately before the
significance of the Earth's magnetism was realized,
navigators had dropped the word "seeking" leaving
the embarrassing statement that there is a magnetic
south pole at the North pole and a magnetic North
pole at the South pole.
This problem is overcome by defining the North seeking pole as the Red Pole and the
South seeking pole as the Blue Pole.
14.4 Magnetic Materials
14.4.1 Ferromagnetic Materials
Ferromagnetic materials can be easily magnetized and exhibit strong
magnetic properties. This group can be further subdivided into hard and soft
magnetic materials.
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Above certain temperatures ferromagnetic materials behave as

paramagnetic materials.
14.4.1.1 Hard Iron
Hard magnetic materials are more difficult to magnetize but retain most of
their magnetism when the magnetizing force is removed.
Examples - steel and nickel alloys such as:
Ticonal - Iron-Cobalt / Nickel / Aluminum / Titanium and Copper
Alnico - Iron-Nickel / Cobalt And Aluminum
These materials are used for permanent magnets
14.4.1.2 Soft Iron
Soft magnetic materials become magnetized very easily, but they loose most
of the magnetism when the magnetizing force is removed.
Examples - alloys such as stalloy and mumetal
These materials are used for temporary magnets
14.4.2 Paramagnetic Materials
Most materials fall into this group. These materials can only be magnetized
with a great amount of effort, usually resulting in their destruction. If
magnetized the material only exhibits small magnetic properties.
Examples – Wood / Glass /Air / Water / Aluminum
14.4.3 Diamagnetic Materials
This is a small group of materials that actually oppose a magnetizing force. If
placed in a magnetic field they will decreases its strength. If suspended in a
magnetic field, they will swing to adopt a position at 90 degrees to the lines
of flux.
Examples – Copper / Brass / Bronze / Mercury / Bismuth
14.5 Production of a Magnet
Magnets can be produced in a variety of ways, generally the method used is
determined by the type of magnet required.
14.5.1 Stroke Method
Using the stroke method of
producing a magnet, a piece
of steel is stroked by a
permanent magnet or
magnets. Backward and
forward movement of the
steel should be avoided and
magnets should follow the
assumed lines of force when
stroking the steel.
Magnets with same polarity at either end can be produced using the double
stroke method. This entails stroking the steel from the center to the end,
reversing the direction of the magnet for each end. Such a magnet is said to
have consequent poles.
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14.5.2 Induction
The property of magnetism
may be induced in a piece of
material that does not
normally have that
characteristic.
If a piece of soft iron is
placed in the magnetic field
of a permanent magnet, the
soft iron will assume the
properties of a magnet and
become magnetized. This action is called magnetic induction. It occurs
because the lines of flux tend to flow through the path of least opposition,
and air offers more opposition than soft iron.
When the lines of flux pass through the soft iron, the molecules of soft iron
line up with the lines of force, their north poles pointing in the direction in
which the lines of force are travelling through the iron. The end at which the
lines of flux enter the soft iron becomes a south pole, the end at which they
leave, a north pole.
If the magnetic field is removed, the soft iron will loose its magnetism.
It should be noted that a piece of soft iron sitting in the earth's magnetic field
will concentrate the lines of flux and become magnetized.
14.5.3 Use of electrical current
When a conductor carries an electric current, a magnetic field is produced
around that conductor. This phenomenon was discovered by Oersted in
1820.
Oersted found that a wire carrying
an electric current produces a
magnetic field around the wire for
as long as current continues to
flow. The direction of the magnetic
field depends upon the direction of
the current. The field is
symmetrical around the wire and is represented by lines of flux drawn as
concentric circles around the wire.
By convention current flowing into a diagram is represented by a cross,
current flowing out of the diagram by a dot. One can liken this to the view
obtained from a dart thrown towards you, or away from you.
14.5.3.1 Corkscrew Rule
Knowing the direction of the current, it is possible to determine the direction
of the magnetic field using Maxwell’s Corkscrew rule, usually abbreviated to
the Corkscrew Rule (or sometimes the right hand screw rule).
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The Corkscrew Rule states; if a corkscrew is turned so that it moves in the

direction of conventional current flow, then the direction of rotation of the
corkscrew corresponds to the direction of the magnetic field, see diagram
below.
14.5.3.2 Attraction & Repulsion

Two parallel wires, which are close together, each carrying an electric
current, produce magnetic fields which interact with one another. If the
currents flow in the same direction, the wires experience a force of
attraction. If the currents flow in opposite directions, the wires experience a
force of repulsion, see diagram below.

The force between two such conductors forms the basis for the definition of
the unit of current - the ampere.
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15. Electromagnetism
If a straight wire carrying a current is formed into a circular loop, the magnetic field is as
shown. The field may be deduced by taking elements of the loop and looking at the field
around each part of the loop.
15.1 Production of a Bar Magnet
If a length of wire is bent into a series of loops, it forms a solenoid. The direction of
the magnetic field around any small part of it can be obtained by using the
corkscrew rule. If the fields for a series of such loops are combined, the result will
be a field pattern similar to that of a bar magnet.
15.1.1 End Rule

The direction of the magnetic field depends upon the direction of
conventional current flow. We can find out which end of the coil is acting as
the North Pole and which the South Pole is by observing the direction of
current flow at each end. This is called the End Rule or sometimes, the clock
rule, see diagram below.
15.1.2 Right Hand Gripping Rule

The right hand gripping rule can also be used to determine the north pole of
a coil. The coil is gripped by the right hand with the fingers pointing along the
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conductors in the direction of conventional current flow, when the thumb is

then extended, it indicates the end of the coil that has a magnetic north
polarity.
15.2 The Magnetic Circuit
15.2.1 Magnetomotive Force (MMF)
In an electric circuit, a current is established due to the existence of an
electromotive force. In the same way, in a magnetic circuit, a flux is
established due to the existence of a magnetomotive force. The mmf is
produced by the current flowing in the coil and its value is the product of the
current and the number of turns on the coil.
Magnetomotive Force = Current x Number of Turns on the Coil
Note that, although mmf is quoted in ampere turns, the actual unit
dimension is in amperes.
15.2.2 Magnetizing Force
The magnetomotive force can be expressed in terms of the length of the
magnet. It is then referred to as the magnetizing force or magnetic field
strength and given the symbol H. The magnetizing force is a measure of the
intensity of the magnetic effects at any given point in the magnetic field.
Magnetomotive Force
Magnetizing Force (H) = Length of magnet
Note that:
 The unit of field strength is ampere per metre, although it may be quoted
as ampere turns per metre.
 The length of a solenoid ‘l’, is the length along its axis and not the length
of wire from which the solenoid is made.
It will therefore be seen that a solenoid having 10 turns per metre carrying a
current of 6A (10  6 = 60 ampere/metre) will produce the same strength of
magnetic field as one of 12 turns per metre carrying 5A (12  5 = 60
ampere/metre).
15.2.3 Flux & Flux Density
A magnetizing force produces a certain amount of magnetic flux (),
measured in Webers. The magnetic field is represented by imaginary lines of
magnetic flux. The number of lines of flux passing though a given area is
called the ‘flux density’. Flux density is denoted by the symbol B and given
the unit Tesla.

Flux density (B) = A Teslas
The unit of flux density is actually Webers per m2, so:
1 Weber
1 Tesla = m2
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15.2.4 Permeability
When an mmf produces a magnetizing force H, a certain flux density B is
established.
B
Ratio H is termed 'the permeability of the material'.
Permeability is an indication of the ability of the flux to permeate the
material. If the material in which the flux is established is a vacuum, or free
space, then the ratio is called ‘the permeability of free space' and given the
symbol o. This value is considered to be a constant, 4 10-7 H/M
If a flux is established in any material other than air or free space, then the
flux density will increase. The number of times by which the flux density
increases is called the ‘relative permeability of the material’ denoted by the
symbol r. This is not a constant but varies with different material. i.e. steel
= 800.
The product of o and r is called the ‘absolute permeability’ and is denoted
by the symbol .
B
For all materials H = = o x r
15.2.5 Reluctance
The opposition experienced by a magnetizing force to the creation of a flux is
called ‘reluctance’ and denoted by the symbol S. The following derivation is
for information only.

Total Flux = B × A Webers (from flux density B = A )
A
IN
From mmf = I.N and H = length (H x length = IN)
mmf = H × length
 BxA
using the two equations above mmf = H x length
B
But H = o x r
 A
Therefore mmf = o x r x length
mmf length
And =
 o x r x A
Ampere Turns
Units of reluctance are Weber
15.2.6 Composite paths and airgaps
A magnetic circuit may be composed of paths of different materials. Such
magnetic path is called a composite path. The total reluctance of a composite
path is equal to the sum of the individual reluctance's
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In many devices such as transformer motors and generators the magnetic

flux has parallel paths. The purpose is to reduce the total reluctance given
two parallel paths S1 and S2.
S1  S2
STOTAL 
S1  S2
For more than two parallel paths;
1 1 1 1 1
   ..... 
STOTAL S1 S2 S3 Sn
15.3 BH Curve
For any ferromagnetic material there is a definite value of flux density (B),
corresponding to a specified value of magnetizing force (H). These values can be
ascertained from graphs of B against H for each material. A BH curve can only be
obtained using a piece of material that has never been magnetized before. Once the
material has been magnetized and the curve obtained, the production of another BH
curve, from the same piece of material, is not possible.
The BH curve is the line O to Q on the hysteresis curve shown below.
The gradient of the BH curve gives the permeability of the material. In practice it is
found that the magnetic property of different specimens of the same material vary
considerably. The fact that permeability varies for a given material may also be seen
from the shape of the curve, if the permeability was a constant, the graph of B
against H would be a straight line.
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15.4 Hysteresis Loop

A ferromagnetic material retains some magnetism after the magnetizing force is
removed. The BH curve (O to Q) will therefore only be followed once, on initial
magnetization.
When a material is subjected to a changing magnetizing force, the flux density is
affected by its previous magnetic history. There is tendency for the magnetic
conditions to lag behind the magnetizing force that is producing them. This is known
as ‘hysteresis’ and comes from the Greek meaning late or lagging.
If a piece of material is taken through a complete cycle of magnetizing and
demagnetizing the graph of B against H is as shown, this diagram is called a
hysteresis loop.
O to Q - Initial magnetization to saturation at point A

Q to R - Magnetizing force is reduced to zero.
O to R - Represents remanence. Remanence is the flux density remaining in
or the material after the magnetizing force is removed. It is sometimes
0 to U called ‘retentivity’. If the material had not been taken to
saturation then OR or OU would represent the remanent flux density.
R to S - The magnetizing force is reversed.
O to S - Represents the magnetizing force required to reduce the flux density
or to zero. This is called the coercivity of the material. If the material
O to V had not reached saturation it is termed the ‘coercive force’.
S to T - Further increase in the reverse magnetizing force. This causes the
material to reach saturation in the opposite direction.
T to Q - Reversal of magnetizing force again eventually makes the material
saturate in original direction.
The term residual magnetism is used to describe the useful flux remaining after the
magnetizing force has been removed for a considerable time. It is proportional to
the coercivity of the material and is also called coercivity. This term should not be
confused with remanence or remanent flux density.
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The area of the loop represents the energy loss during each magnetic cycle, or the
power dissipated. It’s size is dependent upon the type of material and frequency at
which the magnetizing force is switched.
The following should be noted:
 Soft iron saturates with much less magnetizing force than steel.
 The remanence of soft iron is greater than that of steel.
 The area of the loop and coercivity for steel is much greater than for soft iron.
This indicates greater hysteresis loss and residual magnetism.
 Materials with large loops are used for permanent magnets – ticonal.
 Materials with small loops are used for temporary magnets – stalloy, Mumetal.
15.5 Comparison of Electrical & Magnetic Circuits
It is useful to compare various electric and magnetic quantities and their
relationships. Consider the electric and magnetic circuits shown below.
Tabulating the comparisons:
ELECTRIC CIRCUIT MAGNETIC CIRCUIT
Quantity Unit Quantity Unit
Emf Volt mmf Ampere turn
Current Ampere Magnetic Flux Weber

Ampere turns /
Resistance Ohm Reluctance
Weber
Current = emf / Resistance Magnetic Flux = mmf / Reluctance
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16. Magnetic Screening

The differing values of reluctance of air and soft iron are made use of in magnetic
screening. Air had high reluctance whilst soft iron has a low reluctance. Thus if the
equipment to be screened is surrounded by soft iron, most of the flux will pass through
the soft iron, rather than the air inside it, since lines of flux take the path of least
reluctance.
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17. Induction
In 1831, a scientist called Michael Faraday discovered that an electric current was
produced by the relative movement of a magnet and a coil, a phenomenon which is now
known as electromagnetic induction.
17.1 Electricity from Magnetism
If a magnet is moved into or out of a coil of wire and if the coil is connected to a
meter, the meter records a flow of current as long as the magnet is moving.
The same result is obtained if the magnet is kept stationary and the loop is moved.
The meter therefore shows that there is a current as long as there is relative
movement between the loop (coil) and the magnet (magnetic field). Note that
energy is not being produced but simply converted from mechanical energy to
electrical energy.
17.1.1 Factors Affecting Induced EMF
By experiment, the following factors may be noted:
 The faster the magnet (or coil) is moved, the greater is the deflection
obtained on the meter. This shows that the magnitude of the emf is
proportional to the rate of relative movement.
 Repeating the experiment using a stronger magnet results in greater
meter deflection for the same rates of movement. Hence the magnitude of
the emf is proportional to the flux density.
 Reversal of the direction of motion produces meter deflecting in the
opposite sense. The direction of the induced emf therefore depends on the
direction of motion.
 Using the south pole of the magnet instead of the north results in meter
deflections in the opposite sense, showing that the direction of the induced
emf depends upon the direction of the magnetic field.
 If more turns are used on the coil, meter deflection is greater and is
proportional to the number of turns (N).
These results are summarized in two laws, as follows.
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17.1.2 Faradays Law

When the magnetic flux through the coil is made to vary, an emf is induced in
the coil. The magnitude of the induced emf is proportional to the rate of
change of flux.
Hence, E  d where d  change of flux
dt dt  time taken to change
The constant of proportionality in this equation is the number of turns on the
coil (N), since the more turns on the coil, the greater emf. Hence, we may
d
E  N volts
dt
write:
17.1.3 Lenz’s Law
A change of flux in a closed circuit induces an emf and sets up a current. The
direction of this current is such that its magnetic field tends to oppose the
change of flux. See diagram below.
The direction of the induced emf as given by Lenz’s Law may be shown in our
equation by introducing a negative sign, but remember that the negative sign
is vectorial and not arithmetic. d
Hence, E  -N volts
dt
17.1.4 Flemings Right Hand Rule
When a straight wire is moved through a magnetic field, an emf is induced in
it, in the manner of the coil and magnet experiment. Once again, lines of flux
are being cut by a conductor and if the wire forms part of a closed circuit, a
current will
flow. The same
effect is
observed if the
wire is
stationary and
the magnetic
field moves.
The direction of
the induced emf
may be
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determined by Fleming’s Right Hand Rule.

The thumb, first finger and second finger of the right hand are held at right
angles to each other, then:
 With the thuMb pointing in the direction of the conductor movement.
 With the First finger pointing in the direction of the magnetic field (N to
S).
 Then the second finger points in the direction of conventional current
flow and thus indicates the direction of the induced voltage.
17.2 Self Inductance
When current through a coil changes, the changing flux induces an emf that opposes
the current flow. This emf is the result of self-inductance and is called ‘back emf’.
The term ‘self inductance’ is often replaced merely by inductance. The value of back
emf is given by:
dI
E = -L x dt
dI
Where L is the inductance in henries, and dt the rate of change of current.
The minus indicates back emf.
The unit of inductance is the henry and is based on the equation. If current changing
at a rate of 1 amp a second induces an emf of 1 volt then the inductance is 1 henry.
All circuits have inductance even a straight conductor, but if a straight piece of wire
is formed into a coil the number of flux linkages increases and so does the
inductance.
A further increase in inductance is achieved by increasing the flux density. This
depends on the area, the length of the coil and the permeability of material in which
flux is established,
N2o r A
Thus, L = l hernies
N = Number of Turns
or = Absolute Permeability
A = Area in square metres
I = Length of coil in metres (not wire)
l N2
As o r A =S then L = S
dl
Also by transposition of E = -L × dt
dt
L = -E × dl
17.3 Mutual Inductance
If the changing flux in a coil links with the turns of a second coil, the two coils are
said to be mutually coupled and mutual inductance exists between them. The unit
of mutual inductance is Henry and is defined by:
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If the primary current, changing at a rate of 1 amp per second, induces a secondary
voltage of 1v, then the mutual inductance is 1 henry.
dlprimary
Thus: Es = M × dt
17.4 Coupling Factor
If all the flux of a primary coil links with all the turns of a secondary then 100%
coupling exists. Sometimes it is more convenient to use a coupling factor - k.
Maximum Coupling (100%) is represented by a k value of 1.
Thus if flux linkage is 97% the coupling factor is 0.97.
Given that mutual coupling depends on k then so does the mutual inductance. The
relationship is given by: M = k L1 L2
Where L1 and L2 are individual inductances of the mutually coupled coils.
The value of k depends on:
 Purpose of coils involved
 Relative positions of the coils
 Frequency or rate of change of current
and can be as high as 0.98 or as low as 0.0001.
17.5 Energy Stored in Magnetic Field
If we consider the theoretical case of a circuit with inductance only, all of the energy
used in the circuit must go into the magnetic field. It can be shown that the energy
stored in the magnetic field is given by equation:
Energy stored (W) = ½ L I2 joules
Where L is inductance of coil in Henries and I is current through it in amps.
17.5.1 Spark suppression
If we consider a circuit with a large inductance, possibly one using a
magnetic relay. At the instant the switch is opened, the current through
the coil is changing at maximum rate, therefore the back emf induced in
the coil is also at maximum.
This emf is applied to the air gap between the switch contacts and ionizes
the air, producing a spark which the burns the contacts. This increases
their electrical resistance and radiates energy which may cause
interference, therefore sparks must be suppressed. Good design of
switch contacts can help, but connecting a capacitor in parallel with the
switch is the best method of eliminating sparking.
When using a capacitor the energy released by the coil charges the
capacitor instead of ionizing air. When the switch is closed again the
capacitor discharges.
inductors
Coils which are used for their opposition to current change in a circuit are
known as inductances or chokes.
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17.6 Construction
Inductors with an air core have small inductances and are used at high frequencies,
within radio tuning circuits or as r.f. chokes to stop radio frequency currents taking
certain paths in circuits. Coils for use at high frequency are made of Litz wire which
consists of several thin copper wires insulated from each other.
Materials based on iron are used where a large inductance is required. Iron
increases the strength of the magnetic field several hundred times. Silicon steel and
nickel iron are used at frequencies up to 20kHz.
Iron cores are laminated. The laminations reduce the conversion of electrical energy
to heat by making it difficult for currents in the coil to induce currents in the core.
These induced currents are called ‘eddy currents’ because they flow in circles
through the iron core. If the laminations are at right angles to the plane of the coil
windings, the core offers a large resistance to the eddy currents.
Iron based cores can be used at high frequencies if the material is in the form of a
powder which has been coated with an insulator and pressed together.
Ferrite cores consist of ferric oxide combined with other oxides such as nickel oxide
and may also be used at high frequencies.
Iron dust and ferrite cores increase the inductance of a coil considerably. For
example, an air cored inductor of 1mH could be increased to 400mH by fitting a
ferrite core. These cores also have a high resistance, thereby reducing eddy
currents.
17.7 Inductor Symbols
Air Core:
old symbol new symbol

Iron Core:

Iron Dust or Ferrite
Core:
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18. Inductors in Circuits

18.1 Inductors in Series
If it is required to increases the value of inductance in a circuit, then two or more
inductors may be connected in series. The total inductance then depends on the
sum of individual inductances and the mutual coupling between them.
With no mutual coupling:
LT = L1 + L2 etc
If the coils are positioned so that the mutual induced emf’s in each coil aid the self
induced emf’s then the coils are said to be series aiding, and
LT = L1 + L2 + 2M
If the coils are positioned so that mutually induced emf’s in each coil oppose the self
induced emf’s, the coils are said to be in series opposing, and
LT = L1 + L2 - 2M
Thus if the position of L2 reference to L1 can be reversed, then the total inductance
will vary between:
LT = L1 + L2 + 2M
and LT = L1 + L2 - 2M
giving a total variation of 4M.
A device which will achieve this is called variometer. It consists of two coils located
one inside the other. The outer coil (stator) is stationary whilst the inner coil (rotor)
is capable of rotation through 180 degrees. The coils are mutually coupled and
connected in series, in one position the rotor field aids the stator field, when the
rotor is turned 180º the rotor field opposes the stator field. Then the coils are at 90
degrees to each other, mutual coupling is negligible.
18.2 Inductors in Parallel
If inductors are connected in parallel, the total inductance decreases.
With no mutual coupling:
1 1 1 1
LT = L1 + L2 + L3 etc.
Or if only two inductors are connected:
L1 L2
LT =L + L
1 2
18.3 Inductors in a DC Circuit
If a circuit contained only pure resistance, then the current would rise to its full
 E
value I = R in zero time when the switch is closed.
 
In practice, there is no such thing as ‘pure’ resistance and it is normal to find a circuit
containing resistance and inductance in series. Also, there is no such thing as pure
inductance since any coil must have some resistance. Therefore, the circuit to be
considered will have inductance and resistance in series.
An inductance opposes change in current flow by producing a back emf and
therefore the current cannot rise to its maximum value instantaneously. There is no
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back emf once the current is constant and therefore the maximum value of current
depends only on the resistance in the circuit.
18.3.1 When DC Current is Applied
On moving the switch to position A in the diagram below, the current
circuit will start to rise. All times Kirchhoff’s second law applies.
By Kirchhoff’s second law

E - Eb = VR (Eb = back emf)
dl
but Eb = -L dt
and VR = IR
dl
hence E = L dt - IR volts
In the above equation, E, L and R are constant in a given circuit, therefore
dl
as I increases, Dt (the slope of the graph at any point) must decrease.
The current then follows a curve whose gradient is continually decreasing
and which is called an ‘exponential curve’. See below.
18.3.2 Time Constant

This is an indication of the rate at which the current builds up (or decays).
We cannot quote the time taken to build up to a maximum (or decay to
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zero) since it is impossible to decide exactly when this point is reached on

an exponential curve. The time constant is defined as either:
 The time taken for a current to reach its maximum value if the
initial rate of increase were maintained.
 The time taken for the current to reach 0.632 of its maximum
value (or 63.2%).
The latter definition arises since it is found that after one time constant,
the current has always built up to 63.2% of its maximum value. The time
constant for a series LR circuit is given by:
L
Time Constant =R seconds
Although it is not possible to say exactly when the current reaches its
maximum value, for all practical purpose it can be considered a maximum
after 5 time constants:
5L
Maximum Current flows after R
18.3.2.1 Proof of Time Constant
The instant of closing the switch (point A) I = O.
dl
But E = L dt + IR
dl dl E
Hence E = L dt therefore dt = L
But dI at A is the slope of the graph at A, i.e. AB
BC E
Therefore the slop of AB =AC = L
Therefore E × 1 =E
R Time Constant
E
But AC is the Time Constant and BC = R
L
Therefore Time Constant = R
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18.3.3 When DC Current is Removed

The same sort of process occurs when the switch is moved to position B.
The current does not immediately fall to zero (because the inductor
opposes any change in current flow), but decays exponentially to zero.
Voltage Change. Note that we now have a short circuit and the applied
voltage to zero. Hence from Kirchhoff’s second law, the voltage across
the inductor must at all times be equal, but opposite in sign, to that
across the resistor.
18.3.4 Safety
As the current increases through an inductor, flux builds up and energy is
stored in the magnetic field. On short circuiting the inductor, the
magnetic field collapses and the energy is returned to the circuit,
maintaining the current as it decays to zero. If the circuit is open
circuited rather than short circuited, then the collapsing flux will produce
a large emf that may cause sparking across the switch contacts as they
are opened (causing damage to the contacts and producing heat and
electromagnetic radiation). Additionally these large emf’s can cause
electric shocks on what are considered safe, low voltage d.c. circuits.
dc generation
If a conductor is moved at right angles to a magnetic field, an emf is
induced in the conductor. If an external circuit is then connected to the
conductor a current will flow. The direction of the current flow depends
on two things, the:
 direction of the magnetic field
 direction of relative movement between the conductor
and the field
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and can be determined by using Fleming’s right hand rule.
The size of the generated emf depends on three factors:

the strength of the magnetic field - B
the effective length of the conductor in the field - l
the linear velocity of the conductor - v
The three being related in the formula E = Blv
18.4 Simple Single Loop Generator
In its simplest form, a generator consists of a single loop of wire rotated between
the poles of a permanent magnet. The rotating part of the machine is called the
rotor or armature and is connected to the stationary external circuit via two slip
rings, thus allowing a current flow.
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18.4.1 Induced EMF

As the loop rotates an emf is induced in both sides of the conductor. By
using Fleming’s right hand rule it can be seen that the resultant currents
flow in opposite directions on each side, but are in the same direction
around the loop.

An emf is only induced in a conductor when it is moved at right angles to
a magnetic field, therefore the loop will also have an emf induced in it
when it is moving at right angles to the field, when moving parallel to the
field no emf will be induced. At any position in between there will be a
proportion of maximum emf induced in the loop.
The instantaneous value of emf induced in the loop is given by:
e(instant) = E(max) sin 
where E(max) = lv and  is the angle of the conductor with
respect to the field.
As the loop passes the neutral point, the conductors direction of travel
through the field reverses. The conductor that was moving upwards
through the field is now moving downwards, therefore, the emf's
induced in the conductors must change direction as must the resultant
current flow.
18.4.2 Output Frequency
As the loop rotates, the emf rises to a max in one direction, then falls to
zero and then rises to a maximum in the opposite direction before once
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again falling to zero. One complete revolution is one cycle, the loop
having returned to its start position.
The number of cycles per second gives the frequency. The faster the loop
is rotated the more cycles per second and the higher the frequency. In
this simple generator the frequency depends on the number of loop
revolutions per second.
The output from this generator changes polarity every time the loop
rotates 180 degrees and is therefore of little use as a direct current
generator.
18.5 Commutation
In order to make the current flow the same way through the load, the external
circuit must be switched over every time the loop moves past its neutral position.
This is achieved using a commutator.
The commutator is used in place of slip rings and connects the rotating loop to the
stationary external circuit.
The commutator has 2 functions:
Firstly, to transfer current from the rotating loop to the stationary external circuit.
Secondly, the periodic switching of the external circuit to maintain current flow in
the same direction. The switching takes place when the loop is moving parallel to
the field and has no emf induced in it.
Using a single loop generator and two segment commutator, the output will be as
shown above.
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Although the current now flows in the same direction through the external circuit, it
is still of little practical use because the voltage and current fall the zero twice every
cycle. Using several loops and a multi-segment commutator a more constant output
can be produced.
18.6 Ring Wound Generator
The simple construction of the ring wound generator makes it ideal for explaining
the operation of a multi coil machine.
The rotor consists of a laminated iron cylinder onto which are wound 8 equally
spaced coils. The junction between each pair of coils is connected to a segment of
the commutator. The number of segments equals the number of coils, this being
true for all d.c. generator armature windings.

The brushes are drawn inside for clarity and are positioned so that when they short
circuit a coil, that coil is moving parallel to the magnetic field and has no emf
induced in it.
The metal used for the rotor has a very low reluctance, therefore the main field flux
flows through it rather than through the airgap in the center. The parts of the coils
on the inside of the rotor therefore have no emf induced in them. The low
reluctance rotor creates a radial field in the airgap, as shown below.
The radial field means that the conductors are moving at right angles to the flux for a
longer period of time and are therefore producing maximum emf for longer. This
results in a flat top to the output waveform as shown above.
The 8 coils are split into two parallel paths of four, each group of four coils being
connected in series. Because one set of four coils is moving up through the main
field and the other set is moving down through the field, the emf's induced in each
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set of four coils is in the opposite direction, but it is in the same direction with
respect to the brushes.
The emf induced in four coils is as shown below. The emf in the other four coils is in
the opposite direction but in the same direction with respect to the brushes. It can
be seen that the emf no longer falls to zero and only has a small ripple on it.
The ring wound generator is no longer used. Although simple in construction, there
are difficulties in winding the coils through the rotor, also, half of each coil has no
emf induced.
18.7 Practical DC Generator
18.7.1 Construction
The size and weight of generators vary considerably, but all are
constructed in a manner similar to that shown below.
The field assembly consists of a cylindrical frame, or yoke, onto which the
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pole pieces are bolted. Generators generally have at least four pole
pieces, although small machines may have only two. Wound around each
pole piece is a field coil. The yoke has a low reluctance and provides a
path for the main field of the machine. To reduce eddy currents the yoke
is usually laminated.
The armature core also provides a path for the main field and is therefore
also of low reluctance and laminated.
The armature windings are located in slots cut in the core, being wedged
in with insulation to prevent them being thrown out by centrifugal forces.
The coils are normally wound so that they return along a slot in the rotor
that is one pole pitch away (see diagram below).
Pole pitch is a term used to describe the angle between one main pole
and the next main pole of the opposite polarity.
The emf induced in each side of the coil is again in opposite directions but
assisting around the coil. This type of winding is called a drum winding
and has the advantage that the coils can be wound and insulated before
being fitted into the rotor. There are two types of drum winding, Lap
wound and wave wound.
The armature windings are connected to risers attached to the
commutator. The commutator consisting of copper segments separated
by mica insulation.
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The brush gear assembly consists of a holder and rocker. The holder
allows the brushes to slide up a down without allowing them to move
laterally, the rocker allows the brushes to be rotated around the
commutator so that they can be positioned on the magnetic neutral axis.
It should be noted that the output power from a d.c. generator is
governed primarily by its ability to dissipate heat. Methods of cooling
vary, a large, low power generator would normally be cooled naturally by
convection and radiation. Smaller, higher power generators will need
some form of cooling system that blows or sucks air through the
generator. This may use ram air from a propeller slipstream or from
movement of the aircraft through the air, or a fan attached to the rotor
shaft of the generator.
18.7.2 Lap Wound Generator
In a lap wound generator the end of each coil is bent back to the start of
the next coil, the two
ends of any coil being
connected to
adjacent segments of
the commutator (see
diagram above). This
form of construction
is used on large heavy
current machines.
The number of
parallel paths for current always equals the number of brushes and the
number of field poles (see diagram).
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18.7.3 Wave Wound Generator
In a wave wound generator the end of each coil is bent forward to be

connected to the start of another coil located in a similar position under
the next pair of main poles (see diagram above). The ends of one coil are
connected to segments two pole pitches away. This type of machine has
two parallel paths and uses only two brushes, irrespective of the number
of poles (see diagram).
This type of winding is used in smaller machines and is therefore more
common on aircraft generators.
18.7.4 Internal Resistance
A d.c. machine has resistance due to the:
armature windings
brushes
brush to commutator surface contact
This is called internal resistance and can be measured across the
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terminals of the generator.

For the purposes of calculation the internal resistance is represented as a
single value in series with the generated emf.
Due to internal resistance, the generators terminal voltage varies with
load current. As load current is increased the voltage dropped across the
internal resistance increases and the terminal voltage decreases.
At full load current Generated EMF = Ir + V
18.7.5 Armature Reaction
When armature current is flowing, a field is produced around the
armature conductors. The overall field of the machine is then produced
by the interaction between the main field and the armature field.
The armature field is at 90 degrees to the main field of the machine and
therefore distorts it as shown below.
This distorting of the field is called

armature reaction and has the effect of
causing a weaker field at points A and a
stronger field at points B.
The machine is working near to
saturation and therefore the overall
effect is a weakening of the field and a
reduction in the generator output.
Distortion of the field also means that
the magnetic, or electric neutral axis is
moved around in the direction of rotation, away from the machines
geometric neutral axis. When the brushes now short an armature coil, it
is no longer at a point where zero emf is induced in it, therefore the
brushes must be moved. The position they are moved to depends on the
armature current, the greater the current the further the brushes must
be advanced.
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Armature reaction can be reduced by fitting compensating windings,

these are small windings wound in series with the armature and fitted
into slots cut in the pole faces of the main fields.
When armature current flows, current flows in the compensating
windings producing a field that cancels the armature field.
With careful design, correction is applied for all values of armature
current, bringing the magnetic neutral axis back onto the geometric
neutral axis and restoring the overall strength of the machines field.
18.7.6 Reactive Sparking
The diagrams below represents the movement of the commutator under
the brush. Prior to being shorted by the brush, current in coil A is at a
maximum value left to right. After leaving the brush, current will be at a
maximum value in the opposite direction through the coil, as shown in
coil B. Whilst the coil is shorted by the brush the current must drop to
zero, ready for it to go to maximum in the opposite direction when it

comes of the brush.
Unfortunately the coil has inductance, when shorted, a back emf is
produced that tries to maintain current flow. When the coil comes off the
brush, current has not reduced to zero, resulting in an excess of current
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that jumps as a spark from the commutator to the brush. The sparking
produced is called reactive sparking.
Sparking at the commutator may also be caused by:
 worn or sticking brushes
 incorrect spring tension
 commutator flats
 proud mica
One way of overcoming the problem is to increase the resistance of the
brushes, this reduces the time constant of the inductive circuit allowing
the current to collapse to zero during commutation. Increasing the
resistance of the brushes produces a power loss and increases the overall
resistance of the machine.
18.7.6.1 EMF Commutation
Another way of overcoming the problem is to use emf commutation. The
purpose of emf commutation is to neutralize the reactance voltage that
leads to the reactive sparking. One way of achieving this is to advance the
brushes beyond the magnetic neutral axis, this means the coils are under
the influence of the next main pole before being shorted and will
therefore have an emf induced in them.
The induced emf will be off opposite polarity to the reactance voltage
and will reduce it, thereby reducing the current in the coil and allowing
time for it to drop to zero whilst the coil is shorted.
Unfortunately advancing the brushes is only good for one value of
armature current, if the current increases the brushes must be advanced
further.
Advancing the brushes also increases the demagnetizing effects of
armature reaction.
A better way of applying emf commutation is to fit commutating or
interpoles between the main poles of the machine. Interpoles have the
same polarity as the next main pole and are connected in series with the
armature.
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The interpoles induce an emf into the short circuited coils that exactly
cancels the back emf, thus allowing the current to fall to zero instantly.
Being in series with the armature means that the reactance voltage is
always eliminated irrespective of the value of armature current.
By careful design the interpoles can also be used to eliminate armature
reaction in the interpole region.
18.8 Generator Classifications
Generators are usually classified by the method of excitation used. There are three
classifications; permanent magnet, separately excited and self excited.
A permanent magnet generator has a limited output power and an output voltage
that is directly proportional to speed.
A separately excited generator has its field supplied from an external source. The
output voltage being controlled by varying the field current.
Self-excited generators supply their own field current from the generator output,
again the output voltage is controlled by varying the field current. This group may be
subdivided into three sub-groups; series, shunt and compound.
18.8.1 Series Generator
The series generator has a field winding consisting of a few turns of heavy
gauge wire connected in series with the armature.
On "No-load" there is no armature current and therefore no field current.

The only voltage generated is due to residual magnetism within the
fields.
As the load current increases the field current increases and the terminal
voltage rises, the increase in voltage more than compensating for the loss
due to armature reactance and internal resistance. The voltage continues
to rise until saturation of the field occurs.
A series generator therefore has a rising characteristic and is generally
only used as a line booster.
18.8.2 Shunt generator
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The shunt generator has a field consisting of many turns of fine wire
connected in parallel with the armature.
On "No-load" the terminal voltage is a maximum. As the load current is

increased, the terminal voltage decreases due to the resistance of the
armature and armature reactance.
The shunt generator has a falling characteristic and is used for d.c.
generation on aircraft.
18.8.3 Self Excitation
For a d.c. generator to self-excite, certain conditions must be met:
 The generator must have residual magnetism.
 The excitation field, when formed, must assist the residual
magnetism.
For shunt generators additional criteria need to be met:
 The field resistance must be below a critical value.
 The load resistance must not be too low.
Due to 1 and 2 above, the only way to reverse the output voltage of a d.c.
generator is to reverse the polarity of the residual magnetism. If the field
winding supply, or the drive direction is reversed, the excitation will
oppose the residual magnetism and the field will be lost.
18.8.4 Compound Generator
Compound generators have both series and shunt field windings and fall
into one of two categories:
 differential compound generators, in which the two fields are
wound so as to oppose each other.
 cumulative compound generators, in which the fields are wound
so as to assist each other.
The differential type of compound generator is generally used where a
high initial voltage is required but only a low running voltage. Devices
such as arc welders or arc lighting may use this form of generator.
Cumulative machines can be wound to produce over, level or under
compounding. Under compounding is more common in aircraft
generators, the output voltage falling as the load current is increased.
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19. DC Motors
If a current carrying conductor is placed at
right angles to a magnetic field, a force will be
exerted on it, causing it to move.
The direction of the force and the resultant
movement depends on two factors, the :
 direction of current flow in the conductor
 and the direction of the magnetic field
The direction of the force and the resultant
movement can be found by using Fleming’s
left hand rule as shown below:
19.1 Simple Single Loop Motor

The simplest form of motor consists of a single loop of
wire able to rotate between the poles of a permanent
magnet.
If a current is applied to the loop through slip rings, a
motor torque will be produced, and the loop will start to
rotate.
As the loop rotates past vertical, the current appears to
change direction, this causes the torque to change
direction, so the direction of rotation changes.
When the loop passes vertical, the current appears to
change direction again, causing rotation to revert to its
original direction.
If left, the loop simply oscillates back and forth either side
of the vertical position.
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19.2 Commutation
To make the loop rotate, the current must be made to change direction as the loop
passes the vertical position, this is achieved using a commutator and brushes.
When current is applied to the loop a motor torque is produced and the loop starts
to rotate. When the loop is vertical no rotational torque is produced, however,

momentum keeps it moving, at this position the direction of current within the loop
is reversed by the commutator, so that as the vertical position is passed, the torque
produced is in the original direction, maintaining rotation.
To improve the torque and produce smoother running more loops or coils are added
to the armature, each having its own commutator segment. The construction is as
described earlier in d.c. generators.
19.3 Practical DC Motors
19.3.1 Construction
Direct current generators are constructed in the same manner as d.c.
generators, therefore further description is unnecessary. The similarities
as such that one machine can be operated as the other with only minimal
adjustment, and in the case of more expensive machines used as starter
generators, with no adjustment.
Most motors have some form of rating, this being a limit on the
performance. Rating take various forms depending on the type, size and
use of the motor, but are generally based on a limit on the speed,
duration or altitude of operation.
As with generators, the limit on a motors performance depends very
much on the ability of the machine to dissipate heat. Cooling may be
natural, by convection and radiation, or assisted by rotor mounted fans,
blast air or slipstream.
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19.3.2 Back EMF

When a conductor moves in a field, an emf is induced in the conductor.
The armature coils are
moving in a magnetic field
and therefore must have
an emf induced in them,
this emf acts against the
applied voltage and is
called back emf.
The resultant of the two
voltages is called the
effective voltage. The
flow of armature current
is due to the effective voltage.
When running, the back emf is almost equal to the applied voltage,
therefore the effective voltage and the current taken from the supply are
both small.
19.3.3 Starting D.C. Motors
When starting, the rotor is stationary and therefore producing no back
emf, this results in a high effective voltage and a large current being
taken from the supply. To limit the current a starting resistor is often
used, the resistor being removed from the circuit once the motor is
running.
19.3.4 Torque
The torque produced by a d.c. motor is directly proportional to the
armature current and the magnetic field strength.
T = IARMATURE
Some torque is lost within the motor, especially if a fan is fitted to the
rotor shaft. The torque lost is not constant, usually increasing with an
increase in speed.
19.3.5 Armature Reaction
The overall field of a d.c. motor consists
of the armature field and the stator
field. The two fields react, as in the d.c.
generator, producing armature reaction.
Armature reaction causes the magnetic
neutral axis of the motor to be moved
around in the opposite direction to that
of the generator, against the direction
of rotation. The problem can be
overcome as in d.c. generators, by
fitting compensating windings.
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19.3.6 Reactive sparking

The d.c. motor also suffers from reactive sparking. For fixed load motors
this problem is overcome simply by moving the brushes onto the
magnetic neutral axis, for variable load motors, interpoles are used as in
a d.c. generator.
19.3.7 Speed control
The effects of back emf make a d.c. motor a self regulating machine. If
the load is increased, load torque exceeds motor torque and the motor
slows down, the reduction in speed causing a decrease in the back emf
and an increase in the effective voltage across the armature. The increase
in effective voltage causes an increase in the current drawn from the
supply and an increase in motor torque, the increase in motor torque
causes an increase in speed to cope with the load increase.
The speed of a d.c. motor can be varied by controlling the field current or
by controlling the armature current.
19.3.7.1 Field Control
With field control, a decrease in field current will cause an increase in
motor speed;
main field decreases
back emf across armature decreases
effective voltage increases
armature current increases
motor torque increases over load torque
motor speed increases
This occurs because a small change in the main field strength causes a
large change in the armature current. Of course, this cannot continue
uncontrolled because eventually the field will be lost. Field control is
generally used for speed control of normal running speed and upwards.
19.3.7.2 Armature Control
With armature control, an increase in armature current causes an
increase in motor torque over load torque and the motor speed
increases. A decrease in armature current causes a decrease in motor
speed. Armature control is generally used for control of normal running
speed and downwards.
19.3.7.3 Changing the Direction of Rotation
To change the direction of rotation it is only necessary to change the
direction of the main field or the armature current. If both are changed
the motor will rotate in the same direction.
In the majority of cases where a bi-directional d.c. motor is required on
an aircraft, a split field motor is used. This motor will be examined in
more detail later in the notes, suffice to say it has two fields windings,
one for clockwise rotation and another for anti-clockwise rotation.
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19.4 Motor Classifications

Dc motors are constructed in same manner as dc generators. Armatures are wound
in same manner, either wave or lap, the only difference is the positioning of brushes
due to arm reaction or reactive sparking.
Motors are classified in the same manner as generators - shunt, series and
compound. Each type having its own operating characteristics and uses.
19.4.1 Series Motor
A series motor has a low resistance, heavy gauge winding in series with
the armature winding. On light loads speed is high, armature current is
low and the field is weak. On heavy loads speed is low, armature current
is high and the field is strong. Series motors have a wide speed variation
with load.
The armature torque is proportional to the magnetic field and armature

current. In series motors the magnetic field depends on the armature
current. Torque is approximately proportional to the square of the
armature current. In practice less (particularly on heavy loads) due to
armature reaction and saturation of the magnetic circuit.
As speed increases, the torque decreases, until the load torque and
motor torque balance. If the load of a series motor is removed, speed
may become dangerously high. It is not normal practice to run these
motors off load.
When starting, a series motor it is normally connected straight to the
supply. Initial current is limited by the combined resistance of the field
and arm windings and by the inductance of field winding. The field
strength builds up quickly, giving a high starting torque, fast acceleration
and rapid back emf build up. There is a short period of high current drain
on the supply.
Where a large speed range is required, as in turbine engine starting, a
starter resistor is initially used in series with the motor and removed
when the motor is required to increase speed. The starter resistor must
be able to carry large current involved. New line applications include
starter motors, cranes and ac actuators.
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Some series motors are fitted with two separate windings. This enables
motor rotation to be quickly reversed. Applications include fuel valves
landing lights.
19.4.2 Shunt Motor
Shunt Wound motors have a high resistance field winding in parallel with
armature. The Field current will be constant if the input voltage is
constant and no field control resistor is used.
When load torque is increased, the motor will slow down, the fall in back
emf allows the armature current to rise and the motor torque increases.
When the motor torque matches the load torque, the speed again
becomes constant.
Small decreases in speed cause relatively large increases in the armature
current. Between no load and full load the variation in speed of a direct
current shunt motor with a low resistance, armature is small. This can be
regarded as constant speed. With a high resistance armature, there is a
more noticeable variation in speed with load.
When a shunt motor has a constant input voltage;
on light loads the magnetic field is constant and the torque is directly
proportional to the armature current.
on heavy loads the magnetic field reduced by armature reaction and
torque does not rise in direct proportion to the armature current.
If a motor does not increase speed when connected to the supply, then
no back emf is produced. This causes a high armature current, large
armature reaction and reduced torque and the motor will not start.
Several options are available to over the problem:
use motor on a small load
start motor with no load
increase arm resistance
use starter resistor
A low resistance shunt motor is normally started with a variable resistor,
set to maximum resistance, placed in series with the armature. This
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reduces the armature current and armature reaction, increasing the start
torque.
As the speed increases, the back emf increases and armature current
reduces. As the speed builds the resistance is gradually decreased until
at normal running speed it is totally removed from the circuit.
An automatic method used for inserting a resistor is series with the
armature for starting, and removing it once the back emf has been
developed is referred to as a 'T Start' circuit.
At switch on the armature is stationary and producing no back emf,
therefore the voltage at A is almost zero, the relay is de-energized and
the resistance is in circuit limiting the current.
As the rotor starts to turn and the back emf increases, the potential point
A starts to increase.
At a pre-determined speed the potential at point A and the current
through the coil, will be sufficient to cause the relay to energize,
removing the resistor from the armature circuit.
 Speed Control - The speed of a shunt motor is normally controlled by

a variable resistor placed in series with the field winding. When the
resistance is increases the field current is reduced, this reduces the
back emf, increasing the effective voltage. The increase in effective
voltage results in an increase in armature current and an increase in
speed. When required to reduce the speed of the motor, the field
resistance is decreased.
Separately Excited Shunt Motors - Separately excited d.c. shunt motors
have the same operating characteristics as described and the therefore
require no additional consideration.
Applications - Shunt motors have uses where a constant speed is
required and will be found in inverter drives and windscreen wipers.
19.4.3 Compound Motor
These are used to meet specific requirements we:
 May require motor with high start torque, will not race off load.
 May require motor to increase, decrease or maintain speed as load
varies.
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These requirements can be met with suitable compounding. There are

two forms of compound motor.
 Differential - fields connected to oppose each other
 Cumulative - fields connected to assist each other
19.4.4 Split Field Motor
In certain applications it is necessary to change the direction of rotation
of a motor. Typical examples would be in valves and actuators. We have
already seen that this can be achieved by reversing the direction of the
armature or field current, however, there is also a special form of
reversible series motor known as a split field motor.
A split field motor is simply a series motor with two field windings. The
windings are wound in opposite directions, with one of the two windings
being used for each direction of rotation. The direction is usually
controlled by a single pole, double throw switch as shown below.
The above circuit is in fact that of an actuator and includes not only a split
field motor, but also a selector switch, limit switches and a brake
solenoid.
The motor is shown as having driven to position 1, this can be seen
because limit switch A is not connected to the field winding. Whether this
position is fully open, fully closed, extended or retracted depends on the
device being driven.
When it is required that the actuator drive to position 2, the selector
switch is moved to position 2. Current flows through the field winding,
brake solenoid and armature winding. The brake is released and the
motor starts to turn. As soon as the motor moves, it is no longer in
position 1, so switch A moves across. This allows the direction to be
reversed by returning the selector switch to position 1 should the need
dictate. When the motor reaches the limit of travel at position 2, switch B
moves across, removing the motor power supply. The brake solenoid,
field winding and armature de-energizes, the brake is applied and the
motor stops.
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If the selector switch is now moved to position 1, the upper field winding,
brake solenoid and armature are energized. The brake is released and the
motor runs in the opposite direction towards position 1. Again as soon as
the motor turns, it is no longer at position 2 so the lower switch moves
over to contact the field winding.
19.5 Rating
Most motors have a rating - a limit on performance or operation. Ratings take
various forms - output, time, speed, altitude. As with generators output depends
very much on machines ability to dissipate heat. All machines require some form of
cooling. Low output motors or those that are not used for continuous operation
may be cooled naturally. Others may be fitted with centrifugal or straight fan to
drive air through machine - usual small machines. Others use air ducted from
slipstream.
Starter Generators
Many gas turbine aircraft are equipped with starter-generator systems. These
starting systems use a combination starter-generator which operates as a starter
motor to drive the engine during starting, and after the engine has reached a self-
sustaining speed, operates as a generator to supply the electrical system power.
The starter-generator unit shown below left, is basically a shunt generator with an
additional heavy series winding. This series winding is electrically connected to
produce a strong field and a resulting high torque for starting.
Starter-generator units are desirable from an economical standpoint, since one unit
performs the functions of both starter and generator. Additionally, the total weight
of starting system components is reduced, and fewer spare parts are required.
The starter-generator shown below right has four windings; (1) A series field, (2) a
shunt field, (3) a compensating field, and (4) an interpole winding. During starting,
the series, compensating, and interpole windings are used. The unit is similar to a
direct-cranking starter since all of the windings used during starting are in series
with the source. While acting as a starter, the unit makes no practical use of its
shunt field. A source of 24 volts and 1,500 amperes is usually required for starting.
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When operating as a generator, the shunt, compensating and interpole windings are
used. The series field is used only for starting purpose. The shunt field is connected
in the conventional voltage control circuit for the generator. Compensating and
interpole windings provide almost sparkless commutation from no load to full load.
The following diagram illustrates the external circuit of a starter-generator with

undercurrent controller. This unit controls the starter-generator when it is used as a
starter. Its purpose is to assure positive action of the starter and to keep it
operating until the engine is rotating fast enough to sustain combustion. The
control block of the undercurrent controller contains two relays; one is the motor
relay which controls the input to the starter. The other, the undercurrent relay,
controls the operation of the motor relay.
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To start an engine equipped with an undercurrent relay, it is first necessary to close

the engine master switch. This completes the circuit from the aircraft's bus to the
start switch, to the fuel valves, and to the throttle relay. Energizing the throttle relay
starts the fuel pumps, and completing the fuel valve circuit gives the necessary fuel
pressure for starting the engine.

As the battery and start switch is turned on, three relays close. They are the motor
relay, the ignition relay and the battery cutout relay. The motor relay closes the
circuit from the power source to the starter motor; the ignition relay closes the
circuit to the ignition units; and the battery cutout relay disconnects the battery. On
this particular aircraft opening the battery circuit is necessary because the heavy
drain of the starter motor would damage the battery, this is not the general case.
The majority of aircraft are designed to be started using the battery so as to make
the aircraft independent of ground resources, the battery will however be
disconnected from the bus when the ground power is connected and care must be
taken to ensure the ground power unit is capable of supplying the current required
by the starter motor.
Closing the motor relay allows a very high current to flow to the motor. Since this
current flows through the coil of the undercurrent relay, it closes. Closing the
undercurrent relay completes a circuit from the positive bus to the motor relay coil,
ignition relay coil, and the battery cutout relay coil. The start switch is allowed to
return to its normal "off" position and all units continue to operate.
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As the motor builds up speed, the current draw of the motor begins to decrease,
and as it decreases to less than 200 amps, the undercurrent relay opens. This action
breaks the circuit from the positive bus to the coils of the motor, ignition and battery
cutout relays. The de-energizing of these relay coils halts the start operation.
After the procedures described are completed, the engine should be operating
efficiently and ignition should be self-sustaining. If, however, the engine fails to
reach sufficient speed, the stop switch may be used to break the circuit from the
positive bus to the main contacts of the undercurrent relay, thereby halting the start
operation.
On a typical aircraft installation, one starter-generator is mounted on each engine
gearbox. During starting, the starter-generator unit functions as a d.c. starter motor
until the engine has reached a predetermined self-sustaining speed. Aircraft
equipped with two 24 volt batteries can supply the electrical load required for
starting by operating the batteries in a series configuration.
The following description of the starting procedure used on a four-engine turbojet
aircraft equipped with starter-generator units is typical of most starter-generator
starting systems.
Starting power, which can be applied to only one starter-generator at a time, is
connected to a terminal of the selected starter-generator through a corresponding
starter relay. Engine starting is controlled from an engine start panel. A typical start
panel (see diagram below) contains the following switches, an air start switch and a
Start Switch.
The engine selector switch shown has five positions ('1, 2, 3, 4, and off'), and is
turned to the position corresponding to the engine to be started. The power
selector switch is used to select the electrical, circuit applicable to the power source
(ground power unit or battery) being used. The air-start switch, when placed in the
"normal" position, arms the ground starting circuit. When placed in the "air-start"
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position, the igniters can be energized independently of the throttle ignition switch.
The start switch when in the "start" position completed the circuit to the starter-
generator of the engine selected to be started, and causes the engine to rotate. The
engine start panel shown above also include a battery switch.
When an engine is selected with the engine selector switch, and the start switch is
held in the "start" position, the starter relay corresponding to the selected engine is
energized and connects that engine's starter-generator to the starter bus. When the
start switch is placed in the "start" position, a start lock-in relay is also energized.
Once energized, the start lock-in relay provides its own holding circuit and remains
energized providing closed circuits for various start functions.
An overvoltage lockout relay is provided for each start-generator. During ground
starting, the overvoltage lockout relay for the elected start-generator is energized
through the starting control circuits. When an overvoltage lockout relay is
energized, overvoltage protection for the selected started- generator is suspended.
A bypass of the voltage regulator for the selected starter-generator is also provided
to remove undesirable control and resistance from the starting shunt field.
On some aircraft a battery lockout switch is installed in the external power
receptacle compartment. When the door is closed, activating the switch, the ground
starting control circuits function for battery starting only. When the door is open,
only external power ground starts can be accomplished.
A battery series relay is also a necessary unit in this starting system. When
energized, the battery series to the starter bus, providing an initial starting voltage
of 48 volts. The large voltage drop which occurs in delivering the current needed for
starting reduces the voltage to approximately 20 volts at the instant of starting. The
voltage gradually increases as starter current decreases with engine acceleration
and the voltage on the starter bus eventually approaches its original maximum of 48
volts.
Some multi-engine aircraft equipped with starter-generators includes a parallel start
relay in their starting system. After the first two engines of a four-engine aircraft are
started, current flow for starting each of the last two engines passes through a
parallel start relay which shift the battery output from series to parallel. When
starting the first two engines, the starting power requirement necessitates
connecting the batteries in series. After two or more engine generators are
providing power, the combined power of the batteries in series is not required.
Thus, the battery circuit is shifted from series to parallel when the parallel start relay
is energized.
To start an engine with the aircraft batteries, the start switch is placed in the "start"
position. This completed a circuit through a circuit breaker, the throttle ignition
switch and the engine selector switch to energize the start lock-in relay. Power then
has a path from the start switch through the "bat start" position of the power
selector to energize the battery series relay, which connects the aircraft batteries in
series to the starter bus.
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Energizing the No 1 engine's starter relay directs power from the starter bus to the
No. 1 starter-generator, which then cranks the engine.
At the time the batteries are connected to the starter bus, power is also routed to
the appropriate bus for the throttle ignition switch. The ignition system is
connected to the starter bus through an overvoltage relay which does not become
energized until the engine begins accelerating and the starter bus voltage reaches
about 30 volts.
As the engine is turned by the starter to approximately 10% r.p.m. the throttle is
advanced to the "idle" position. This action actuates the throttle ignition switch,
energizing the igniter relay/ When the igniter relay is closed, power is provided to
excite the igniters and fire the engine.
When the engine reaches about 25 to 30% r.p.m., the start switch is released to the
"off" position. This removes the start and ignition circuits from the engine start
cycles, and the engine accelerates under its own power.
19.6 Production of a Sinewave

The only feasible way of generating an electromotive force (emf) by mechanical
means is to rotate a conductor in a magnetic field. As the direction of motion
through the field is changing, the induced emf in the conductor will also change. In
addition, the induced emf will start at zero, rise to a maximum value, decay to zero
and then repeat the process in the reverse direction. It is in this way that basic
alternating emf’s are produced, leading, when there is a complete circuit, to
alternating current (ac) flow.
By making the conductor in the form of a loop, we have the basis of the simple ac
generator.
All generators, both dc and ac, have this basic design. In a dc machine the output to
the load is continually switched by the commutator so that the load current always
flows in one direction. In the ac machine the current through the load is continually
reversing.
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If the generated emf of the loop is measured and plotted as the loop rotates, the
result will be as shown in the diagram below.
It can be seen that when the conductors are moving parallel to the lines of flux, and
not cutting them, the induced emf is zero. When the conductors are cutting the lines
of flux at right angles, maximum emf is induced in them. By convention, the part of
the waveform above the zero line is labelled positive and the part below the line is
labelled negative.
19.7 The Sinewave
If the conductor is rotated at uniform speed in a uniform magnetic field, then the
output waveform is said to be ‘sinusoidal’ and we refer to this type of waveform as a
sine wave. There are many other wave shapes that can be generated or developed,
but it is the sine wave that is used for main power supply systems. It is therefore
necessary for the engineer to be very familiar with this particular waveform and he
is expected to be able to remember and use the various figures and formulae
associated with it.
The wave generated is called a sine wave because its amplitude (height) at any
instant can be calculated from sine tables, i.e. plotting the sines of all angles
between 0º and 360º.
When the conductor has completed 360º of rotation, it is said to have completed
one cycle.
19.7.1 Peak and Peak-to-Peak Values
Amplitude values and their calculation apply equally to current and to
voltage measurement.
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The Peak or Maximum Value. The maximum value attained by the wave
in either direction is called the maximum value or, more usually, the peak
value.
The Peak-to-Peak Value. The maximum in one direction to the maximum

in the other direction is called the Peak-to-Peak value. It must not be
confused with peak value, which is measured in one direction only and
which is normally used in calculations. Peak-to-peak values are often
used on oscilloscopes because it is easier to measure from top to bottom
of the waveform. It must be remembered to divide the peak-to-peak
value by two in order to obtain the peak value for calculations.
The Instantaneous Value. As previously stated, the value at any instant
can be calculated by multiplying the peak value by the sine of the angle
(from 0º) through which the conductor has rotated.
19.7.2 Average Values
The amplitude of an ac waveform may be defined in terms of its average
values. Over one complete cycle this would mathematically be zero (the
wave goes as far positive as it does negative) If the pulses of voltage or
current are always in one direction, the average value can be calculated
from:
For single-phase full-wave rectification
Average Value = Peak Value × 0.637
For single-phase half-wave rectification
Average Value = Peak Value × 0.318
19.7.3 RMS Values
Whilst the Peak and Average values of ac have their place and uses, they
are not a lot of use for everyday work on ac. What is required is a value
of ac which relates to an equivalent value of dc. Suppose that an electric
fire is operating with 5 amperes of dc flowing through it and it is giving
out a certain amount of heat, we want to able to say that 5 amperes of ac
is flowing through it. Such a value is given by the Root Mean Square
(rms) value of ac.
For a sinusoidal waveform, the rms value = peak value × 0.707.
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In other words, a sine wave of peak value ‘y’ produces a certain amount
of heat when passed through a given resistor. To produce the same
heating effect in the same resistor using dc, would require a dc with a
steady current of only 0.707 of ‘y’.
By convention, it is not necessary to add ‘rms’ to a voltage or current
value but, if peak or average values are being referred to, then the word
‘peak’ (Pk) or ‘average’ (Av) must be added after the value.
19.7.4 Form Factor.
The form factor of a waveform is a number which indicates its shape:
Form Factor = rms value
average value
For a sine waveform, this works out at 0.707 / 0.637 = 1.11. For any
other waveform, the values will be different and so the Form Factor will
be a different number. (This is given in these notes for information only
as the aircraft electrician should not have to concern himself with the
form factor).
19.7.5 Periodic Time
The time taken to complete one cycle is called the ‘periodic time’ (t),
measured in seconds or fractions of a second.
19.7.6 Frequency
In electrical terms, the frequency is the number of cycles completed in
one second (cycles per second) which is expressed in Hertz (Hz).
1 Hz = 1 cycle / sec.
10 Hz = 10 cycles / sec. etc.
1,000 Hz (103 Hz) = 1 Kilo-Hertz (1 kHz)
1,000,000 Hz 6
(10 Hz) = 1 Mega-Hertz (1 MHz)
1,000,000,000 Hz 9
(10 Hz) = 1 Giga-Hertz (1GHz)
Periodic time and frequency are naturally related.
T = 1/f and f = 1/T
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19.7.7 Angular Velocity.

The velocity at which the phasor rotates is very important and can be
calculated from:
Distance
Speed = Time
Distance (one revolution) = 2 radians.
Time (periodic time) = 1/f.
2
Angular Velocity () (omega) =1/f radians per second
= 2f radians per second.
(A proper understanding of this formula is essential as it is used in other
formulae).
Referring back to our simple loop it can be seen that, if the loop was
rotating at 120 revs per second, then the output frequency would be 120
Hz. It therefore follows that the frequency of the output of an ac
generator is directly proportional to its speed of rotation.
19.7.8 Phase Difference (Angular Difference).
If two conductors are caused to rotate at the same angular velocity, then
two waves would be generated. Any angle between them is said to be
their phase difference. In the following diagram, the phase difference is
90º. As the conductors rotate in an anti-clockwise direction, the dotted
wave is said to lead the solid wave by 90º.

When two waves are 90º apart, they are said to be in ‘quadrature’ with
each other.
When two waves are 180º apart, they are said to be in ‘antiphase’ with
each other.
19.8 Phasor or Vector Diagrams
Waveform diagrams are difficult to visualize and engineers have devised a
diagrammatic method known as a phasor or vector diagram to simplify the
problem.
The terms vector and phasor are interchangeable, however, the term vector
is more general, being used to denote any quantity that has both magnitude
and direction i.e. velocity, whereas the term phasor tends to be associated
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more with electrical engineering. To avoid repetition the word phasor will be
used in these notes.
Imagine a length of Vm rotating in an anticlockwise direction, rather like the
conductor rotating in the magnetic field. If you plot the vertical displacement
of the tip of the line at various angular intervals, the curve traced out is a
sinewave.
When the line is horizontal, the vertical displacement of the tip of the line is
zero, corresponding to the start of the sinewave at point A. After the line has
rotated 90 in an anti-clockwise direction, the line points vertically upwards.
Point B on the diagram. After 180 rotation the line points to the left of the
page, and the vertical displacement is again zero. Rotation through a further
180 returns the line to its start point.

A phasor is a line representing the rotating line V m, frozen at some point in
time. Although line Vm was drawn to represent the maximum values, a
phasor is normally scaled to represent the r.m.s. values, and can be used to
represent voltage current, power or indeed flux. One rotation of the phasor
produces one cycle of the waveform, therefore the number of rotations
completed per second gives the frequency.
The 3 'o-clock position on a phasor diagram is considered to be the reference
point of the diagram. Whether the current, voltage, mmf or flux is drawn
pointing in this direction depends on the circuit being considered. If two or
more phase displaced waveforms are to be drawn on the same phasor
diagram they must have the same frequency, their phase displacements are
indicated by the angles between the phasors. It must be remembered that
phasors rotate anti-clockwise, therefore if a voltage leads a current by 90,
the two phasors should be drawn so that as they are rotated, the voltage
phasor is leading the way.
19.8.1 Addition of Phasors
The addition of sine waves is greatly simplified by the use of
phasor addition, however it should be remembered that, phasors
can only be used to add two sinewaves of the same frequency.
To add two phasors, a parallelogram is produces, the two extra
sides being drawn parallel to the phasor already present.
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Each extra side should start at the end of each phasor as shown.
Once the parallelogram has been produced, the resultant voltage
is represented by a line from the origin to the intersection of the

two new lines. The length of this new phasor represents the
magnitude of the new voltage and the angle between it and the
other phasor is the phase angle between them. When adding
more than two phasors, it is simply a matter of reducing pairs to a
single phasor, as described, until a single resultant remains.
19.9 Addition of AC & DC
It is possible for both ac and dc to exist in the same circuit or conductor. In
such cases the ac is said to be superimposed on the dc, or that the dc has an
ac ripple. The resultant waveform depends on the relative values of ac and
dc, as shown in the diagrams below.
19.10 Measuring AC Using Oscilloscopes

19.10.1 The cathode Ray oscilloscope
Cathode ray oscilloscopes are analogue-graphical instruments
which enable electrical waveforms to be displayed for analysis
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and measurement purposes. A typical instrument is represented

in the diagram below.
With reference to the above diagram, the grids g1, g2 and g3 of the
cathode ray tube (CRT) form an electron gun which projects a

stream of electrons between deflecting plates onto the screen.
The screen is coated with a phosphorescent material so that a
luminous spot is produced on the screen. A property of the
screen coating material allows the spot to persist for a period of
time should the stream of electrons be moved or interrupted.
The amount of illumination depends on the quantity of electrons
in the stream and their velocity on impact with the screen.
The potential at grid g1, which is negative with respect to the
cathode, controls the quantity of electrons emitted from the
cathode. Adjusting R1 varies the potential at g1, hence R1 controls
the brightness of the illuminated spot. Positive potentials at g2
and g3 accelerate the electrons towards the screen. The potential
difference between g2 and g3, varied by adjusting R2, sets up an
electrostatic field which enables the electron stream to be
confused at the screen.
The position of the spot on the screen is determined by the
simultaneous effect of voltages applied to the X and Y deflecting
plates. A potential difference between the X deflecting plates
causes the spot to move across the screen in the horizontal
direction, through a distance proportional to the potential
difference. A potential difference between the Y deflecting plates
exerts a similar control over the vertical movement of the spot.
The outputs of the X and Y amplifiers establish the potential
differences between corresponding pairs of deflecting plates. If
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these voltages vary in magnitude the spot moves over the screen
to produce a continuous trace. Since one voltage controls
horizontal deflection and the other controls vertical deflection,
the trace forms a graphical representation of one voltage as a
function of the other.
19.10.1.1 The Time Base
Most applications require that a signal waveform is displayed as a
function of time. To meet this requirement a time base circuit
supplies a voltage which varies linearly with time, usually, to the
horizontal (X) deflecting plates whilst the signal to be observed is
usually applied to the vertical (Y) deflecting plates. A time base
(sawtooth) voltage synchronized with a time dependent signal are
depicted in the diagram below.
The period t1, is the sweep that is

the time the spot takes to move
linearly from left to right across the
screen. During the much shorter
period t2, called the flyback time,
the spot returns rapidly to the left
to start a new cycle. During flyback
the screen may blacked out by a
negative pulse generated by the
time base circuit and applied to g1,
the control grid.
If the sweep period (T) of the time
base is equal to, or is a multiple of,
the periodic time of the signal applied to the Y deflecting plates, a
stationary display of the signal voltage variations with time will be
obtained. In the diagram above, the sweep period (T) equals the
1
periodic time  f  of the signal waveform. In practice the time
 
base is adjusted so that signals over a wide frequency range may
be displayed against a convenient time scale.
19.10.1.2 Synchronization
The time base and the displayed waveform may be synchronized
by employing a trigger circuit actuated by the signal itself, that is,
by using the output of the Y amplifier. Alternatively, an external
signal source or the mains supply may be used for this purpose.
The trigger circuit generates a pulse to initiate one sweep of the
time base when the voltage applied to the circuit reaches a
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predetermined value. The

circuit is adjustable so that a
particular trigger point on
either the positive or negative
half cycle of the displayed
waveform may be selected.
Where the signal to be
observed is non-periodic, or
when the signal appears
infrequently, the time base is
triggered by the signal,
performs one sweep and then
waits for the next signal to appear. In order that the beginning of
a non-periodic signal can also be examined, the vertical deflecting
voltage is delayed relative to the trigger pulse so that the time
base is started before the signal to be observed appears on the
screen. The time relationship is shown in the diagram.
19.10.1.3 MOD
On may oscilloscopes a terminal marked Z MOD is provided. The
terminal is connected through a blocking capacitor, to the control
grid (g1) of the cathode ray tube. The facility enables a
suitable voltage pulse to be applied to the grid so that selected
portions of the display can be blacked out or brightened for the
duration of the pulse.
19.10.1.4 Amplifiers & Attenuators
The X and Y amplifiers and attenuators provide the voltage scaling
required to ensure that the instrument and the measured signal
are compatible. Since the oscilloscope is required to display
complex voltage waveforms, it is essential that fundamental and
harmonic frequencies must undergo the same amplification or
attenuation, and that the time relationships between different
frequencies must be maintained. It therefore follows that both
the amplifier and the attenuators, must have flat amplitude
against frequency and transit time against frequency,
characteristics.
19.10.2 Types of Oscilloscopes
19.10.2.1 Sampling Oscilloscopes
At very high frequencies, say above 300MHz, it is not possible
using existing techniques to produce a continuous display on an
oscilloscope. To obtain a satisfactory display a sampling
technique must be used.
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As shown in the diagram below, in a sampling oscilloscope the

time base circuit produces a stepped voltage waveform to deflect
the electron beam in the horizontal direction. Prior to each step a
pulse is generated which initiates the sampling process.
The input signal is sampled later during each successive cycle to

produce the vertical deflection of an illuminated spot. In this way
the display, which may consist of 1,000 spots, is progressively
build up over a number of cycles of the input signal. An obvious
limitation of the sampling oscilloscope is that it cannot be used to
display transient waveforms.
19.10.2.2 Multiple Trace Display
Oscilloscopes equipped with multiple trace facilities enable two or
more signals to be displayed simultaneously. Essential features of
these instruments are a separate input channel (Y amplifies
attenuator etc.) for each signal and a means of separating the
electron beams for display. The most widely used instrument
enables two signals to be compared, although four beam
instruments are quite common.
Cathode ray tubes equipped with two electron guns and two sets
of deflecting plates, so that each channel is completely
independent, are employed in instruments known as Dual Beam
Oscilloscopes. Alternatively, a single gun tube may be used to
produce two traces by switching the Y deflecting plates from one
input signal to the other for alternate sweeps of the screen.
Although the signals are sampled, the display appears to the eye
as a continuous, simultaneous, display of both signals.
Oscilloscopes employing this techniques, which is called the
alternate mode, can only be used as single channel instruments
to investigate transient waveforms.
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19.10.2.3 Dual Trace CRO

19.10.2.3.1 Alternate Mode
The electronic switch alternately connect the main vertical

amplifier to the two vertical preamplifiers. The switching takes
place at the start of each sweep. The switching rate of the
electronic switch is synchronized to the sweep rate, so that the
CRO spot traces channel 1 signal on one sweep and channel 2
signal on the next sweep. This is used for viewing high frequency
signals.
19.10.2.3.2 Chopped Mode
The electronic switch is free running at 100 - 500KHz and is
independent of the frequency of the sweep generator. The switch
successively connects small segments of the 1 and 2 waveforms to
the vertical amplifier. If the chopping rate is much faster than the
horizontal sweep rate, the individual little segments fed to the
vertical amplifier reconstitute the original 1 and 2 waveforms on
the screen, without visible interruptions in the two images.
19.10.2.4 Delayed Sweep
Both time bases in operation.
A - delaying sweep
B - delayed sweep
Either or both (alternate)
signals can be fed to X plates.
This allows a closer
examination of part of the
waveform. CRO contains two
linear calibrated sweeps, a
main sweep and a delayed
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sweep. The main sweep is initiated by its trigger pulse at time t 0.

The delayed generator will be triggered at time t1, intensifying the
original display.
If the CRO sweep control is now set to delay position, the
intensified portion will be shown expanded on the screen.
19.10.2.5 Direct Viewing Storage C.R.T.
The dielectric storage sheet consists of a layer of scattered
phosphor particles capable of having any portion of its surface

area written t0. This dielectric sheet is deposited on a conductive
coated glass faceplate called the "storage target backplate".
The flood electrons are distributed evenly over the entire surface
area of the storage target.
After the write gun has written a charge image on the storage
target, the flood guns will store the image. The written portions
of the target are being bombarded by flood electrons that
transfer energy to the phosphor layer in the form of visible light.
This light pattern can be viewed through the glass faceplate.
19.10.2.6 The Digital Storage CRO
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The digital storage CRO stores the data representing the

waveforms in a digital memory. The input signal is "digitized", i.e.
it is sampled and then converted into a binary number by the A/D
converter.
The resolution of the system depends on the number of bits used
by the converter. Converters are said to have a resolution of 1
part in 2 or 'n bit resolution' where n is the number of bits, i.e. 10
bit resolution would digitize to 210 (1024) discrete levels: the
resolution would be 1 part in 1024 or 0.098%.
This digitized input is then converted back to an analogue signal
for display by the D/A converter.
(1-2MHz which may be extended to 200MHz using sampling
techniques).
19.10.3 Using the Oscilloscope
An oscilloscope is an extremely comprehensive and versatile item
of test equipment which can be used in a variety of measuring
applications, the most important of which is the display of time
related voltage waveforms. Such an item probably represents the
single most costly item in the average service shop and it is
therefore important that full benefit is derived from it.
The oscilloscope display is proved by a cathode ray tube (CRT)
which has a typical screen area of 8cm  10cm. The CRT is fitted
with a graticule which may either be integral with the tube face or
a separate translucent sheet. The graticule is usually ruled with a
1cm grid to which further bold lines may be added to mark the
major axes on the central viewing area. Accurate voltage and
time measurements may be made with reference to the graticule,
applying a scale factor derived from the appropriate range switch.
A word of caution is appropriate at this stage, however. Before
taking meaningful measurements from the CRT screen it is
absolutely essential to ensure that the front panel variable
controls are set in the calibrate (CAL) position. Results will almost
certainly be inaccurate if this is not the case!
The use of the graticule is illustrated by the following example:
An oscilloscope screen is depicted below. This diagram is
reproduced actual size and the fine graticule markings are shown
every 2mm along the central vertical and horizontal axes. The
oscilloscope is operated with all relevant controls in the 'CAL'
position. The timebase (horizontal deflection) is switched to the
1ms/cm range and the vertical attenuator (vertical deflection) is
switched to the 1V/cm range. The overall height of the trace is
5cm  1V = 5V. The time for one complete cycle (period) is 4 
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1ms = 4ms. One further important piece of information is the

shape of the waveform which, is this case, is sinusoidal.
19.10.3.1 Layout of Controls
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Layouts of the controls and display provided by a typical dual-

channel oscilloscope are shown in the diagrams above and below.
The majority of the controls identified in the above diagram are
those associated with the position and appearance of the display
(e.g. vertical shift horizontal shift, intensity and focus) whilst those
shown in the diagram below include the vertical gain and
attenuator controls.
The dual-channel oscilloscope has three BNC coaxial input
connectors:
 Channel 1. This is the primary vertical input but it is also used
for the horizontal (X) input when the mode switch is set to the
'X-Y' position.
 Channel 2. This is the second vertical input which is also used
for the vertical input (Y) input when the mode switch is set to
the 'X-Y' position.
 External trigger. This input is only used when the trace is to
be locked to an external trigger signal (both 'CH1' and 'CH2'
trigger selector buttons must be depressed on the trigger
selector).
In addition, a voltage calibrator test point is provided (marked
'CAL 1V' on the front panel). This connector provides an accurate
1V square wave signal which may be used to calibrate the two
vertical deflection channels.
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19.10.3.2 Basic Adjustments

The basic adjustments for single-channel waveform
measurements are shown in the diagram below. The sequence of
adjustments is as follows:
The input signal is applied, via a suitable probe, to the Channel 1
(CH2) input connector.
The intensity and focus controls are adjusted for a satisfactory
display.
The display is centerd on the graticule using the vertical and
horizontal shift controls.
The variable gain (Var) and variable sweep (Var Sweep) controls
are set to the calibrate (Cal) positions.
The trigger selector (TRIGGER) is set the Channel 1 (CH1).
Positive edge trigger is selected '+' (note that negative edge
trigger may also be selected - in practice the sharpest edge of the
waveform will produce the most effective triggering).
The display mode switch (MODE) is set to Channel 1 (CH1).
The Channel 1 input selector is set to 'AC'.
The vertical attenuator (VOLTS/CM) control is adjusted to produce
a suitable height display (usually 2cm to 5cm).
The trigger level control (Trig Level) is adjusted to obtain a stable
(locked) display.
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The timebase selector (TIME/CM) control is adjusted to produce a

suitable number of cycles on the display (usually two to five
cycles).
The basic adjustments for dual-channel waveform measurements are shown in the
diagram below. The sequence of adjustments is as follows:
The first input signal is applied, via a suitable probe, to the Channel 1 (CH1) input connector.
The second input signal is applied, via a suitable probe, to the Channel 2 (CH2) input connector.
The intensity and focus controls are adjusted for a satisfactory display.
The displays are centerd using the horizontal shift control.
The displays are adjusted (vertically separated into the upper and lower parts of the display)
using the two vertical shift controls.
The two variable gain (Var) and variable sweep (Var Sweep) controls are set to the calibrate
(Cal) positions.
The trigger selector (TRIGGER) is set to either Channel 1 (CH1), or Channel 2 (CH2), as
necessary.
Positive or negative edge triggering is selected as required.
The display mode switch (MODE) is set to dual-channel (Dual).
Both input selectors are set to 'AC'.
The vertical attenuator (VOLTS/CM) controls are adjusted to produce displays of a suitable
height( usually 1cm to 3cm).
The trigger level control (Trig Level) is adjusted to obtain a stable (locked) display.
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The timebase selector (TIME/CM) control is adjusted to produce a suitable number of cycles on
the display (usually two to five cycles).
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The basic adjustments for measurement of DC offset voltages are shown in the diagram
below. The sequence of adjustments is as follows:
The input signal is applied, via a suitable probe, to the Channel 1 (CH1) input connector.
The intensity and focus controls are adjusted for a satisfactory display.
The display is centerd on the graticule using the horizontal shift control.
The variable gain (Var) and variable sweep (Var Sweep) controls are set to the calibrate (Cal)
positions.
The trigger selector (TRIGGER) is set to Channel 1 (CH1).
Positive edge trigger is selected '+' (note that negative edge trigger may be also be selected - in
practice the sharpest edge of the waveform will produce the most effective triggering).
The display mode switch (MODE) is set to Channel 1 (CH1).
The Channel 1 input selector is set to 'GND'.
The vertical shift control is adjusted so that the trace is exactly aligned with the horizontal axis
of the graticule (this line will then correspond to 0V)
The Channel 1 input selector is set to 'DC'.
The vertical attenuator (VOLTS/CM) control is adjusted to produce a suitable height display (up
to 4cm in height).
The trigger level control (Trig Level) is adjusted to obtain a stable (locked) display.
The timebase selector (TIME/CM) control is adjusted to produce a suitable number of cycles on
the display (usually two to five cycles).
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19.10.3.3 Waveform Measurements

Examples of some basic waveform measurements
using an oscilloscope are shown in the diagram to
the left. In (a), a square wave is displayed. One
complete cycle of this waveform occupies 2cm on
the display. Since the timebase range selector
(TIME/CM) is set to 1ms/cm, the time for one
complete cycle of the waveform is 2  1ms = 2ms.
The vertical size of the waveform (i.e. its peak-peak
value) measures 2cm on the graticule. Since the
vertical attenuator (VOLTS/CM) is set to 1V/cm the
peak-peak voltage is 2  1V = 2V.
A sine wave is shown in (b). One complete cycle of
this waveform occupies 2.5cm on the display. Since
the timebase range selector (TIME/CM) is set to
2ms/cm, the time for one complete cycle of the
waveform is 2.5  2ms = 5ms. The vertical size of the
waveform (i.e. its peak-peak value) measures 3cm on
the graticule. Since the vertical attenuator
(VOLTS/CM) is set to 50mV/cm the peak-peak
voltage is 3  50mV = 150mV.
An irregular pulse is shown in (c). The display is 'low'
for 3.4cm measured on the graticule. Since the
timebase range selector (TIME/CM) is set to 0.1s/cm,
the 'low' time shown on the display is 3.4  0.1s =
0.34s. Similarly, the period for which the wave next
goes 'high' is 1.5  0.1s = 0.15s. The vertical size of
the waveform (i.e. its peak-peak value) measures
4cm on the graticule. Since the vertical attenuator
(VOLTS/CM) is set to 1V/cm the peak-peak voltage is
4  1V = 4V, equally distributed either side of 0V.
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19.10.3.4 Pulse Rise and Fall Times

The rise and fall of a pulse
can be easily measured
using the techniques
previously described (note
that this measurement is
only valid if the
oscilloscope is fitted with a
properly compensated
probe). The diagram
shows the parameters of a
pulse including:
 Rise time (10% to 90%)
 Fall time (90% to 10%)
 On time (time above 50%)
 Off time (time below 50%)
19.10.3.5 Pulse Delay
A dual-channel oscilloscope can be easily used to
measure pulse delay (see diagram below). Note
that this measurement should be performed
with the timebase mode switch set to 'CHOP'
rather than 'ALTERNATE' on oscilloscope that
offer an alternate sweep facility.
19.10.3.6 Sine Wave Performance checks

An oscilloscope can provide a very rapid assessment of the
performance of an amplifier. A pure sinewave (of
appropriate frequency and amplitude) is applied to the
input of the amplifier (or other system under test) and the
output is displayed on the screen of the oscilloscope. The
effects of non-linearity, clipping noise, distortion, etc. and
be easily seen (see diagram).
19.10.3.7 Square Wave Performance Checks
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An alternative but equally revealing

assessment of an amplifier can be made
using a square wave test. An accurate
square wave (of appropriate frequency
and amplitude) is applied to the input of
the amplifier (or other system under test)
and the output is once again displayed on
the screen. The effects of poor frequency
response, 'ringing', etc. can be easily
detected (see diagram).Phase
Measurement
19.10.3.8 Phase Measurement

A number of useful measurements can be made with an
oscilloscope in X-Y mode. It is possible to carry out
reasonably accurate measurements of phase angle
using Lissajous figures (see diagram to the left). In order
to obtain these displays, the two signals must be applied
with identical gain/attenuation and it is usually
necessary to calibrate the instrument by applying the
same sine wave signal to the X and Y inputs and adjust
the gain controls to obtain a straight line at exactly 45º
(see diagram). Thereafter, the signal to be measured is
applied to vertical channel (Y) whilst the reference
signal is applied to the horizontal channel (X). The
shape of the display indicates the phase shift between
the two signals. This technique is ideal for rapidly
checking the phase shift produced by a network, filter or
amplifier.
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19.10.3.9 Frequency Measurement

Lissajous figures can also be used to determine the
frequency relationship between two signals (see
diagram). The frequency ratio is given by the ratio of
the number of 'peaks' produced in the horizontal
direction to the number of 'peaks' produced in the
vertical direction.
19.10.3.10 Modulation Measurement

Finally, the depth of amplitude modulation (AM) can
be easily determined using an oscilloscope (see
diagram). The depth of modulation (per cent) is given
by the relationship:
Modulation depth = Vm/VC 100%
19.10.3.11 Do's and Don'ts of using an

Oscilloscope
 Do ensure that the vertical gain and variable time/cm controls are placed in the calibrate
(CAL) positions before making measurements based on the attenuator/timebase settings
and graticule.
 Do ensure that you have the correct trigger source selected for the type of waveform under
investigation.
 Do remember to align the trace with the horizontal axis of the graticule with the input
selector set to 'GND' before making measurements of DC levels.
 Do make use of the built-in calibrator facility (where available).
 Do use a properly compensated oscilloscope probe.
 Don't leave the intensity control set at a high level for any length of time.
 Don't leave a bright spot on the display for even the shortest time (this may very quickly
burn the screen's phosphor coating).
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19.10.4 Other types of waveforms

Fourier (1768-1830), a French mathematician was one of the first to realise that all periodic
waves could be built-up by combining sinewaves of the appropriate amplitude, frequency
and phase.
When considering waveforms made up of a number of sinewaves it is customary to call the
sinewave with the lowest frequency, the fundamental. The resultant waveform will have
the same frequency as the fundamental frequency.
The harmonics are those sine waves with frequencies that are twice, three-times, four
times etc. the harmonic frequency.
19.10.5 Square waves
A perfect square wave has vertical sides and a flat top. Such a theoretically perfect wave
has an infinite number of odd harmonics and no even harmonics. Such a waveform is not
possible to achieve in electronic circuits, however, by using the fundamental and the
lowest nine odd harmonics (3rd to 19th) a good resemblance can be obtained. Limiting the
number of harmonics causes a sloping of the sides of the wave.
A voltage with a square waveform is often used as a test signal applied to the input of a
system. If the system does not respond well to higher frequencies, the sides will slope, if it
does not respond well to lower frequencies the flat portions will become curved.
If an amplifier does not function correctly when a square wave is applied to the input, it is
unlikely to function correctly when other periodic waves are applied. A skilled
experimenter can make deductions about the response of an amplifier by observing the
output waveforms.
19.10.6 Triangular or sawtooth waves
A perfect sawtooth wave contains an infinite number

of both odd and even harmonics, again this is not
possible practically. The lower harmonics affect the
rising portion of the wave, the higher harmonics, the
decay time.
19.10.7
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19.10.7 AC voltage & current

The type of load placed on an a.c. power supply affects the phase angle relationship
between the voltage and current. Each type of load produces a different effect, so they are
examined individually.
19.10.8 Resistive loads
When a pure resistance is placed in an ac circuit, the instantaneous current is given by the
instantaneous voltage divided by the resistance (ie, it follows Ohms Law). This means that
the current waveform is In Phase with the voltage waveform. If the voltage and current
values are known, then resistance may be calculated from V(Pk) / I(Pk) or V(Av) / I(Av) or
V(rms) / I(rms).
19.10.9 Capacitive loads
The diagram shows a pure capacitance or capacitor connected in

an ac circuit. This cannot actually happen in practice as there
must always be some resistance, but we will introduce the
resistive element later in these notes.
A capacitor will always charge up to, or discharge down to, the
voltage which is being applied to it. In other words, it follows the
supply voltage. If we take the point where the capacitor is
charged in one direction, when connected across an ac supply and the ac supply voltage
starts decreasing, then a discharge current will flow (conventionally) from the capacitor’s
positive plate through the supply source to the negative plate. This current flow will be
small at first as the supply voltage starts to drop but will increase to a maximum value
when the supply is at zero volts. It will continue to flow in the same direction but decrease
as the capacitor is charged up in the reverse direction, becoming zero at the point of full
charge. The following diagram illustrates this point and it can be seen that the current is
leading the supply voltage by 90º.
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The operation of the capacitor produces an opposition to the flow of current. It will
therefore act in a similar manner to a resistance in a circuit. It is a form of ‘ac resistance’.
The word ‘resistance’ is kept for the physical resistance as we already know it, so this form
of ‘ac resistance’ is called ‘reactance’. It is calculated in Ohms and is given the symbol X.
The opposition to current flow produced by a capacitor is known as capacitive reactance
and is given the symbol XC. Capacitive reactance is dependent on frequency such that X C
varies inversely with the frequency. If frequency increases, XC decreases and so the current
flow increases. If frequency decreases, XC increases and so the current flow decreases.
(This is why, after the initial charge current, no current flows through a capacitor on dc).
1
Capacitive reactance, XC= ohms
2fC
Ohms Law still applies XC = V/I ohms
It should be clearly understood that, although we refer to alternating currents and signals
‘flowing through’ capacitors, no current actually passes through the dielectric between the
plates. Electrons circulate from plate to plate through the circuit, being affected by the
electrostatic fields on the plates.
19.10.10 Inductive loads
The diagram shows a pure inductance
or inductor connected across an ac
supply. The notes assume that there
is no resistance in the circuit.
This is a situation which cannot
exist in practice, but we shall
introduce the resistive element later.
An inductance always opposes any
change in current flow. When the current is ac and constantly changing in value, the result
is that it always lags behind the supply voltage. For a pure inductance the angle of lag is
90º.
The constantly changing current means that the magnetic field produced by the inductance
is also constantly changing. This gives rise to an emf being induced into the inductor’s own
windings in such a direction as to oppose the applied emf. This self-induced emf is
therefore known as a back-emf. The back-emf is dependent on the rate of change of
current and on the value of the inductor (in Henrys).
Back-emf = -L × Rate of Change of Current
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Note that the ‘minus’ sign indicates that the back-emf is in opposition to the applied emf.
Note also that point F on the following diagram is a maximum ‘negative’ value because the
current at that instant (point A) is changing at maximum rate.
The appearance of this back-emf in the circuit means that there is an opposition to the
flow of current from the supply. The opposition due to an inductance, L, is called inductive
reactance, and given the symbol XL
It has already been stated that back-emf and therefore reactance, depends on the rate of
change of current in the circuit, but this is obviously dependent on the frequency of the ac
supply. As frequency increases, XL will increase and so current flow will decrease. As
frequency decreases, XL will decrease and so current flow will increase. It can thus be seen
that equipment marked ‘For use on ac only’ is depending on the reactance to control the
current flow. If it was used on dc at the same voltage, XL would not exist, the current flow
would be too high and the equipment would burn out.
Inductive Reactance, XL = 2fL ohms.
Ohms Law still applies XL = V/I
19.10.11 Impedance
When inductance, capacitance and resistance appear together in an ac circuit, in any
combination, the total opposition to current flow is referred to as impedance and given
the symbol Z.
Resistance, inductance and capacitance in a circuit can be represented by phasors in the
same way as currents and voltages. The position of each phasor relative to the reference
position (3 o'clock) depends on whether a series or parallel circuit is being considered and
therefore will be studied under the appropriate heading.
For the purpose of deriving the impedance formula shown below, it is only necessary to
understand that phasors for XL and R or XC
and R are at 90 to each other and
as such form a right angled triangle.
In a circuit containing all three
components the values of XL and XC
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cancel out leaving one dominant value that again forms a right angled triangle with R. The
resultant in each case is the circuit impedance, which can be calculated quite easily using
Pythagoras.
The total impedance in a circuit containing resistance R, inductance L and capacitance C, is
calculated using the formula:
Impedance Z= R2 + (XL - XC)2
19.11 ac power
Alternating current power also needs to be examined under the three headings of resistive
loads, inductive loads and capacitive loads, as the calculation of power in each type of load
produces different results.
19.11.1 Resistive loads
Power in a Resistive Circuit. When the instantaneous values of voltage and current are
multiplied, the resultant power waveform is as shown in this diagram below.
It can be seen that all of the power waveform is above the ‘zero’ line, indicting that it is all
being dissipated in the resistance. The shaped area under the power graph is the product
of power × time and represents the electrical energy consumed in the circuit.
 Peak Power = V(Pk) × I(Pk)
 Average Power = Peak Power
2
= V(Pk) × I(Pk)
2
= V(Pk) × I(Pk)
2 2
= V(rms) × I(rms)
= VI watts
19.11.2 Inductive loads
Power in a purely inductive circuit. No power is developed in a pure inductance. Power is
calculated by multiplying the instantaneous values of voltage and current. If this is done
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for the two waveforms when they are 90º out-of-phase , then the resultant power
waveform will be as shown below.
It can be seen from the above diagram that each half-cycle of voltage and current produces
one full cycle of power. (Power wave frequency is twice the supply frequency).
When the power curve is ‘positive’, the inductor takes power from the supply source.
When the power curve is ‘negative’, the inductor returns power to the supply source.
Over a complete cycle, the net absorption of power is zero watts. It must be fully
understood that current is flowing in the circuit but that no work is being done when that
current is 90º out-of-phase with the voltage.
19.11.3 Capacitive loads
As with pure inductance, a pure capacitance also produces a current flow which does ‘no
work’. On one half-cycle, power is delivered to the capacitor (charging) from the supply
source but the on the next half-cycle the capacitor returns power to the supply source
(discharging).
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Each half cycle of the voltage and current again produces a full cycle of power. When the
power curve is positive, the capacitor takes power from the supply source. When the
power curve is negative the capacitor returns power to the supply source.
Over a complete cycle, the net absorption of power is zero watts. Again it must be
understood that the current is flowing in the circuit, but no work is being done.
19.11.4 The total load on a generator
The following facts regarding power in ac circuits have already been established in these
notes:
 In a purely resistive circuit, all of the current does work.
 In a purely inductive circuit, none of the current does work.
 In a purely capacitive circuit, none of the current does work.
We have also established that, depending on the relative values of resistance, inductance
and capacitance, the current can be at any angle, from 0º to 90º, leading or lagging the
supply voltage.
If any number of individual loads are switched onto an ac generator, the individual currents
will all combine to give one load current on the generator at one particular angle of lead or
lag. As the angle is usually designed to be one in which the current lags the voltage, we will
concentrate on that but the same arguments which we are going to use also apply to a
leading current.
If the instantaneous values of two sinewaves are added together, the result will be another
sinewave. Conversely, any sinewave can be thought of as being comprised of two separate
sinewaves. If, therefore, we assume the generator’s load current to be lagging the voltage
by angle  we can say that (irrespective of the individual loads that produced it) it is
comprised of one current which is in phase with the voltage and one current which is 90º
lagging the voltage.
19.11.5 Apparent Power & actual current
The load current (lagging the voltage by ) is called the actual current. This is the current
that would be indicated on an ammeter inserted into the circuit, or would be detected by a
current transformer, (see transformer notes). If the supply voltage is multiplied by this
current, the power that is apparently being dissipated is found. This however, is not the
true power being dissipated and so it is called the ‘apparent power’ and is given the units
of volts amps.
Apparent power = V × I(actual) volts amps
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If the rating plate on an ac generator is examined, it will be seen that the generator is rated
at, say 200 volts (rms); 30 kVA. The rating is not given in watts because the designer has no
way of knowing what the phase angle will be when it is loaded.
19.11.6 True power & Real Current
The component of the actual current that is in phase with the voltage is known as the
‘Active’ or ‘Real’ load current because it is the part of the load current that is doing all the
work. This component can only be calculated as it is not possible for any device such as an
ammeter or current transformer to measure anything other than actual current. In order
to find the real load current, it is necessary to multiply the actual current load by the
Cosine of the angle, . If the supply voltage is multiplied be the real load current, the ‘true
power’ being dissipated in the circuit is found. True power is given the unit of the watt (as
in dc).
True power = V × I(actual) × Cos  Watts.
= V × I(real) Watts.
19.11.7 Reactive power & reactive current
The component of the actual current that is lagging the supply voltage by 90º is known as
the ‘Reactive’ or ‘Wattless’ load current because it is the part of the load current that does
no work at all, even though it exists and has to be carried by the cables, etc. It is brought
into being by the nature of the capacitive and inductive loads. Again, it can only be
calculated by multiplying the actual load current by the sine of the angle, . If the supply
voltage is multiplied by the reactive load current, the reactive power is found and is given
the units of Volt Amps Reactive (VAR).
Reactive power = V × I(actual) × Sin  VARs
= V × I(reactive) VARs.
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19.11.8 Power Factor

The angle which the actual load current makes with the supply voltage is known as the
power factor of the circuit. The power factor is given by the Cosine of the angle, .
When the current is in phase with the voltage, the angle is 0º. The Cosine of 0º = 1 and so
the power factor = unity (1).
When the current is in quadrature with the voltage, the angle is 90º. The Cosine of 90º =
0 and so the power factor = zero (0).
Because of considerations of automatic control over varying conditions, the power factor
in aircraft systems is kept well away from unity. It is usual to operate at power factors in
the order of 0.75 or 0.8 on aircraft.
Power factor can be obtained from anything that gives the Cosine of the angle. For
example, Power factor = R/Z (resistance divided by impedance).
True Power
It is also given by Power Factor =Apparent Power
It also follows that True Power = Apparent Power × Power Factor.
19.11.9 Series l/c/r circuits
It has already been stated that it is not possible to have an ac circuit consisting only of
inductance or only of capacitance. There must be some resistance in each of these circuits
and this resistance can be thought of as being in series with the inductance or in series
with the capacitance. Of course, many circuits have resistors deliberately inserted in series
with the other components and some circuits have all three components in series. It is
these combinations of series circuits that we will now consider:
19.11.10 Inductance and resistance in series
Inductance (L) and Resistance (R) in series. As L and R are in series, the current I is the
same through each component. I passing through the inductance gives rise to a potential
across the inductance which leads the current by 90º. At the same time, the voltage
developed across the resistor is in phase with the current. As I is the common value in the
circuit, it is called the ‘reference phasor’ and is usually drawn horizontally when drawing
the phasor diagram. This is shown below, along with the circuit diagram.
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The applied voltage V is the phasor sum of VL and VR and leads I by phase angle , which
can be any angle between 0º and 90º depending upon the ratio of X L to R. If required, the
phasor diagram could now be re-drawn with the supply voltage V in the horizontal position
and showing the current lagging this voltage.
Z(ohms) = R2 + XL2 = V/I = Total opposition to the flow of current.
19.11.11 Capacitance and resistance in series
Capacitance (C) and Resistance (R) in series. As C and R are in series, the current I is the
same through each component. I passing through the capacitance gives rise to a potential
across the capacitance which lags the current by 90º. At the same time, the voltage
developed across the resistor is in phase with the current. As I is the common value in the
circuit, it is called the reference phasor and is usually drawn horizontally when drawing the
phasor diagram. This is shown below, along with the circuit diagram.
The applied voltage V is the phasor sum of VC and VR and lags I by phase angle , which can
be any angle between 0º and 90º depending upon the ratio of XC to R. If required, the
phasor diagram could not be re-drawn with the supply voltage V in the horizontal position
and showing the current lagging this voltage. In this instance:
Z(ohms) = R2 + XC2 = V/I = Total opposition to the flow of current
19.11.12 Inductance, capacitance and resistance in series
As in the paragraphs above, the current I is again common all three components and so is
used as the reference phasor when drawing the phasor diagram. This will obviously be a
combination of the two diagrams shown previously and is drawn below, along with the
circuit.
In this example, XL is greater than XC and therefore VL is greater than VC. Resolution of the
diagram results in the applied voltage V being shown to lead the current I by phase angle .
The circuit is therefore acting as though it were inductive. The opposite effect would be
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obtained if XC was greater than XL and the circuit would then act as though it were
capacitive. In this instance, the impedance (Z) is given by:
Z(ohms) = R2 + (XL - XC )2 = V/I = Total opposition to current flow
19.11.13 Series resonance

It has already been shown that XL varies directly with frequency and that XC varies inversely
with frequency. If therefore, the frequency applied to the above circuit was altered to
decrease XL and at the same time increase XC, then at one particular frequency XL would be
equal to XC. This frequency is called the resonant frequency and is denoted by the symbol
fo. At resonant frequency, the applied voltage and the circuit current are in phase, as
shown in this phasor diagram below and the impedance of the circuit equals the
resistance.
In a Series Circuit at Resonant Frequency (fO):

 XL = X C
 VL = VC
 VL and VC are in antiphase and therefore cancel each other out.
 VR = Applied Voltage V.
 Z = R. The only opposition to the flow of current comes from the resistive element of
the circuit, therefore current rises to a maximum value.
 Because I is a maximum, this series resonant circuit is known as an ‘acceptor circuit’.
 Also, because I is at a maximum value, VL and VC rise to very high values. They can be far
higher than the supply voltage and can therefore be very dangerous. For this reason, it is
very rare for this type of circuit to be operated continuously at resonant frequency.
1 1
 Because XL = XC, then 2 foL = by transposition fo =
2foC 2 LC
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If graph of current against frequency is made for a series circuit containing both
inductance and capacitance, the result is as shown below.
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19.11.14 Voltage magnification

At resonance, VL and VC can rise to very large values and be greater than the supply
voltage. This is known as voltage magnification and given the symbol QO. Off resonance
the magnification factor is represented by the symbol Q. The amount of magnification is
XL XC V L VC VL VC
expressed by the fractions R , R , V or V which equals V or V since VS = VR and is
S S R R
sometimes called the ‘Q’ factor of the circuit.
XL XC
Qo = R = R
2fL 1
= R =
2fCR
2fL 1 1 L
Thus QO2 = 
R 2fCR = R 2 × C
1 L
And Q O =R C
The actual increase in voltage depends on the resistive element of the circuit.
Below fo the circuit is capacitive, at resonance it is resistive and above fo inductive.

19.11.15 Selectivity
Selectivity is the ability of a tuned circuit to respond strongly to its resonant frequency and
to give a poor response to nearby frequencies. A sharp response curve indicates high
selectivity, a flat response curve indicates low selectivity.
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High selectivity may be obtained by:

 Either making XL and XC large, that is by using large L and small C or in other words using a
L
large C ratio.
This increases the circuit impedance off resonance.
 Or by making R smaller. This reduces Z at resonance.
1 1
Therefore selectivity  L, C , R
Since both selectivity and QO are proportional to L and inversely proportional to C and R
the QO may be used as a measure of selectivity.
19.11.16 Bandwidth
The bandwidth (B) of a circuit is the difference between two frequencies either side of the
resonant frequency at which the power has fallen to half its value at resonance, i.e. the
half power points (these are also called the –3db points: see Decibel notation later in the
course). If the power has fallen to half its value at resonance then since
P  I2
P I2
2 2
P I I I
2  × ( = 0.707I)
2 2 2
Therefore the current has fallen to 0.707 of its value at resonance.
By definition Bandwidth (B) = f1 - f2
The narrower the bandwidth of a circuit, the higher the selectivity. Thus bandwidth may
also be used as a measure of selectivity as well as magnification factor (QO).
fO
 A useful relationship is: B = Q
O
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19.11.17 Parallel l/c/r circuits

The effects of connecting these three components in series was studied in the previous
section, they can however be connected in parallel. This section studies the effects of
connecting the three components in parallel.
19.11.18 Inductance and capacitance in parallel
As with the series circuit, variation of frequency will again effect the inductive reactance
and the capacitive reactance and there will again be one particular frequency at which the
two will be equal for a given capacitor and inductor. This is the resonant frequency of the
circuit. The formula for this is the same as for the series circuit, providing that the resistive
element of the inductor is small. At resonant frequency, the current circulating between
the capacitor and the inductor is high but the current drawn from the supply is low. This
type of circuit is therefore commonly known as a ‘rejector circuit’.
The best way of understanding its operation is to imagine a capacitor and an inductor
connect as shown in the diagram.
Imagine also that the capacitor is charged to a given voltage and that there is no resistance
in the circuit. When the switch is closed, the capacitor will discharge through the inductor,
transferring energy to it. The inductor field will then collapse, charging the capacitor up in
the reverse direction. This action will repeat itself ad infinitum and the current will
continue to circulate backwards and forwards at a natural frequency which, of course, is
the resonant frequency of the circuit. This ideal condition would need no external force to
keep operating.
In practice, however, there must be some resistance in our circuit and so the current will
oscillate at resonant frequency but will gradually die away as power is lost across the
resistance. In order to keep our circuit oscillating it is only necessary to keep the
circulating current ‘topped-up’ from the supply. The current drawn from the supply at
resonant frequency is therefore very small. At supply frequencies less than resonance, the
current through the inductor increases and that through the capacitor decreases. The
reverse occurs at supply frequencies above resonance.
If a graph is drawn of supply current (or line current, as it is sometimes known) against
frequency, the result will be as follows.
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The very high impedance at resonance associated with

parallel circuits is most often used in the tuning circuits
of radio or television receivers. When tuned to a
particular frequency, that frequency will not pass
through the parallel circuit. It is therefore available for
the amplifier to amplify and use it. All the other
(unwanted) frequencies coming in at the aerial are
passed through the parallel circuit to the chassis,
thereby by-passing the amplifier. At frequencies above
resonance, the circuit acts as though it were capacitive
and at frequencies below resonance, as though it were
inductive.
19.11.19 Parallel resonance
Unlike the series tuned circuit, the resistance does have an effect on the resonant
frequency of a parallel tuned circuit, the equation being:
1 1 R2
fo = LC - L2
2
However, if R is very small, the term involving resistance, may be ignored and for most
practical purposes the resonant frequency is given by:
1
fo =
2 LC
At resonance, the supply current (IS) is a minimum and is in phase with the applied voltage.
Vs VsCR
The value of the resonant current, as shown in the diagram below, is given by Z or L
D
In a Parallel Circuit at Resonant Frequency (fO):
 XL = X C
 VL = VC and are in antiphase and therefore cancel each other out

 VR = Applied Voltage V.
L
 Z =CR and current is a minimum.
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 Because the impedance is a maximum, the parallel resonant circuit is known as a ‘rejecter
circuit’.
19.11.20 Impedance
The impedance of a parallel circuit can be calculated using the formula shown below,
although knowledge of this formula is not essential on this course.
1
2 2
 1  1 1 
     
R  XL XC 
At resonance, the impedance is a maximum and called the dynamic impedance (ZD) of the
circuit. If the supply frequency is increased above or decreased below fO then the circuit
impedance will decrease.
L
The dynamic impedances’ given by the equation: ZD =CR
19.11.21 Current MAGNIFICATION
In a parallel tuned circuit at resonance, current magnification occurs, that is IL and IC will
be very large compared with IS. At any instant IL and IC act in the same direction round the
‘internal’ circuit, and IS flowing in the ‘external’ circuit is the difference between IL and IC.
Thus, it IL and IC are large and very nearly equal, IS will be small.
At any instant Kirchoff’s first law applies, that is:
IS = IL + LC
The circulating current is the smaller of the two currents (IL or IC) and IS is the make-up
current.
Remember that QO for a series tuned circuit is its voltage magnification whereas QO for a
parallel tuned circuit is its current magnification at the resonant frequency.
1 L
Q O =R C
19.11.22 Bandwidth
Bandwidth is defined as the difference between two frequencies f1 and f2, one either side
of resonance, at which the impedance, has fallen to 0.707 of the maximum value.
As for the series circuit:
fO 1 L
Bandwidth B =Q where QO = R C
O
L
If R is increased, or the ratio C decreased, then the impedance at resonance is decreased,
QO is decreased and hence bandwidth increased.
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19.11.23 Selectivity
As for the series circuit, selectivity is the ability of the tuned circuit to respond strongly to
its resonant frequency and to give a poor response to nearby frequencies. Again, as for the
series circuit, QO is used as a measure of selectivity.
Below fO Above fO
1. Z small due to 1. Z small due to
small XL small XC
2. XC> XL 2. XL> XC
3. Thus IL> IC 3. Thus IC> IL
4. Thus circuit 4. Thus circuit
inductive capacitive
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20. TRANSFORMERS
Transformers have no moving parts and are very efficient pieces of electrical equipment.
Transformers operate by mutual inductance, the flux from one coil of wire linking with
another coil. Because the flux must be changing state, static transformers can only be used
on alternating current. In order for a transformer to be used on direct current, part of the
transformer must be rotated.
20.1 Power transformers
Power transformers consist of:
 Primary and secondary windings
 laminated core and coil former
 a mounting and terminal strip
The windings consist of insulated wire wound onto the laminated former. The primary
winding is wound first, the secondary second, between each winding is a layer of insulating
material. The size of wire used depends on the current rating of the transformer. The
ends of both primary and secondary windings are connected to the terminal strip for
connection into the circuit.
The core consist of thin strips of iron approximately 0·7mm to 3mm thick, each sheet being
insulated from the next. This laminated form of construction is used to prevent eddy
currents joining and producing large circulating current within the core.
The core is invariably one of two types, core or shell. With a core type, the laminations are
U shaped and either I or L shaped, staggered when assembled to provide a single circular
magnetic circuit. The windings may be placed on one limb or split between the two. With
a shell type core, the laminations are usually T and U shaped, staggered when assembled
to produce a three limbed core. When used for single phase, both windings are wound on
the center limb, when used for three phase, each phase is allocated to a separate limb.
Whilst more expensive, the provision of two magnetic paths make the shell type former
more suitable for large current use.
All of the energy transferred from the primary winding to the secondary must be stored in
the magnetic field created in the core, therefore, sufficient iron must be provided to store
the energy of each half cycle of the a.c. waveform.
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If the total power is kept the same, there will be less energy in half a high frequency cycle
than in half a low frequency cycle, therefore the higher the supply frequency, the smaller
and lighter the transformer.
20.2 circuit symbols & dot codes
The basic symbol used for a transformer with one primary winding
and one secondary winding is as shown. The two dots are used to
indicate the polarity of the windings. When the top of the left
winding is positive, the bottom of the right winding is positive and
vice versa.
Whilst it should be understood that there is a phase difference of
180º between the primary and secondary voltages, the polarity of
the secondary winding with respect to the primary, depends purely
on the way the transformer is wound.
To indicate the type of core material used, additional markings are added to the basic
transformer symbol. The core material is determined primarily by the frequency of the
supply on which the transformer is to be operated.
The three lines drawn between the primary and secondary windings of this transformer
indicate that it has a laminated iron core. As
such this transformer would be used at low
frequencies and may be found on a.c. power
supply systems. The two coils on the right
show that the transformer has two
secondary windings, and the dot notation
indicates on these windings are wound in
opposite directions. The top of one winding
being positive whilst the top of the other is
negative.
The dashed lines between the windings of this transformer

indicate that it has a ferrite core and as such would be used at
medium to high frequencies.
When there are no lines between the two windings, the

transformer is air cored and as such would be used at VF and
above.
20.3 Losses
Transformer losses are very small, 98% efficiency easily being
obtained, however some losses occur in all transformers. Generally the losses can be
divided into three groups; copper losses, iron or core losses and flux leakage losses.
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20.3.1 Iron losses

Iron or core losses are divided into two groups; hysteresis and eddy current.
 Hysteresis losses arise through continually magnetizing and demagnetizing the transformer
core, the energy required for this being dissipated as heat. Hysteresis loss is dependent on
frequency and the type of material used for making the core. The higher the frequency or
the greater the flux density within the core, the greater the loss. Transformers are therefore
designed to operate at a specific frequency and the material used has a narrow hysteresis
loop such as stalloy, permalloy or mumetal.
 Eddy current loss is due to the formation of eddy currents within the transformer core, the
energy being dissipated as heat. Any metal within the field of a transformer has emf's
induced in it and these emf's produce small circulating current flows called eddy currents.
The metal core of the transformer therefore has eddy currents flowing in it. Providing the
currents are small, loss is minimal, but large circulating currents represent a large power
loss, the loss being proportional to the square of the frequency.
Eddy currents are kept to a minimum by laminating the transformer core, thus preventing
the small eddy currents joining into large circulating currents.
20.3.2 Copper losses
Copper losses are the I2R losses in the windings. Part of the applied voltage is used in
overcoming the resistance of the primary winding, this reduces the flux available for
inducing an emf in the secondary winding. Also, when the secondary circuit is connected,
the secondary voltage falls due to the resistance of the winding.
Copper losses are therefore dependent upon the primary and secondary currents and the
resistance of the windings and are independent of the supply frequency.
20.3.3 Flux leakage losses
Flux leakage losses as the name implies, results from the fact that not all of the primary
flux links with the secondary coil. The reduction in flux linkages results in a reduced
secondary voltage. With modern production methods this loss is negligible.
20.3.4 Skin Effect
Another loss that takes place at higher frequencies is caused by skin effect. Any current
carrying cable produces a field around the conductor. In a cable carrying a.c. current, the
alternating field expands from and collapses to the center of the conductor, producing a
back emf within the conductor. As the field is denser at the center of the conductor, the
back emf is larger, and consequently the current tends to flow in the surface region of the
cable, almost as though the cable were a hollow tube. The higher the frequency the
greater the skin effect.
The problem can be overcome by using Litz wire, or by reducing the resistance of the
surface region of the cable, this can be achieved by silver plating the conductor.
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20.4 Turns ratio

A simple transformer consists of two coils, a primary and a secondary, wound on a high
permeability, soft iron core. The changing current in the first coil creates a changing
magnetic field that induces a voltage in the secondary coil.
The size of the secondary voltage compared to the voltage applied to the primary depends
on turns ratio, or transformation ratio. That is, the number of turns of wire in the
secondary winding compared to number of turns in the primary.
If losses are very small, the turns ratio may be expressed as:
VSecondary NSecondary
  T (transform ation ratio)
V Pr imary N Pr imary
If the number of turns on the secondary is less than the number of turns on the primary,
the output voltage will be less than the input voltage, and the transformer is called a step
down transformer.
If the number of turns on the secondary is greater than the number of turns on the
primary, the transformer is a step up type and the output voltage will be greater than the
input voltage.
By convention, when writing the transformation ratio, the secondary voltage is put before
the primary, therefore, a 4:1 transformer is a step up transformer, the secondary voltage
being 4 times the primary voltage.
20.5 Power transference
If losses are ignored, the power in the secondary equals the power in the primary.
VSecondary
IPrimary = ISecondary T but T = V
Primary
therefore: IPrimary VPrimary = ISecondary VSecondary
In practice there are some losses within a transformer and therefore the output power can
never equal the input power.
20.6 transformer efficiency
The transformers efficiency, , is given by the ratio of output power to input power.
output power
(eta) = input power  100%
The value of eta ranges from about 90% for small power transformers in receivers, to
98-99% for large power transformers.
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20.7 Transformer regulation

As the load on the secondary is increased, the output voltage will fall. The amount by
which the voltage falls is expressed as a percentage of the no load voltage, and is termed
the % regulation.
no load voltage - full load voltage
% regulation = no load voltage  100%
Regulation of power transformers is generally less than 4%.
20.8 Loading a transformer
20.8.1 No load conditions
In a practical transformer there are losses in the primary due
to; resistance, hysteresis and eddy currents. These losses
produce a current flow within the primary that is in phase with
the applied voltage, and termed loss current.
The iron core and the number of coils make the primary circuit
highly inductive, the resistance by comparison being very small.
The magnetizing current therefore lags the applied voltage by
90 degrees.
The total current flowing in the primary, with the secondary
winding off load, is the vector sum of the magnetizing current
and the loss current.
Due to the large reactance of the primary circuit, the primary
current is very small. If however, the transformer is operated at
a lower than rated frequency, the inductive reactance will be less, and a larger primary
current will flow, therefore, transformers should not be operated below their rated
minimum frequency without reducing the applied voltage.
It is the magnetizing current that produces the field, and it is this alternating field that
induces an emf in the secondary windings. The induced emf depends on the rate of change
of flux, and therefore lags the field by 90 . As the field already lags the applied (primary)
voltage by 90 , the induced emf in the secondary will lag the applied voltage by 180 . The
secondary voltage is anti-phase with respect to the applied voltage.
On connecting a load to the transformer, a current will be set up in secondary windings
and a flux will be produced. The secondary flux opposes the primary flux and effectively
decreases the primary inductance. If the applied voltage is kept constant, the decrease in
inductance results in an increase in the primary current. This increase in current is known
as the load component of primary current.
The load current in the primary sets up a flux that is equal and opposite to the secondary
flux. The ampere turns of the primary flux equalling the ampere turns of the secondary
flux.
NPrimaryIPrimary = NSecondary ISecondary
IPrimary NPrimary
and ISecondary NSecondary = T (the transformation or turns ratio)
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The total primary current is the vector sum of the no load current and the load current.
The larger the secondary current, the larger the primary current. Under normal conditions,
the load current is so much larger than the no load current that the latter can be ignored.
20.8.2 Resistive load
If the load on the secondary is purely resistive, the secondary

voltage and current are in phase. The secondary current
decreases the inductance of the primary circuit and the
primary current increases, the increase being the load element
of primary current. The load element of primary current is anti-
phase with respect to the secondary current and equal to the
secondary current  the turns ratio.
The primary current consists of the vector sum of the no-load
and load current. From the diagram it can be seen that the
primary current is brought closer into phase with the applied
voltage. The primary voltage and current become more in
phase as the resistive load applied to the secondary is increased and it appears as though
the secondary load has been reflected into the primary winding.
20.8.3 Inductive load
If a purely inductive load is applied to the secondary, the
secondary current will lag the voltage by 90 . The load
element of primary current, equal to the secondary
current  T, will still be anti-phase with respect to the
secondary current and therefore in phase with the
magnetizing current.
The primary current is again the vector sum of the no-

load and load currents. From the diagram it can be seen
that the primary current now lags the applied voltage by
almost 90 . Again it appears as though the load on the
secondary has been reflected into the transformer
primary winding.
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20.8.4 Capacitive load

If a purely capacitive load is applied to the secondary,
the load will appear to have been reflected into the
primary winding, and the primary current will lead the
applied voltage by 90 .
20.8.5 Combination loads

Introducing resistance into the purely inductive and
capacitive circuits examined, simply has the effect of
reducing the angle of lag, or lead, of the primary current
with respect to the applied voltage. The greater the
resistance, the greater reduction in the angle.
20.9
20.10 reflected impedance
The load placed on the secondary winding of a
transformer always affects the primary current by
altering its phase angle in relation to the primary
voltage.
Neglecting losses the reflected values of L / R / C can be shown to depend on the
transformation or turns ratio.
IprimaryVprimary = Isecondary Vsecondary (1)
now Vsecondary = Isecondary Zsecondary (2)
where Z equals the load applied to the secondary winding. Substituting (2) in (1)
IprimaryVprimary = I2secondary Zsecondary
NPrimary
but ISecondary = IPrimaryN
Secondary
2
Nprimary
so Iprimary  Vprimary  IPrimary
2
 2
 Z sec ondary
Nsec ondary
2
therefore Nprimary
Vprimary  Iprimary  2
 Z sec ondary
Nsec ondary
But the effective impedance in the primary is given by:
Vprimary
Z primary 
Iprimary
2
Nprimary
therefore Z primary  2
 Z sec ondary
N sec ondary
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NSecondary
writing the transformation ratio N =T
Primary
1
ZPrimary =T2  ZSecondary
ZSecondary
ZPrimary = T2
ZSecondary
T2 = Z
Primary
In a step down transformer T is less than unity and Z primary is greater than Z secondary.
The fact that the impedance reflected from the secondary winding into the primary
winding depends on the transformers turns ratio, makes it useful for impedance matching.
20.11 Impedance matching transformers
Maximum power is transferred from the source to the load only when the load impedance
is equal to the internal impedance of the source. If this is not the case an impedance
matching transformer can be used. The necessary turns ratio being calculated using the
formula:
ZSecondary
T2 = Z
Primary
For example a transformer could be used to match a pre-amplifier of 20 000 ohms input
impedance to a moving coil microphone of 200 ohms. The turns ratio required would be
calculated as follows:
ZSecondary 20000 100
T2 = Z = 200 = 1
Primary
10 NSecondary
Therefore T = 1 = N
Primary
20.12 Autotransformers
Auto transformers have only one winding, this winding serving as both primary and
secondary. They may be used as "step up" or "step down" transformers.
When the primary terminals are connected to an a.c. source, current flows between P1 and
P2. The alternating flux produced links with all of the turns on the former, inducing a
voltage in each. The output is taken from terminals S1 and S2.
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The voltage ratio is calculated from the turns ratio:

VSecondary NSecondary
VPrimary = NPrimary
In the step up transformer shown, the number of turns on the primary are those between
points A and B, the turns on the secondary, those between points A and C. If the
transformer were a step down type, the input and output terminals would be reversed.
The effects of different loads on the transformer are as for the power transformer,
however it should be noted that the primary and secondary currents oppose each other in
the common portion of the winding. This enables smaller conductors to be used in the
common portion of the transformer, producing a weight saving especially if the input and
output voltages are almost the same.
Auto transformers are used for:
 line boosters to compensate for voltage drops in long cable runs
 motor starting, several tappings being used in sequence to apply an increasing voltage to
the motor
 impedance matching
 to step the 115V a.c. supply down to 26V for aircraft lighting circuits
The major disadvantage of auto transformers, especially step down types, is that should
the common portion of the winding go open circuit, the primary voltage is applied directly
to the load on the secondary. It was for this reason that autotransformers were rarely used
on aircraft, however, improved reliability through modern manufacturing methods has
made them increasingly more common.
20.13 mutual reactors
Mutual reactors or Quadrature transformers are a device that has been known about for
many years, however, until the use of constant frequency a.c. systems, little use was made
of it.
In order to detect the difference between real and reactive loads on a generator, there was
a requirement for a device that produced a voltage signal, that was at 90 to the current
being sensed in another circuit.
For all practical purposes this is achieved in a mutual reactor or quadrature transformer.
When a current is passed through the primary winding, the voltage across the secondary
lags the primary current by almost 90 .
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In order to explain the operation of a mutual reactor, it is necessary to examine the "off
load" vector diagram of a basic power transformer. Under no load conditions a small,
lagging current flows in the primary. If an air gap is cut in the former, the reluctance of the
magnetic circuit is increased and more current is required to magnetize the core. The
magnetizing element of the primary current lags the primary voltage by 90 . Therefore, as
the magnetizing current is increased, the total "no-load" current is increased and moved
around until almost at 90 to the primary voltage. It also follows that the primary current
leads the secondary voltage by almost 90 .
In understanding the mutual reactor it is best to forget the applied voltage, and remember
that, the voltage across the secondary will be in quadrature (at 90 ) with any current
passed through the primary winding.
When examining a quadrature transformer it looks very much like a power transformer.
The air gap has to be of optimum size and is normally located under the windings. Unlike
power transformers, mutual reactors can only be used to produce signal voltages and
cannot be used supply a load.
20.14 Current transformers
Current transformers (CT's) are designed to enable circuit currents to be measured without
breaking the circuit. The outputs are being fed directly to instruments or used in control
circuits. Although working on the same principles as power transformers their construction
and operation are vastly different.
Some have a primary winding consisting of a few turns capable of carrying the load current
that is to be measured, others known as bar primary current transformers use the load
supply cable as the primary. This is the most common form found on aircraft.
The secondary former consists of a continuous strip of metal wound on itself to form a
ring, although not laminated in the true sense this gives the effect of laminations. The
secondary winding is toroidally wound on the ring former with the two ends brought out
for connection to the load. When a power transformer is designed, the designer only needs
to know the:
 supply on which the transformer will operate
 the output voltage required
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 maximum current that the transformer will be expected to supply

This is not the case with the CT. A CT is designed to operate on one particular load, if a
different load is attached it will give a false indication. The designer needs to know the
load, and the supply source, and then designs a CT to link the two together.
When writing the turns ratio, the primary is written before the secondary, the opposite to
a power transformer. A 400:1 CT will have 1 ampere through its secondary winding and
load, if 400 amps is passing through the primary cable. A bar primary counts as a single
turn.
When a current passes through the supply cable it causes a magnetic field along its entire
length, this flux induces an emf into the coils of the secondary winding. The ring former
and the secondary winding only take up a very short length of the primary conductor,
therefore whatever happens to the secondary will have virtually no effect on the primary.
The voltage induced in the secondary winding causes a current to flow through its load,
this produces a secondary flux that opposes the primary flux, keeping the core flux to a
very low level.
If the primary is operated with the secondary disconnected from its load, there will be no
secondary flux to oppose the primary flux, this results in; a high core flux, increased eddy
currents, and increased voltages in the individual secondary coils, which can result in the
CT overheating and burning out. Even if the CT is switched off before burning out, the core
may become pre-magnetized or biased, resulting in an inaccurate output. If it is necessary
to operate a CT off load, the secondary terminals must be shorted.
If a CT is supplying a load such as an ammeter, the polarity of the connections may not
matter, this is not however the case when used in control circuits. If the connections are
crossed, or the CT is fitted the wrong way around on the primary, the output is turned
through 180 . This will cause control circuits to operate in the opposite sense.
A CT should never be operated on anything other than its designed load, in some instances
the CT and its load are a matched pair and may have the same serial number, in this case
they must be changed as a pair.
20.15 three phase transformers
Although it is possible to use three, interconnected, single phase transformers for three
phase a.c. it is more common to use a single, three limbed, transformer.
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Using a three limbed transformer, the primary and secondary windings for each phase are
allocated a single limb. Once the layout of the transformer has been established, it is only
necessary to decide how to interconnect the primary and secondary windings. There are
four possible alternatives:
The preferred methods of connection are the last two, however, the requirements of the
circuit must come first.
20.16 Differential transformers
Linear variable differential transformers (LVDT's), rotary variable differential transformers
(RVDT's) and E and I bar transducers all use transformer principles to produce electrical
signals from mechanical movement. The magnitude of the signals produced is dependent
on the amount of movement, and the phase of the signal on the direction of movement.
All three devices are used in control systems, and will be studied in more detail in module
4.
20.17 Filters
Filter circuits are four terminal networks designed to pass a certain required band of
frequencies from input to output terminals, or to filter off, or attenuate the remainder of
signal frequencies present at the input terminal. Such filter circuits use as their basis the
facts that the reactances of inductors and capacitors and the impedances of acceptor and
rejector tuned circuits alter with frequency. They are thus made up from the reactive
elements of inductance and capacitance.
Filter circuits take four main forms:
 High pass filters
 Low pass filters
 Bandpass filters
 Bandstop filters
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20.17.1 High pass filters

High pass filters allow all frequencies above a certain cut-off frequency to be passed from
the input terminals to the output terminals. All frequencies below the cut-off frequency
are filtered off or attenuated. The diagrams below show a simple high pass filter together
with its circuit symbol.
C allows the high frequencies to pass onto the output terminals, but offers a high
reactance to the low frequencies. L offers a low reactance to low frequencies, so they are
filtered off through it, but offers a high reactance to the high frequencies and thus does
not filter them off. A typical attenuation/frequency graph for a simple high pass filter is
shown below.
In practice a number of these filter circuits are used in succession as shown. This improves
the attenuation of the lower frequencies and so the cut off region becomes more abrupt
and clearly defined.
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20.17.2 Low pass filters

Low pass filters allow all frequencies below a certain cut-off frequency to be passed from
the input terminals to the output terminals. All frequencies above the cut-off frequency
are filtered off or attenuated. The circuit symbol and an attenuation / frequency graph for
a simple low pass filter are shown below.
In this circuit, L offers a low reactance to the lower frequencies, allowing them to pass
easily onto the output terminals, but offers a high reactance to the higher frequencies. C
offers a low reactance to the higher frequencies, so they are filtered off through it, but
offers a high reactance to the required low frequencies and therefore does not attenuate
them appreciably.
In practice a number of these filter circuits are used in succession. This improves the
attenuation of the higher frequencies, and so the cut off region becomes more sharply
defined.
20.17.3 Band pass filters
These filters allow a certain narrow band of frequencies to be passed onto the output
terminals and filter off, or attenuate the frequencies above and below this band. A simple
bandpass filter is shown below.
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Rejecter circuit L1 and C1 and acceptor circuit L2 and C2 are tuned to the same frequency,
the center frequency of the required band. No mutual coupling exists between L 1 and L2.
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The acceptor circuit offers low impedance to the resonant frequencies and passes them
onto the output terminals, but offers high impedance to all the other input frequencies.
The rejecter circuit offers low impedance to the unwanted frequencies either side of the
band or so they are filtered off through it. The circuit symbol and attenuation / frequency
curve for a band pass filter are shown below.
A more practical band pass filter circuit is shown above. This ' type' band pass filter circuit
will give more clearly defined cut off regions.
20.17.4 Band stop filters
These filters pass onto the output terminals all frequencies except a certain narrow band
which is attenuated or filtered off. The circuit shows a simple bandstop filter.
Acceptor circuit L1 and C1 and rejecter circuit L2 and C2 are tuned to the same frequencies;
the midpoint frequency of the unwanted band. No mutual coupling exists between L 1 and
L2.
The rejecter circuit offers low impedance to all the required frequencies and so passes
them onto the output terminals, but offers high impedance to the unwanted band of
frequencies. The acceptor circuit L1 and C1 offers a low impedance to the unwanted band
of frequencies and so they are filtered off through it.
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The acceptor circuit offers high impedance to the wanted frequencies and so, does not
attenuate them appreciably. The circuit symbol and frequency / attenuation graph for a
simple band stop filter are shown below.
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A more practical ' type' band stop filter is shown above, again this will give more clearly
defined cut-off regions.
20.17.5 Smoothing & decoupling circuits
Smoothing and Decoupling circuits are special applications of filters.
A smoothing circuit changes a pulsating d.c. to a smooth d.c. in power supply circuits. In
order to achieve this, the filter circuit offers a high reactance to a.c. and a low reactance to
d.c.
A Decoupling circuit removes any unwanted a.c. from a d.c. voltage. Such a circuit offers a
high reactance to d.c. and a low reactance to a.c
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20.18 Attenuators
When a source is connected to and supplying power to a load, it may be necessary to
reduce the voltage, current or power in the load. This process is called ‘attenuation’.
Attenuation can be achieved by adding a resistor in series with the load. The addition of
the attenuator section (ABCC) in the circuit below, results in the voltage and current being
reduced by half, and the power in the load being reduced to a quarter.
This simple method of attenuation causes a mismatch: (At the source terminals AC, the
load appears to be 180; at the load terminals BC, the load ‘sees’ a source of internal
impedance 180).
This mismatch may cause a deterioration in the performance of the source and/or load, eg;
the frequency response may be affected, particularly where impedances with reactance
are involved.
To avoid mismatch, an attenuator must match both the load and the source, ie; the source
must ‘see’ an impedance equal to its own internal resistance and the load must ‘see’ an
impedance, looking back into the attenuator, equal to its own value. Such attenuators are
called matching attenuators and different types now follow, although only the first will be
examined in the course.
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20.18.1 ‘T’ type attenuator
If the output terminals are open-circuited the impedance across the input terminals AC is
100 (Ra and Rc in series) or Zoc.
If the output terminals are short-circuited, the impedance at the input terminals is 36 (Ra
plus parallel combination of Rb and Rc) or Zsc.
The impedance of the input terminals can be any value between 36 and 100,
depending on the load placed across BC. The geometric means of these values is equal to:
ZSC x ZOC = 36 x 100 = 60
and is called the ‘characteristic impedance (Zo) of the network.
By suitable choice of resistor values, a network with any value of characteristic impedance
can be built.
The significance of Characteristic Impedance may be seen if the ‘T’ type attenuator above
is connected between the source and the load in the first diagram. This arrangement is
shown below, with the appropriate values of voltage, current and power shown.
The source (of 60 internal resistance) will ‘see’ a load of 60, ie; will matched (Load + Ra
in parallel with 80, then in series with Ra = 60).
The load will ‘see’, looking back an impedance of 60, ie; will be matched (Source
resistance + Ra in parallel with 80, then in series with Rb = 60).
60V
Action. Across the input terminals AC, the impedance is 60: 1A , and 60 Watts is applied
as input power to the attenuator. However, at the load, the power has reduced to 15 W
(30V × 0.5A) i.e. one quarter of the input power. (In units of decibels which will be
discussed later in the course, this is a reduction of 6 dBs). The source and load are
matched; only a controlled reduction of power, voltage and current has occurred at the
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load. Being matched, the performance of the source and the load has not been affected in
any other way.
20.18.2 Two section attenuator
Two identical attenuators may be used to reduce the input power by 1/16 at the load. i.e.
attenuation of 12 dBs. Such an arrangement is below.
It will be seen that the input power is progressively reduced and that the impedance at
each of the junctions X, Y and Z is the same. Calculated values are shown in the table
below.
Voltage Current
Impeda Power
nce
At X 60V 1A 60 60W
At Y 30V 0.5A 60 15W
At Z 15V 0.25A 60 3.75W
Any number of such sections may be added to give the required attenuation. The extra
sections may be switched in, to give manual control of the amount of attenuation.
20.18.3 Variable attenuators
Fine adjustment of an attenuator may be achieved by having a section with all three
resistors variable as shown below. If the attenuator resistors were changed to the values
Ra = 36 ; Rb = 36 ; Rc = 32
The impedances across AC and BC would be 60 as before.
If Ra and Rb were varied from 20 to 36 and at the same time Rc is varied from 80 to 32,
the attenuator would reduce the input power from 1/4 to 1/16 at the load, i.e. attenuation
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would vary from 6dBs to 12dBs, whilst the impedances seen by the load and the source
would remain constant.
20.18.4 '' type attenuators
In the  type attenuator, the components are arranged to form the Greek letter  (Pi), as
shown below. The same general principles apply to this network, as to the T type.
20.18.5 Balanced & unbalanced networks
All the attenuators shown so far have a common line (the bottom line in the diagrams),
such as earth.
These networks are called ‘unbalanced’ as the voltages in each line are difference due to
the differing impedances.
In a balanced network the two lines have equal anti-phase voltages and therefore should
have equal impedances in each line. Balanced attenuators are shown below.
20.18.6 Attenuator symbols
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Functional diagram symbols for a fixed loss attenuator (pad) and a variable attenuator are
shown below.
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21. AC generation
21.1 Principles
The generation of an alternating current has already been examined in the section on d.c.
generation. The rules concerning the size of the generated emf and the direction of current
flow are as previously described.
Instead of using a commutator to ensure the current flows in one direction through the
load, the load is connected via slip rings and the current flow is alternating, as shown
below.
21.1.1 Output voltage

The instantaneous value of emf induced in the loop is given by:
e(instant) = E(max) sin 
where E(max) = lv and  is the angle of the conductor with respect to the field.
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21.1.2 Output frequency

Referring back to our simple loop it can be seen that, if the loop was rotating at 120 revs
per second, then the output frequency would be 120 Hz. It therefore follows that the
frequency of the output of an ac generator is directly proportional to its speed of rotation.
Another factor which determines the output frequency of the ac generator is its physical
construction. A generator with 4 field poles will produce two complete cycles of output for
each revolution of the shaft.
Similarly, a generator with six field poles will produce three complete cycles for each
revolution and so on. A cycle is complete whenever a conductor has passed under the
influence of two dissimilar magnetic poles.
From the foregoing it will be seen that the output frequency of an ac generator is given by:
F = Revs per second × No of pairs of poles
The speed of rotation is normally given in revolutions per minute (rpm), therefore the
output frequency of is calculated from the following formula:
NP
Frequency = 60
where; N is the speed of rotor rotation in RPM
P is the number of pairs of poles
From the foregoing, it will be seen that one cycle is completed in:
360 mechanical degrees for a two-pole machine,
180 mechanical degrees for a four-pole machine,
120 mechanical degrees for a six-pole machine,
90 mechanical degrees for an eight-pole machine, and so on.
It is therefore necessary to use electrical degrees when referring to angular motion in the
cycle. One cycle = 360 (electrical) degrees. It is not usual to use the word ‘electrical’ in
this respect, but the concept should be clearly understood.
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21.1.3 Effects of a resistive load

When a resistive load is placed on an a.c. generator armature reaction occurs. If the
generator is of the rotating field type, then the field is distorted against the direction of
rotation as shown below. If the load is increased, armature reaction is increased and the
field is distorted further.
A resistive load also tends to slow the generator down, this results in both the output
frequency and voltage decreasing. The output can be restored by providing more drive
torque to overcome the extra load.
21.1.4 Effects of an inductive load
If an inductive load is placed on a generator the current in the stator lags the voltage by
90, causing the stator field to move around 90. The stator field now opposes the main
field, producing a weaker field and a reduction in output voltage.
The voltage can be restored by increasing the field current, however this will generate
additional heat in the machine.

21.1.5 Effects of a capacitive load
If a capacitive load is placed on a generator, the stator field is advanced by 90 and now
assists the main field, this increases the overall field strength, increasing the generator
output voltage.
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This can be corrected, without adverse effects, by decreasing the field current. Most
aircraft systems have inductive loads and a lagging power factor.
21.2 Practical generator construction
Two forms of construction are used for alternating current generators, the rotating field
type and the rotating armature type. Although the rotating field type generator is the one
most commonly used for main power production, both types will be met later in the
course.
21.2.1 Rotating armature type
A rotating armature generator is constructed in a similar manner to a d.c. generator. The
field is located on the stator and the emf is induced in windings located on the rotor. The
output is then taken from the generator using slip rings as previously described.
21.2.2 Rotating field type
It is possible however, to obtain the same output by rotating the field inside stationary
windings that are located around the frame of the machine, the output is then taken from
the stationary armature, or stator.
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This type of generator is called a ‘rotating field generator’ and has several advantages over
the rotating armature type:
 Because the output windings are now stationary they are no longer subject to high
centrifugal forces and can therefore be larger.
 By having the output windings on the outside of the machine there is more room for good
insulation and higher voltages can be used.
 With the output windings on the outside of the machine they are more easily cooled and
can therefore carry larger currents.
 Using a rotating field only requires the use of two slip rings and two brushes, also the
current required is relatively small.
These advantages mean a larger output can be obtained from a smaller machine.
21.2.3 Single phase generator
A single phase a.c. generator consists of a single output winding wound on a pair of poles
and a rotor fitted with either a permanent or an electromagnet. The electromagnet is
energized from a d.c. supply via brushes and slip rings.
When the rotor is driven, emf's are induced in the stator windings. When the windings are
connected to a load, current flows. The output frequency is dependent on the speed of
rotor rotation and the number of poles on the rotor. If the generator shown was rotated at
the same speed, but had two pairs of poles the frequency would double.
21.2.4 Two phase generator
A two phase generator consists of two output windings wound on separate pairs of poles
and a single common rotor.
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The two output windings are located at 90 to each other, so that when maximum emf is
induced in one winding, zero emf is induced in the other winding.
The output from the generator will be two voltages of equal amplitude and frequency, but,
phase displaced from each other by 90.
21.2.5 Three phase generator
A three phase a.c. generator has three sets of output windings, each being physically
displaced from the other two by 120. The rotor is the same as that used in a single phase
or two phase generator.
The Three phase a.c. generator is really three single phase generators on one stator, all
using a common field. Due to the construction of the machine, the emf's generated in
each of the windings is phase displaced by 120 degrees, as shown.
The normal order of rotation is:
Red Yello Blue If two phases are reversed
w then motors and control
1 2 3 circuits will try to operate
A B C in reverse.
If required, the three single phases can be used independently, however this is not
common practice. The windings are normally connected together in one of two ways,
called star or delta. Whether star or delta depends on the way the windings are connected
at the generator output terminals.
21.3 star& delta systems
The three armature windings of a three phase generator can be connected in two ways.
Firstly, the end of one winding can be connected to the start of the next, so that the three
windings form a triangle. This form of connection if called a Delta system. The alternative,
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is to connect the same end of each armature winding to a common point and take the
other end of each winding to an output terminal. This form of connection is called a Star
system. The star system is a four wire system, as a wire is also taken from the common
point to an output terminal.
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21.3.1 Delta connection

A Delta system is a three wire system, one wire
coming from each of the armature winding
interconnection points. In a delta connected
system:
VLINE = VPHASE
ILINE = 3 x IPHASE
Or ILINE = 173 x IPHASE
A delta connected system has no neutral line and
is generally used on small generators supplying
virtually fixed, balanced loads.
21.3.1.1 Balanced loads
If the currents in each phase are equal in size and phase displaced from one another by
120 degrees, the loads are said to be balanced. Under balanced conditions, the loads on
each phase are identical
21.3.1.2 Symmetrical loads
If the phase voltages are the same magnitude, and phase displaced from one another by
120 degrees, the system is said to be symmetrical. Aircraft systems are naturally
symmetrical.
21.3.2 Star connection
Although a star connected system is considered to be a four wire system, if the loads are
balanced, the neutral line need not be connected. The neutral line only carries out of
balance currents.
The neutral, although connected to earth, should not be confused with the earth in a three
pin plug which is there for protection. Under the majority of conditions, an aircraft star
connected system will have current flow in the neutral line.
The voltage from the neutral line or star point to the other end of each phase winding is
called the phase voltage, the voltage from one phase to another is called the line voltage.
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In a star connected system:

VLINE = 3 x VPHASE or VLINE = 173 x VPHASE
and ILINE = IPHASE
The frequency is always expressed as the frequency of a single phase.
In aircraft a.c. systems the phase voltage is 115V and the line voltage is 200V. On some
systems the frequency may be variable, or wild, on a controlled frequency system the
frequency is 400 Hz.
With a star connected generator two possible systems are available:
 three single phase systems each operating at phase voltage
 a single three phase system operating at line voltage
If the instantaneous values of two phases are added together to produce a line voltage and
the process is repeated for the other phases three line voltages will be produced. Each line
voltage will be displaced 120 degrees from the other two. One point to note is that there is
a 90 degree phase angle between a phase voltage and its opposite line voltage, this
relationship is used in several control and monitoring systems.
21.3.3 Power in ac systems
In star and delta connected loads the power dissipated in each phase is given by the
formula:
PPhase = VPhase x IPhase Cos  Watts
If the system is balanced and symmetrical then the total power is three times the above
value.
ac motors
With few exceptions, the operation of a.c. motors rely on the production of a rotating
magnetic field, therefore, we will examine the production of a rotating field first.
21.4 Production of a rotating field
Alternating current supplies are generally available in one of three forms, single phase, two
phase or three phase. Any of these three supplies can be used to produce a rotating
magnetic field, but there are some differences in their use so they will be examined
individually.
21.4.1 Single phase
To produce a rotating field from a single phase a.c. supply requires a minimum of two pairs
of field windings and four pole stator, as shown below.
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A single phase supply connected to the windings shown will only produce an alternating
field. To create a rotating field, the current in one pair of field windings must be in
quadrature with the current in the other pair. This can be achieved by placing an inductor
or capacitor in series with one pair of field windings. A capacitor is generally used because
it is more efficient.
The direction of rotation of the magnetic field depends on the order in which the poles
become magnetized.
The direction of rotation of the field can be reversed either by swapping the supply to one
pair of field windings, or by switching the capacitor from one field winding to the other.
The latter method is normally used on aircraft motors.
If the supply to both field windings is reversed, the motor will run in the same direction.
21.4.2 Two phase
To produce a rotating field from a two phase supply also requires a minimum of four field
poles and two pairs of field windings. A two phase supply comprises two phases at 90
degrees to each, therefore no capacitor is required.
The only way to reverse the direction of rotation of such a motor is to swap the supply
connections to one pair of field windings.
A two phase supply can be obtained from a three phase a.c. supply, by using a phase
voltage and the opposite line voltage.
21.4.3 Three phase
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To produce a rotating field from a three phase a.c. supply requires the use of a six pole
stator and three pairs of field windings. The stator of a three phase a.c. motor is the same
as that of a rotating field a.c. generator.
The direction of rotation of the field depends on the order in which the windings are
energized. To reverse the direction of rotation, it is only necessary to swap the connection
to any two of the field windings.
21.5 Types of ac motor
The two main types of a.c. motor used on aircraft systems are the induction motor and the
synchronous motor. Hysteresis and shaded pole motors are however often found in
instruments, and as they are both a.c. motors, they will also be examined at this time
21.5.1 Induction motor
The rotor of an induction motor consists of a number of copper or aluminum bars
connected by two end rings to form a cage, the cage being enclosed in a laminated iron
core to reduce reluctance. This construction is simple but strong.
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When the rotor is placed in a rotating magnetic field, the bars are cut by the flux, causing
emf's to be induced in them, because the bars are shorted by the end rings, currents flow
in the bars. Current flow in the bars produces a magnetic field around them which, reacts
with the main field of the machine, causing the rotor to turn.
At switch-on, the emf's induced in the rotor bars are at the same frequency as the supply
voltage and because the circuit is highly inductive the current lags the voltage by almost 90
degrees. This means, that by the time the rotor field has been produced, the main field
has moved on by almost 90 degrees and the rotor field can only react with the trailing edge
of the main field, resulting in a small starting torque. As the rotor speed increases the
frequency of the emf's in the rotor decrease, reducing the inductive reactance. The brings
the current more in phase with the induced emf's, producing a good running torque.
It is not possible for the rotor to rotate at synchronous speed, because there would be no
emf’s induced in the rotor bars, no current flow and no magnetic field produced. The
difference between synchronous speed and rotor speed is called ‘slip speed’ and is usually
expressed as a percentage of synchronous speed.
When running, the rotor field induces emf's into the stator windings, this ‘back emf’ is
almost at 180 degrees to the applied voltage, resulting in a small effective voltage across
the field and a low current drain on the supply. If the load on the motor is increased, it
slows down, this causes the angle of the back emf to change, increasing in the effective
voltage, the current from the supply and the motor torque. The increase in motor torque
accelerates the motor back to its original running speed.
When first started, the back emf is almost at 90 degrees to the applied voltage and
therefore the initial current demand is high. In order to reduce the start current, some
motors are designed to be started with the field windings connected in star and run with
them connected in delta. This increases the impedance during starting and reduces the
current drawn from the supply, but it does not improve the poor starting torque. If it is
required that the motor be started ‘on-load’, then the poor starting torque must be
improved. To achieve this the rotor current must be made to appear more in phase with
the voltage. This can be achieved by increasing the resistance of the rotor windings,
however, if the resistance is left in the rotor circuit during running there will be:
 an increase in the slip speed
 a greater speed variation with load changes
 an increase the current taken from the supply
A compromise often used on aircraft induction motors is to fit a second, high resistance,
cage into the rotor. This gives an improved starting torque, with minimal running
problems.
21.5.2 Synchronous motor
The synchronous motor gets its name from the fact that the rotor runs at synchronous
speed, for it to do this, the rotor must be a permanent or electro-magnet.
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In order for the magnet to lock-on to the field it must be brought up to about 75% of
synchronous speed, to achieve this the majority of synchronous motors have the cage of
an induction motor built into them. The motor starts as an induction motor and when
sufficient speed as has been attained, the electromagnet is energized, allowing the rotor to
lock onto the field. Once running, no emf's are induced in the rotor bars, however, they
are useful in holding the rotor and rotor windings in place and also assist in smooth
running during load changes.
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The rotor, although running at synchronous speed, will lag the field, the angle of lag is
proportional to the load placed on the motor.
If whilst running the load is increased, the angle of lag increases, changing the angle of the
back emf and increasing the effective voltage. This increases the current taken from the
supply, producing an increase in torque to cope with the load. Should the angle become
too great, the magnetic link will snap, the motor will run down, stop, and possibly burn out
due to the high current from a lack of back emf.
21.5.3 Shaded pole motor
The shaded pole motor uses only a single set of poles to create an apparent rotating field.
Part of each pole is shaded by a copper or aluminum ring or a shorted coil.
When the field winding is energized an alternating field appears across the main poles, this
alternating field induces emf's into the shaded ring or shorted winding, creating a current
flow within it that produces another field, this field lagging the main field by approximately
90 degrees. The overall effect is to produce a field that appears to move through an angle
determined by the positioning of the poles, because the field is not fully rotating the,
starting torque is low and the motor can only be used for small, fixed loads. The operation
of the rotor is as for an induction motor.
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21.5.4 Hysteresis motor

The construction of hysteresis motors vary, the motor is so named because the material
used for the rotor has a large hysteresis loop. This type of motor requires a two phase
supply and is often used as a servo motor, one phase being supplied from a reference
source, the other from a control circuit. The control phase either leads or lags the
reference phase depending on the direction of rotation required.
This motor uses a cobalt steel ring rotor. When the field is energized, a North pole appears
at A and a South pole at A1, B and B1 being neutral. The field induces a South pole in the
rotor at X and a North pole in the rotor at Y.
As the supply changes A and A1 die away, B becomes a North pole and B1 becomes a South
pole. The retention of the flux by the rotor causes the south pole at X to be attracted by
the North pole at B and the North pole at Y to be attracted to the South pole at B1, causing
the rotor to rotate. The rotor continues to rotate, following the field, if the phase of the
control supply is reversed, the motor will change direction.
aircraft cables
The following information has been obtained from CAAIP 11-5 Aircraft Electrical Cables and
as such is intended purely as a guide. The leaflet itself provides guidance material on the
approval and acceptance of aircraft cables and is based upon CAA information Leaflet
AD/IL/0140/1-25 Aircraft Electrical Cables.
The recent advances made in performance of dielectric materials has led to the
development of aircraft cables which differ significantly from those in service in older
aircraft types. Experience gained to date on the operation of existing aircraft cables and on
the recent developments, has shown that there are a number of areas where it is
considered general guidance material would be beneficial.
21.6 Applicable requirements
21.6.1 Airworthiness codes
The applicable airworthiness code will depend on the type of aircraft in which the cable is
to be installed. This may be BCAR Section D, BCAR Section K, BCAR Section G or JAR 25 (see
3.1(d)).
The following list is provided for guidance purposes only:
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 BCAR Section D6-13 paragraph 7.1 - Cables and

Associated Fittings and Equipment
 BCAR Section K6-13 paragraph 7.1 - Cables and
 BCAR Section G6-14 paragraph 7.1 - Cables and
 JAR 25
25.1309 Equipment, Systems and Installation
25.1353 Electrical Equipment and Installation
25.1355 Distribution System
25.1359 Electrical System Fire and Smoke Protection
NOTE: See also JAR NPA 25DF-191 (Miscellaneous Electrical Requirements).
21.6.2 Design responsibility
For the purpose of the control of design, electrical cables are considered to be an item of
‘equipment’ and therefore the requirements of BCAR Section A, Chapter A4-8 or Section B,
Chapter B4-6 apply. In general, all cables used for interconnection within the airframe and
power plant are classed as ‘Controlled Items’ and chapter 21.6.3considers this in specific
terms.
NOTE:
 The same paragraph numbers will apply for BCAR 23 and BCAR 29 where applicable.
See also Airworthiness Notice No. 12 Appendix No. 32. Electrical Cable Failure and
Appendix No. 42, Maintenance and re-installation of piped and cables looms.
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21.6.3 Approval of cables

BCAR Section A, Chapter A4-8 and Section b, Chapter B4-8 (CAP 553/CAP 554) procedures
Cable manufacturers seeking approval of their products need to hold appropriate Terms of
Approval under an organizational approval to BCAR Section A, Chapter A8-1.
Controlled items such as aircraft cables may be certified under ‘Component’ or ‘Accessory’
Approval procedure. Where a product is widely used, the Accessory Approval Procedure
will generally be applicable. In this case, the CAA will assess the design in relation to the
specification and to the requirements of the CAA, which will align wherever possible to
‘Standards’ which have been agreed nationally or internationally.
A user who has, or has access to, a design organization holding appropriate Terms of
Approval may elect to employ cables which they may certify under the ’Components
Procedure’. A Declaration of Design and Performance (DDP) will be required and this
should be related to a design specification controlled either by the cable manufacturer or
the installing Design Authority. A National or International ‘Standard’ may also be
employed, but this will usually need to be supplemented by a Detailed Specification where
the ‘Standard’ related to performance rather than construction. BCAR Section A, Chapter
A4-8 and Section B4-8 (see note) does not include a procedure for granting Appliance
Registration to equipment which is designed and produced under the control of an
overseas Airworthiness Authority (Chapter B4-8 paragraph 5.4). Such registrations have
been granted in respect of cables and are the equivalent of Accessory Approval. The CAA
does not normally grant Approvals against Standard or Specifications over which it has no
control or influence, or where such an approval could be in conflict with the interests of
another Authority. Accessory Approval does not automatically authorize the installation of
a product, each application having to be approved as noted in paragraph 3.4 below:
NOTE: The CAA has revised the current Requirements of BCAR Section A (CAP 460) at Issue
29 by dividing the Certification and Approval Procedures into two Sections, namely:
 Section A (CAP 553): Airworthiness Procedures where the CAA has Primary Responsibility
for Type Approval of the product.
 Section B (CAP 554): Airworthiness Procedures where the CAA Does Not have Primary
Responsibility for Type Approval of the product.
These three documents will remain concurrent until 30 June 1990 at which time BCAR
Section A (CAP 460) at Issue 29 will be withdrawn.
21.6.4 Modification & repair
Cables used as replacements, or used for medication of an aircraft, should be of a type
approved by the constructor for that particular aircraft type unless an alternative is
selected by an approved Design Authority. This selection should recognize the various
factors detailed in this Leaflet. This is most readily achieved by obtaining a Declaration of
Design and Performance (DDP) from the manufacturer if that manufacturer is suitably CAA
approved. The user should also take steps to ensure that the quality of cable is satisfactory
and the preferred method of achieving this is by obtaining a CAA Approved Certificate
from the manufacturer.
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This release should define a cable by reference to its specification. For aircraft constructed
overseas, the manufacturing sources approved by the aircraft constructor as satisfactory
for his requirements for quality should be used.
Verification of product quality from the Airworthiness Authority of the country of origin
should be available and should be used where possible. (Airworthiness Notice No’s 11 and
39 should be observed as appropriate).
It is important to recognize that the certification requirements for electrical installations
and the design standards achieved by aircraft constructors have advanced with time,
especially in relation to fire hazards. Consequently, it is not correct to assume that every
cable type in use has a current approval for use on all aircraft. For example, cables with
PVC insulation such as Nyvin, MIL-W-5086 (all types), or BMS 13-13, should not be used on
aircraft certified with new technology cables employing insulation which is less likely to
emit noxious fumes.
Users who do not hold an appropriate design approval but who nevertheless seek approval
for work under an AAN, will normally be expected to employ cable selected by a Design
Authority or employ a cable which has CAA Accessory Approval, (or an Appliance
Registration from some overseas sources). A list of cable types which currently hold
Accessory Approval are included at the end of this section, this list is constantly being
updated and should not be used without reference to the Systems and Equipment Design
Department, Safety Regulation Group, Gatwick. All manufacturers of Accessory Approved
cable have good technical literature and provide service support to their customers. It is
stressed that CAA Approval for a cable does not absolve the user from his responsibility to
make a correct assessment of the product against the intended duty.
It is important to be aware that generalized claims by stockists and others that a cable type
is "approved" or "qualified" is likely to be of little value unless substantiated by the
procedures prescribed in this Information Leaflet. Thus the "Approval" of a cable design
by, say, an overseas military agency has no significance to a UK civil user.
21.7 cable classification
Listed below are the broad classifications used for aircraft cables. Regrettably, there is
little International Standardization of terminology and it should be noted that the term
‘wire’ is used in the USA whereas most other countries talk of ‘cable’. Other significant
differences in terminology are stated where appropriate.
21.7.1 Airframe cables
Cables designated as "Airframe", are intended to be sufficiently robust to satisfy the
requirements of ‘Open’ airframe wiring and the general wiring of Power plants. However,
in recent years there has been a strong trend towards very thin insulation which is harder
and stiffer than insulation such as PVC. Such ‘stiff’ cables are perfectly satisfactory if the
installation is designed to accept them, but they may very well be quite unsuitable for an
older airframe design requiring, say, flexing over hinges. It follows that even if all the
major declared characteristics such as overall diameter and temperature rating are
acceptable, the apparently equivalent cables may still not be interchangeable.
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There are two basic methods of applying cable insulation, namely wrapping and extruding.
These methods in themselves can produce different "handling" characteristics. In the USA
the term "Medium Weight-Interconnect" may be used for Airframe Cables.
21.7.2 Interconnect cables
"Interconnect" is a term adopted by the BSI to designate cables which may be used in
protected areas of wiring such as the interconnection of equipment within racks. Such
cable would normally be installed within an assembly which would then be positioned into
an aircraft. It would not, therefore, be subject to "pulling through" and other such stressful
exercises.
Interconnect cables employ thinner insulation than airframe types, which saves weight and
space and increases flexibility, the latter being most important where looms (bundles) are
required to turn through small radii into electrical connectors. However, all the constraints
given in chapter 21.7.1 for airframe cable also apply here.
The term "Hook-up" is commonly used in the USA to designate cables of this type and the
designation "Light Weight-Interconnect" may also be applied.
21.7.3 Equipment wire
This cable, invariably known as "wire", is intended to be used within equipment and,
therefore, is very flexible and suitable for soldering. It is not designed for use as
interconnect wiring, but design organizations do, on occasion, select a particular type for
use in protected areas of an airframe. There is a considerable range of such cables which
vary in basic construction and performance and they should always be closely defined. In
general, the types in aircraft use are produced by CAA Approved Organizations who
provide "CAA Release" to British Standard G210 or an equivalent specification. Some
manufacturers have sought "Accessory Approval" for BS G210 cable and this has been
granted, but it is not a CAA requirement that any form of design approval be applied to this
cable when it is used for its intended purpose, (which is within equipment enclosures
where the equipment itself is subject to control). If follows that it can be manufactured
and released by a Supplier, approved to BCAR Section A, chapter A8-2. The term "Module
Wire" is sometimes used for this class of cable in the USA.
21.7.4 Fire resistant cables
This type of cable is required to retain a defined level of electrical insulation in the
presence of fire for five minutes, as defined in BCAR Section D, Chapter D1-2 paragraph
1.17.2 and JAR 1. "Fire Resistant" should not be confused with ‘high temperature’ and fire
resistant types should only be employed where this property is required because other
characteristics, such as fluid resistance, will usually be poorer than could be expected from
a non fire resistant high temperature cable.
21.7.5 Fireproof cables
These cables are required to operate for fifteen minutes in a designated fire as defined in
BCAR Section D, Chapter D6 paragraph 6.5.1 and JAR 1 and are for use in designated fire
zones. BCAR Section D, Chapter D6-13 paragraph 6.6.2 and JAR 25.1359 define a fire zone.
As for Fire Resistant types, they should only be used where necessary.
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21.7.6 Multi-core, Screened and Jacketed cables

Airframe and Interconnect Cables may be supplied in a multi-core form or generally up to
four cores, the cores being twisted together. The multi-core may be jacketed (sometimes
known as a sheath) or it may be screened and jacketed. The screening is usually a braid
which gives 85% surface coverage, but screening to a higher standard may be used and on
replacement of such cables, the standard must not be degraded. The cores are colored for
identification as defined in BS G230.
21.7.7 Data Bus
Data Bus cables are designed to specific requirements which will not, as a general principle,
allow for replacement by any other type other than that specified by the Design Authority
for the installation. (This requirement will also apply to the terminations of such cables).
21.7.8 Ignition cables
These cables are used for the transmission of high tension voltages in both piston engine
and turbine engine ignition systems, and are of the single core stranded type suitably
insulated and screened by metal braided sheathing to prevent interference. These cables
will be examined in more detail under ignition systems.
21.7.9 Thermocouple cables
These cables are used in high temperature measuring systems employing the
thermocouple principle (see chapter 4.4). The materials used are limited and depend on
the temperatures being measured, for jet engine exhaust gas temperature measurement,
the internationally accepted standard materials are Chromel and Alumel. For piston
engine exhaust temperature and cylinder head temperature measurement other
combinations such as Iron / Constantan and Copper / Constantan are used.
21.7.10 Co-axial cables
Co-axial cables contain two or more separate conductors. The innermost conductor may
be solid or stranded copper wire, and may be plain, tinned, silver plated or even gold
plated. The remaining conductors are in the form of tubes, usually of fine braid. The
insulation is usually teflon or polyethylene. Outer coverings or jackets serve to
weatherproof the cables and protect them from fluids, and mechanical and electrical
damage.
Co-axial cables have several advantages over standard cables. Firstly, they are shielded
against electrostatic and magnetic fields. An electrostatic field does not extend beyond the
outer conductor and the magnetic fields due to current flow in the inner and outer
conductors cancel each other out. Secondly, since co-axial cables do not radiate, then
likewise they will not pick up any energy or be influenced by magnetic fields. Thirdly, co-
axial cables have specific values of; impedance, capacitance per unit length and
attenuation per unit length.
21.8 Specification& cable type identification
Because of the large number of specifications which exist for aircraft cables, it is
impractical to list these in this Leaflet. Significant differences can occur between cables
complying with the same basic form of requirements and even with the BSI ‘G’ series of
standards, there are problems in attempting to offer guidance on interchangeability
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between products. The following information has been complied to assist in the
recognition of the original specifications.
21.8.1 British Standards Specifications
Aircraft cable specifications are issued in the Aerospace G series of British Standards are
referenced in the BSI Year Book. The majority of cables used on British built aircraft now in
service will have been produced to such ‘G’ specifications, e.g. BS G221 for Minyvin.
Newer standard are based upon general requirements given in BS G230. A series of
‘Detailed Standards’ numbered sequentially from G232 has now been published and these
define cable design requirements and physical characteristics. The CAA grants Accessory
Approval to cables which comply with these standards, but an additional Manufacturer’s
Detailed Specification, which defines the precise construction, will also be required by the
CAA. This may be on a ‘commercial in confidence’ basis.
BS G230 includes a listing of Manufacturer’s Identification Marks and also a Letter Code for
year of manufacture. This information is reproduced at the end of this section.
21.8.2 UK Military Specifications
Cables produced for the MOD will include aircraft types which are identified as EL.XXXX or
D.E.F.XX-XX Pt XX. Military aircraft produced by a European consortium may have their
own cable specifications and a typical example is the Panavia project which has produced
PAN specifications. These military specifications are mentioned for information and it
should be noted that the CAA does not normally validate such specifications.
21.8.3 US Military Specifications
The designation of US Military Specifications for cable is usually MIL-W-XXXX. Each MIL
specification has a number of ‘slash sheets’ and the requirements of such individual sheets
can encompass a large range of cables. It is absolutely essential to known the full
designation of any MIL Specification cable and to replace like with like. As stated
previously, CAA Accessory Approval cannot be granted against MIL Specifications and users
should be made aware that the use of such cables may be difficult to justify for other than
direct replacement purposes and where the original selection has an approval.
21.8.4 Constructor’s Specification
Aircraft constructors may publish specifications and some of the most frequently seen of
these are:-
a) Boeing - BMS XXXX
b) Douglas - BXS XXX
c) Airbus Industrie - AR XXXX or ASNE XXXX
d) BAC (Concorde) - BAS XXXX
It has to be emphasised that these cables are approved in relation to the aircraft on which
they are installed by the constructor, i.e. a cable which is ‘approved’ for use by on
constructor may not necessarily be acceptable to another.
21.8.5 International (including European) Standards
The official body for the standardization of aircraft equipment, including cable, is the ISO
(International Standards Organization). The BSI contributes to the work of the ISO but it
has to be said that few, if any, ISO cable standards are employed by industry. Within
Europe, the Society of British Aerospace Companies (SBAC) works in association with other
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manufacturers in the organization known as AECMA (Association Europeanne Des

Constructeurs De Materiel Aerospatiale). AECMA seeks to promote their own standards
and they publish European ‘Normes’ as EN specifications. These have not yet been widely
adopted, at least within the UK, but preliminary specifications may be published and these
are known as prEN Standards. ISO and EN Standards may be recognized for installation
approval purposes except that is not usually within the boundaries of the CAA to grant
product approval against a specification not controlled by BSI or a recognized (Approved)
organization.
21.8.6 Cable Manufacturer’s Specifications
The CAA will accept specifications from Approved Organizations and will grant, where
appropriate, approval against such specifications. The organization controlling the
specification has to be a Primary Company (BCAR Section A, Chapter A8-1) or a suitably
supervised overseas organization (see BCAR Section B, Chapter B4-8 paragraph 5.4).
21.9 Cable performance
The definition of cable performance has increased in complexity and precision with the
reduction of insulation thickness and weight. Some of the cables now used for airframe
wiring have no more than 0.006 inch (0.15mm) of insulation thickness and thus there is
little margin for error in manufacture or in an aircraft installation. The operating
temperature dictates to a large extent the materials and constructions used, but
installation requirements need to be satisfied by defining properties such as resistance to
insulation ‘cut-through’ and abrasion. It follows that cables need to be selected with care
and the factors detailed below should be considered in relation to any intended duty.
21.9.1 Application
Obviously, a primary consideration in cable selection is to determine the class of cable
required within the classification given. It should be noted that under one generic name
there may be a range of insulation thicknesses which will be appropriate for Airframe or for
Interconnect cable and thus correct identification, by part number, is particularly
important.
21.9.2 Temperature
The temperature rating of a cable must be defined to permit comparison with the worst
case requirements of the application. If follows that the location of a cable, relative to hot
air ducts and local hot spots such as power transformers and some filament lighting, must
be known. Cables have a specific maximum continuous operating temperature, and for
many types, this may be achieved by any combination of ambient temperature plus
temperature rise due to I2R losses. However, it should be noted, that in general, it is
undesirable to contribute more than a 40C rise by electrical heating and that operating
temperature and installed life are directly related. The temperature rating of an airframe
cable is determined by its construction, and will be classified at one of the following
temperatures:-
105C (obsolescent cable types), 135C, 150C, 210C and 260C.

Clearly this temperature rating has to be known when evaluating any design application.
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21.9.3 Cable size

Cable is usually identified by a size number which approximates to the AWG (American
Wire Gauge) size of the conductor. However, some cables employ a number which refers
to the square millimetres of a conductor cross section, which is a system used extensively
for commercial cables. The size of cable is the primary determinate of the electrical
protection level set by the circuit breaker or fuse, and should never be reduced below the
level established by proper co-ordination data. Manufacturers publish rating data for
single cable in free air, and for bundles of three cables in free air. By study of the short
term and continuous ratings for a given cable type and size, the correct protection can be
determined (CAA Airworthiness Notice No.12 Appendix No.32 should be observed).
Current rating data usually relates to a temperature rise of 40C above ambient as stated
above and due allowance must be made for such electrical heating. Manufacturer’s data
will normally include conductor resistance in ohms per kM at 20C and a temperature
correction may be necessary if accurate voltage drop calculations are necessary.
It should be noted that cable ‘size’ relates only to the conductor and thus the overall
diameter and surface finish for a given size may vary significantly between cable types.
Such differences in overall diameter may have an effect on cable sealing in connectors and
pressure bungs, and also the selection of pre-insulated terminal ends where a dielectric
crimp is provided.
21.9.4 Voltage rating
All cables have a rated voltage and some, such as equipment wires, may be specified by
voltage. Particular reference should be made to the specified voltage of any cable where
higher than normal potentials may be used, examples being discharge lamp circuits and
windscreen heating.
21.9.5 Current rating
American Wire gauge sizes simply indicate the physical size of the cable and have only
limited bearing on the current carrying characteristics of the cable. The current limits or
ratings depend on a number of factors such as:
 Numbers of cables in a loom.
 Ambient temperature.
 Duration current is flowing
Such current ratings need to be obtained from tables either produced by the manufacturer
or included in the maintenance manuals. The current limits in tables are based on a
conductor temperature increase of 40C under the conditions specified in the table. As
such it is not possible to use the limits in such tables if the ambient temperature to which
the cable will be subjected is less than 40C below the maximum permitted conductor
temperature.
For example:
The maximum service temperature for Fepsil is 190C.
The maximum permitted continuous current in a single strand of awg 20 Fepsil is 19 Amps
(this will raise the temperature of the cable by 40C, in an an ambient temperature above
150C).
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So the cable cannot be operated with a 19 amp continuous current in an ambient

temperature above 150C.
If the maximum design ambient temperature (150C for Fepsil) is continuously exceeded
then the current ratings in the table will have to be multiplied by K where:
T-t
K = 40
Where T is the maximum service temperature of the cable and t is the higher ambient
temperature.
For example: If it was intended to use Fepsil in an ambient temperature of 170C, the
current values in the table would have to be multiplied by:
190 -170 1
K = 40 = 2 = 0707
21.9.6 Flammability & toxicity
All cables are required to have a defined level of resistance to burning when exposed to
standard flame tests. In addition to the requirements for flammability, there exists within
BCAR’s JAR’s and FAR’s, general requirements relating to the hazards of smoke and
toxicity. In recent years, greater emphasis has been placed upon these characteristics and
whilst they are not yet defined in many civil cable specifications, it is generally true that
new cable types have been more thoroughly investigated, albeit on an empirical or
subjective basis.
21.9.7 Wet Arc Tracking
A requirement has now been formulated to assess the ‘resistance to failure’ of cables
when subjected to a combination of insulation damage and fluid contamination. The
propensity of some insulating materials to ‘track’ has long been studied in high voltage
systems but it has now been found necessary, following a failure as detailed later in this
section.
BS G230 now includes a test to determine resistance to Wet Arc Tracking (Test No.42), and
Airworthiness Notice No.12, Appendix No.32 will be used to keep industry advised for the
CAA position on this subject.
Tracking can also occur under dry conditions and this is being studied. This failure mode
reinforces the need for good cable installation and maintenance practice.
21.9.8 Mechanical properties
The assessment of cables insulation’s includes the ability to withstand the pressure of a
sharp edge (cut-through), and for the ability to withstand scraping with a defined blade. It
is these tests which figure significantly in assessing airframe cable and which are the
controlled methods of replacing assessment by scraping with the thumb nail. As noted
earlier, differing constructions result in mark changed in handling properties especially
with regard to stiffness and ‘springiness’. Installation of looms of thin wall hard dielectric
cable has to have regard to the reluctance of such looms to be ‘set’ in position, especially if
the supporting structure is flimsy. It must not, however, be assumed that this apparent
strength is translated into the ability to withstand physical abuse.
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21.9.9 Fluid contamination

Cables are required to display a defined level of resistance to the effects of commonly used
aircraft fluids but this is not to say that cables can withstand continuous contamination,
which should be avoided. A related hazard is that presented by sealing compounds
because these may contain agents which are aggressive to cable insulation. If follows that
where a new cable type is introduced, the compatibility with such compounds should be
checked. Equally, the use of a new fluid on an aircraft, e.g. new types of hydraulic fluid,
should be considered in relation to the ability of cables to withstand contamination.
Contamination of cables by toilet or galley waste has to be rigorously prevented or
corrected as detailed in Airworthiness Notice No.12 Appendix No.32
21.10 cable construction
21.10.1 Conductors
For equipment interconnection and airframe cables, the conductors are normally of the
stranded type and are usually made from plated copper. However, size 24 and smaller
sizes of conductor will be of copper alloy having a higher tensile strength. Fire resistant
cables may also be of copper alloy or copper conductors throughout all applicable sizes.
The total conductor consists of plated strands which are circular in section and which are
laid up into one of a number of strands forms. Aluminum conductors are also available for
cables of size 8 and large but such cables have not been without problems. Any
modification which involves conversion from copper to aluminum should be classed as
‘major’ and thoroughly investigated, especially in regard to termination techniques.
Obviously, ‘aluminum cables’ will need to be significantly larger in cross section than
copper for a given electrical load, because of the higher electrical resistance of aluminum.
21.10.2 Conductor Plating
Plating is employed on copper, copper alloy and aluminum conductors to improve
resistance to correction and to assist termination techniques. Very often it is the plating
which will determine the temperature rating of a given cable and the figures given below
are those widely recognized within the UK.
a) Tin plated copper maximum continuous temperature 135C
b) Silver plated copper maximum continuous temperature 200C
c) Nickel plated copper maximum continuous temperature 260C
d) Nickel Clad plated copper maximum continuous temperature 260C
Nickel clad copper is used instead of nickel plate on fire resistant cable to provide a thicker
nickel element.
The temperature figures quoted above may have to be varied downwards because of
limitations imposed by the cable insulation. Higher figures, notably 150C for tin plating,
are sometimes quoted in the USA but performance at such temperature, especially in
regard to stable crimp resistance and solderability is the subject of debate, if not dispute.
It should be noted that the plating used on crimped terminal ends must be compatible with
the conductor plating of the cable, and information should be sought from termination
manufacturers.
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21.10.3 Dielectric materials / cable types

It is not practicable to review in these notes, the performance of all of the many types of
cable construction available except in general terms Extensive studies have been made,
especially in the USA, in an attempt to determine an optimum cable type. The conclusion
drawn is that there is not an overall best cable and that all the materials studied have
advantages and disadvantages. This is little help to a user who is seeking to resolve the
conflicting guidance and advice offered by organizations which have a keen commercial
interest in the decisions of an intending purchaser. This information Leaflet is intended to
alert people to the difficulty of making a sound judgement in what has traditionally been
considered to be a simple subject.
Insulation material is applied to conductors by one of two basic methods, extrusion and
wrapping. In general terms, extrudable materials are ‘heat meltable’ and are not
employed for higher temperature applications. It follows that towards the upper limit of
their operating temperature, their mechanical strength when measured by abrasion or cut
through, can be significantly less than that measured at room temperature. Airframe
categories of cable usually have a double extrusion which are not always of the same
material. A double extrusion is also claimed to impart ‘crack stopping’ qualities. Radiation
cross linking of processed material is employed on high performance cables and this
eliminates melting, increases strength and allows for thinner wall thickness. Cables
employing such construction perform well on the British Standard test for wet arc tracking.
The most commonly used wrapped insulation material is Kapton (see Note), which is the
registered trade name to an aromatic polyimide produced by Dupont. Many cable
manufacturers world-wide use Kapton, either singly or in combination with other materials
to give a so-called hybrid construction. Single or double tapes are spirally wound over the
conductor to a defined overlap to give the required tape thickness' at any one point.
Kapton is naturally copper colored and it is usual to apply a top coat to provide a colored
surface which will accept print and also give added protection to the cable. It follows that
it is totally incorrect to talk of Kapton cables without further definition. Some
constructions, notably cables made in the USA to MILW81381/11, have been the subject of
adverse comment and it is possible that the use of this particular type will be discontinued
in some environments. This would not reflect general rejection of cables containing
Kapton because most constructions provide good overall performance including excellent
mechanical strength, especially the newer higher hybrid types.
Note: Kapton is a Dupont trademark.
The process of wrapping insulation provides good control of insulation wall thickness and
there are now cable types which employ only 4 layers of ‘Kapton’, giving a total wall
thickness of approximately 0·006 inches (·15 mm) and these are being employed
throughout the aircraft of some recently certified aircraft types. The CAA has not granted
an Accessory Approval as ‘Airframe’ types to such cables, these having been accepted on a
‘Component’ basis.
The special case of PVC insulated cables such as Minyvin (BS G221) was reviewed earlier in
the notes and all PVC cables are now classed as ‘Obsolescent - unsuitable for new designs’.
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21.11 Cable failure

The following types of failure and quality faults are amongst those seen in recent years.
This is not the total list of cable problems but it does, perhaps, indicate the importance of
specifying electrical cable of an appropriate type and quality. It is the design intent that
the present generation of CAA Approved cables should last an aircraft life, but this will only
be achieved if installations are designed and maintained with care and cable selection is
made such that operating conditions, especially maximum temperature, seldom if ever,
approach the specified limiting parameters.
21.11.1 Wet Arc Tracking
Airworthiness Notice No.12 Appendix No.32 has drawn the attention of Industry to the
problem of wet arc tracking of damaged cables subjected to fluid contamination.
Observation of this Appendix and the actions of cable manufacturers should resolve the
problem, but the greatest need is to ensure that hot stamp printing is properly controlled.
‘Interconnect’ and ‘Equipment Wires’ should not be hot stamp printed.
21.11.2 Minyvin
Some batches of Minyvin have in the past shown a tendency to shed the outer nylon
sheath because of splitting along a flow line inadvertently introduced during manufacture.
In dry areas of aircraft, replacement of such cable is not a matter of urgency but if
moisture, especially hydraulic fluid, is present then cable must be replaced. In areas which
are exposed and prone to fluid contamination, such as undercarriage bays, modifications
to introduce a more suitable cable have been raised on some aircraft types.
21.11.3 BMS 13-28
Larger sizes of this mineral-filled PTFE cable, especially those used on Boeing 707, 727 and
737 aircraft, tend to experience complete insulation failure due to longitudinal splitting of
the total dielectric. Replacement by BMS13-53 or EFGLAS to BS G222 under modification
action is desirable.
21.11.4 Abrasion
Some types of cable have shown a tendency to ‘wear through’ the insulation at a point
where cable rubs on the structure. Areas of high vibration induce this failure mechanism
and it may be supposed that the stiffer construction of some cables tends to produce a
greater contact force and transmit vibration where previously it was damped. Careful
cable loom tying and clipping is necessary to alleviate this problem (see Airworthiness
Notice No.12 Appendix No.42).
21.11.5 Conductor 'Knuckling through'
Some earlier cable constructions tended to exhibit knuckling of conductors which could be
severe enough to penetrate the insulation. This was induced by applying excessive pull
through forces and care should be taken not to put cables under tension. FEPSIL to BS
G202, which is now ‘obsolescent’, requires particular care in manufacture and installation
to avoid this defect.
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21.11.6 Red Plague

Cables with silver plated conductors can exhibit the aptly named ‘Red Plague’ if the plating
has been damaged and then exposed to moisture. Consequently, silver plated conductors
are generally unsuitable for use in unpressurised areas.
21.11.7 Glycol Fires
It is known that should de-icing fluid contaminate silver plated conductors, an electrical fire
can result. Accordingly, silver plated conductors should not be employed in areas where
de-icing fluid can be present.
21.11.8 Poor Solderability
It should be recognized that the quality of free tin on plated conductors rapidly reduce
with time. The replacement of soldered connections during aircraft maintenance will
probably require that conductors are ‘tinned’ as part of the process. The loss of free tin
starts as soon as the cable is manufactured and thus prolonged storage should be avoided.
21.12 Caa approved cables
On the following pages is a list of Accessory Approved cables at the date of issue of this
information book. Information is supplied on the cable types where available. In all cases,
the cables are approved for use in aircraft subject to limitations as specified in the
appropriate Declaration of Design and Performance (DDP). For further information contact
should be sought with the manufacturers.
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21.12.1 B.I.C.C.
 Cable to Specification BS2G233
Description: Approval Reference E14012
The cables are single and multi-core airframe and interconnect, multi-core sheathed
airframe and interconnect and single and multi-core screened and sheathed types.
Conductors and braids are tin plated, the insulation and sheath being ETFE extruded and
irradiated.
Temperature range: 65 to + 35C
Size: Single core airframe 26 to 10 AWG
Single core interconnect 26 to 18 AWG
Sheathed and screened and sheathed airframe 1-4 cores, 26 to 16 AWG
Sheathed and screened and sheathed interconnect 1-4 cores, 26 to 16 AWG
 Cable to Specification EMC 63
Description : Approval Reference E13458
The cables are single core or multi-core metsheath, having conductors of tinned annealed
copper or silver plated copper alloy insulated with extruded ETFE.
Temperature range: 65C to +120C (tinned conductors)
65C to +150C (silver plated conductors)
Size: Silver plated high strength copper alloy conductor
size 26 and 24 AWG only.
Tinned copper conductor size 22 to 12 AWG (Medium
wall).
NOTE: Thin wall cable also available, intended for internal wiring of equipment.
Silver plated high strength copper alloy conductor - size 24 AWG only and tinned copper
conductor sizes 22 to 12 AWG (Thick wall).
 Cable Specification ECM 65 (ACT 260)
Description Approval Reference E13528
Conductors and braids are nickel plated, the insulation and sheath being a composite of
polyamide and PTFE.
Temperature range: 65C to +260C
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 Cable to Specification ECM66 (ACT 150)

Conductors and braids are silver plated, the insulation and sheath being a composite of
polyamide and PTFE.
Sheathed and screened and sheathed interconnect 1-4 cores, 24 to 18 AWG
 Cable to Specification ECM 45
Two core compensating cable comprising nickel chromium nickel aluminum conductors,
insulated with layers of FEP coated Kapton tape and PTFE tape, sheathed with layers of
Kapton tape and PTFE tape.
Cable to Specification ECM 47
 Description : Approval Reference E12020
Thermocouple extension cable-twin sheathed flat design having conductor nickel
chromium and nickel aluminum insulated with Kapton/glass fibre braid/colored PTFE tape
all sintered. The sheath over the flat twin is of Kapton tape and colored PTFE tape
(sintered).
The cables are single core, having conductors of nickel coated copper. The insulation is a
composite of silicone rubber, quartz and PTFE.
The cables are single core, having conductors of nickel coated copper. The insulation is a
composite of silicone rubber, quartz and PTFE.
 Cable to Specification ECM 44 (KP260)
Description : Approval Reference E12079
The cables are single core, screened and sheathed and multi-core screened and sheathed
having nickel plated copper alloy (size 24 only) or nickel plated copper alloy (size 24 only)
or nickel plated copper conductors and braids insulated and sheathed where appropriate
with a combination of PTFE and Kapton/FEP taps are sintered.
Sizes: Single core 24 to 12 AWG
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21.12.2 Rists Wire and Cable Ltd.

 Polyimide 3000SS (code 1143 and 1144)
Single core screened and sheathed Kapton insulated cables with silver plated copper alloy
and silver plated copper conductors.
 Polyimide 1500 (code 1147)
Single core Kapton insulated cable with a top coat of FEP lacquer having electro tinned
copper conductors.
Temperature range: 65C to + 135C
Size: 22-12 AWG
 Polyimide 2000 (code 1148)
Silver plated copper alloy and silver plated copper conductors with Kapton Insulation.
 Type 6000 and 6000T
Single core cables sizes 22-10 inclusive with silver plated copper conductors.
Single core cable sizes 24 and 26 with silver plated copper alloy conductors.
All cables insulated with FEP/Kapton/FEP tape and PTFE tape overall.
Twisted single cables (two, three and four) also available sizes 26-16.
 Type 7000 and 7000T
Single core cables, sizes 22-10 inclusive with nickel plated copper conductors.
Single core cables, size 26 and 24 with nickel plated copper alloy conductors.
All cables are insulated with FEP/Kapton/FEP tape and PTFE tape overall.
Twisted single cables (two, three and four) also available, sizes 26-16.
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21.12.3 Raychem Limited

 Raychem Type 44
Silver plated high strength copper alloy conductors or tin plated copper conductors. The
insulation is made up of radiation cross linked polyolefin polymer with a protective sheath
of polyvinylidene fluoride.
The following part numbers are identified with respective limitations:-
44A0811-XX-Color
44A0812-XX-Color Airframe Constructions
44A0814-XX-Color
44A0211-XX-Color
44A0212-XX-Color Light Airframe/Interconnect construction
44A0212-XX-Color
44A0111-XX-Color
44A0112-XX-Color Thin wall equipment wire constructions
44A0114-XX-Color
44A1211-XX-Color
44A1212-XX-Color Screened and sheathed Airframe cable
44A1214-XX-Color
44A1111-XX-Color
44A1112-XX-Color Screened and sheathed equipment wire
44A1114-XX-Color
Note: XX denote AWG size

 Raychem Type 55
Silver plated high strength copper alloy or tin plated copper or silver plated copper
conductors. The insulation is made up of an extruded radiation cross linked fluoropolymer.
The constructions are types 1 and 2 in single, two, three and four conductors and
"metsheath" versions. A cross reference sheet between this specification and Raychem’s
type 55 wire part numbering system is given on the next page:
Type
Type 1 single-XX (size)-color
Type 1 twisted pair-XX-Colors
Type 1 twisted triple-XX-Colors
Type 1 twisted quad-XX-Colors
Type 2 single-XX (size)-color
Type 2 twisted pair-XX-colors
Type 2 twisted triple-XX-colors
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Type 2 twisted quad-XX-colors

Type 2 single + screened + sheathed-XX-colors
Type 2 twisted pair + screen + sheath-XX-colors
Type 2 twisted triple + screen + sheath-XX-colors
Part Number
55A8022-24*to 10-X(color)
55A8622-24*to 10X/X (colors)
55A8623-24*to 10-X/X/X
55A8813-24*to 10-X/X/X/X
55A8776-24*to 16-X(color)
55A8777-24*to 20X/X
55A8778-24*to 20-X/X/X
55A8814-24*to 16-X/X/X/X
55A8744-24*to 16-X-X
(sheath color)
55A8745-24*to 16-X/X-X
55A8746-24*to 16-X/X/X-X
* Size 24 has silver plated high strength copper alloy conductors. All other conductors
under the part numbers shown have tin coated copper conductors.
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21.12.4 SOCIETE FILOTEX

 Coaxial cables: RG58CU, RG214U, RG316U and RG142U
Description: Approval Reference AR454
 Lightweight cable type KTTP
Sealed lapped tape, tin plated construction.
 PTFE insulated 200C cable type
KZ0405, EF2219 and KZ0607 (Equipment wire)
 KPF 260 type, 260C, 600V to spec FX0502
 Aluminium alloy conductor cable to spec SP545 for Airframe use
 Efglas type (600V, 260C) - BSG222
Nickel plated copper + PTFE tapes, glass fibre tape and glass fibre braid coated with PTFE
insulation.
Size: 0000 - 10 AWG: Approval Reference AR648
12 -22 AWG: Approval Reference AR649
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21.12.5 KABELWERKE REINSHAGEN GMBH

 Types R200, R201 and R202
PTFE insulated wires
 TypesR197, R198 and R199
 Types R195 and R196
 Type No. R151YU
Aluminum conductor, insulated FEP-coated polyimide film and braid
21.12.6 HUBER AND SUHNER AG
 Huber and Suhner AG (80144 series)
The cables are available in types 01 (interconnect) and 02 (airframe) and consists of silver
plated high strength copper alloy stranded conductors. The conductors are insulated with
extruded radiation cross linked polyolefin and sheathed with extruded radiation cross
linked modified polyvinylidene - fluoride of thickness individually defined for each type.
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21.13 caa obsolescent cables

The following is a list of obsolescent cables, i.e. cables only acceptable for maintenance
purposes on aircraft originally wired with such cable types and unsuitable for new designs.
21.13.1 B.I.C.C
 Minyvin (DDP H/TECH/P197) E7998
 Nyvin (DDP H/TECH/P108) E7996
 Minyvin, Duminyvin, Triminyvin and Minyvinmetsheath E9178
(DDP H/TECH/P114)
 Minyvin and Minyvinmetsheath (DDP H/TECH/P110) E8691
 Duminyvinmetsheath and Triminyvinmetsheath E8238
(DDP H/TECH/P109)
 Metric Minyvin cables (DDP H/TECH/P119 and P120) E11566
 Nyvin (DDP H/TECH/P103) E6379
 Tersilsheath (DDP WGC/L/W/666) E6411
 Uninyvinlarge (DDP H/TECH/P104) E6418
 Minyvin (DDP H/TECH/P100) E4273
 Flexyvin (DDP H/TECH/P101) E4289
 Cables to spec ECM55 (AKB) E12304
 Cables to spec ECM17 E13284
 Cables to spec ECM49 KPSN (KP135) E12279
21.13.2 FOTHERGILL AND HARVEY LIMITED
 Cable to spec 'FHK 254’ E12374
21.13.3 RISTS WIRE AND CABLES LTD
 Flexvin (DDP No.13) E6641
 inyvin (DDP No.15) E8308
21.13.4 SOCIETE FILOTEX
 PAN 6423 and 6425 (KTCL) AR194
21.13.5 FILECA
 Types AMO2, AMO4 and AMO6 AR230
 Types FAMH02, FAMH04 and FAMH06 AR412
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21.14 cable identification

These marks are purely for identification purposes. New applications for marks should be
made to the British Standards Institution, 2 Park Street, London, W1A 2BS. Use of the
committee reference ACE 6 will assist BSI in dealing with the correspondence connected
with this list.
21.14.1 Manufacturers’ identification marks
AEI Cables Ltd AA
WL Gore and Associates (UK) Ltd. AB
British Insulated Callenders Cables Ltd. BB
Pirelli General Cable Works Ltd. CC
Reliance Cords and Cables Ltd. DD
Rist’s Ltd. EE
Delta Enfield Cables Ltd FF
Huber and Suhner AG GG
The Concordia Electric Wire and Cable Co Ltd. HH
Davu Wires and Cables Ltd. KK
Duratube and Wire Ltd. LL
Ripaults Ltd. NN
London Electric Wire Co. and Smith’s Ltd. PP
Permanoid Ltd. QQ
Standard Telephones and Cables Ltd. RR
Raychem Ltd. SS
Stirlin Cable Co. Ltd. TT
Fothergill and Harvey Ltd, Tygadure Division. UU
Vactite Wire Co. Ltd. VV
Connollys (Blackley) Ltd. WW
Brand Rex Ltd. XX
Crompton Parkinson YY
Telephone Cables Ltd. ZZ
21.14.2 Country of origin identification marks
United Kingdon GBX
Switzerland CHX
France F
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21.15 Identification of installed cables

Aircraft cables are normally marked with a combination of letters and numbers to provide
the necessary information to identify the cable, the circuit to which it belongs, the cable
size, and any additional information necessary to relate it to a circuit diagram or routing
chart. Such a code is usually either of the aircraft manufacturer’s own specification or one
devised by the Air Transport Association of America under Specification 100 (ATA 100)
which has been accepted as a standard.
The ATA 100 Specification basic coding of a six position combination of letters and
numbers, which are printed on the outer covering of the cable. The identification code is
normally printed at specified intervals along the length of the cable. Where printing is not
practical the code is printed on non-metallic sleeves and positioned along the cable length.
21.15.1 Basic cable coding system
( (2) ( ( ( (6)
1 3 4 5
) ) ) )
1 E F 6 B 2 N V
2 M
S
Suffix Data
Cable Size
Cable Segment
Letter
Cable Number
Cct. Designation
Letter
Cct. Function
Letter
Unit Number
Position 1 - Unit number, used where components have identical circuits.
Position 2 - Circuit function letter and circuit designation letter which indicates circuit
function and the associated system.
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A Not Used N Not Used

B Not Used O Not Used
DC Power Supplies &
C Control Surfaces P
Control
Instruments other than
D Q Fuel
Flight, Engine & Control
E Engine Instruments R Radio
F Flight Instruments S Radar
G Landing Gear T Special Electronics
AC Systems
H Pressurization & Anti- U Not Used
icing
DC Power & DC Control
I Not Used V
of AC generator systems
Engine Starting & CSD
J W Warning
Control
K Engine & APU Controls X AC Power Supplies
L Lighting Y Not Used
M Miscellaneous Z Not Used
Position 3 - Cable number, allocated to differentiate between cables which do not have a
common terminal in the same circuit. Generally, contacts of switches, relays,
etc.., are not classified as common terminals. Beginning with the number one,
a different number is given to each cable.
Position 4 - Cable segment letter, which identifies the segment of cable between two
terminals or connections, and differentiates between segments of the circuit
when the same cable number is used throughout. Segments are lettered in
alphabetical sequence, excluding the letter I and O. A different letter is used
for each of the cable segments having a common terminal or connection.
Position 5 - Cable size.
Position 6 - Suffix data, used to indicate the type of cable and to identify its connection
function. For example, in the example code NMS V indicates nyvinmetsheath
ungrounded cable in a single-phase system.
N Earth A Alume C Constanta
L l N n
V Single Phase C Chro E Nickel/Co
ac H mel C pper
A/ Three Phase ac C Coppe
B/ U r
C
NOTE: Full details of the cable coding system will be found in the Maintenance Manual or
Wiring Diagram Manual for the relevant aircraft.
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Shown below is an example of ATA 100 Specification coding.
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21.15.2 Manufacturers coding

Aircraft electrical cables are normally marked with an identification code as shown in the
following examples:
 Period 1963 to Mid-1970’s:
Nyvin 2 B B
2
Year of Manufacture Code
Letter
Manufacturer’s Code
Letter
Cable Size
Cable Type Name
 Period Mid 1970’s to 31st December 1978:
Miny G X X 2
vin X 2
Cable Size
Year of Manufacture Code
Letter
Manufacturer’s Code
Letter
Country of Origin
Cable Type Name
 With effect from 1st January 1979 the country of origin code for Great Britain was changed
from G to Gbx, although the rest of the code remained unchanged.
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22. cable installations

Cable installations in aircraft must be protected from the effects of abrasion, mechanical
strain, excessive heat and all aircraft fluids. The looms should, where possible, be routed
away from such sources of damage. In areas where avoidance is not possible other steps
need to be taken.
22.1 Support of cabling
The cabling must be adequately supported throughout its length, and a sufficient number
of cable clamps must be provided for each run of cable to ensure that the unsupported
lengths will not vibrate unduly, leading to fracture of the conductors or failure of the
insulation or covering.
Bends in cable groups or bundles should not be less than 8 times the outside diameter of
the cable group or bundle, however, at terminal blocks, where the cable is suitably
supported at each end of the bend, a minimum radius of 3 times the outside diameter of
the cable, or cable bundle, is normally accepted.
Cables must be fitted and clamped so that no tension will be applied in any circumstances
of flight, adjustment or maintenance, and so that loops or slackness will not occur in any
position where the cables might be caught and strained by normal movement of person or
controls in the aircraft, or during normal flying, maintenance or adjustment.
Where it is necessary for cable to flex in normal use, the amount and disposition of slack
must be strictly controlled so that the cable is not stressed in the extended position, and
that the slack will not be fouled chafed, kinked or caught on any projection during
movement in either direction.
Cables should normally be supported independently of, and with maximum practicable
separation from all fluid and gas carrying pipelines. To prevent contamination or
saturation of the cables in the event of leakage, cables should be routed above rather than
below liquid carrying pipelines.
Cables should not be attached to, or allowed to rub against, pipelines containing
flammable fluids or gases.
22.2 Lacing
Lacing is no longer commonly used on aircraft looms, however it is still widely used within
equipment’s. The lacing cord used on aircraft looms was generally 1mm diameter pvc
covered nylon cord. Inside electrical equipment, the cord used is generally thin waxed linen
or flax tape, as these are less prone to slipping.
Starting. The two methods commonly used to start lacing are a whipped start and a
knotted start.
Whipped start. Hold one end of the cord on the cable and wrap about 4 turns tightly
around the cable and over the cord. See diagram. When the end is well secured, whip a
further eight turns and make a lock stitch. The whipping can be continued for any distance
required to provide protection against chafing.
Knotted start. Make a clove hitch around the cable and secure the ends with a reef knot.
Make a lock stitch and finish normally.
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Lacing is achieved using a running stitch pressed tightly against the cable loom by means of
locking knots or locking stitches formed at regular intervals along the loom. The running
stitches should be kept in line, parallel to the wires in the cable loom.
Finishing. To terminate the lacing, wrap the cord four times around the loom, tight against
the last lock stitch. Using a separate piece of cord, form a loop and lay it along the loom.
Wrap eight turns over the loop and pass the end of the running cord through the loop. Pull
the loop out by its free ends, thus locking the cord under the last eight turns. Cut off any
excess cord.
Branching. If only one wire branches from a loom, it should be branched out at a lock
stitch without any variation in the lacing. If a group of wires leave the loom at the same
point, they should be laced together. At the required branching point, make a lock stitch,
wrap six turns closely together and make another lock stitch. This whipping takes any
sideways forces without straining the main lacing or separating the wires of the loom.
Form the wires into the required branch loom, using a knotted start where it leaves the
main loom.
22.3 Protecting cables
When looms pass over, or through parts of the airframe, around pieces of equipment, or
through fluid contaminated areas, the wiring must be protected. The type of protection
used depends on circumstances and what is permitted in the maintenance manual.
22.3.1 Synthetic rubber sleeves
A wide range of synthetic rubber insulating sleeves is available. They are used as cable
markers and to support and insulate a cable at its point of entry into a plug or termination.
They are fitted using special three pronged pliers commonly referred to as 'Hellerman'
pliers. There are three sizes of pliers to cover the range of sleeves available. A lubricant
called 'Hellerine' oil is also available to assist in getting the sleeve over the cable or
termination to be protected.
22.3.1.1 Fitting Process
 Lubricate the prongs of the Hellerman pliers with a small quantity of Hellerine oil.
 Slip the sleeve over the prongs of the pliers.
 Compress the handles of the pliers to expand the sleeve. Do no expand the sleeve in
excess of 300% or it will split.
 Place the expanded sleeve in position over the cable.
 Release the handles and withdraw the pliers.
 Ensure the sleeve is in the correct position.
 Remove any lubricant from the cable, sleeve and pliers.
22.3.2 Heat Shrink Sleeving
This type of sleeving is referred to as Thermofit tubing. It is made from extruded insulating
material which has been subjected to nuclear radiation during manufacture. The
application of hot air causes the tube to shrink to a pre-determined size without any
appreciable loss of length. In its expanded form, in which it is supplied, the tubes are easily
slipped over the terminal, cables or irregularly shaped objects. On shrinking the material
forms a tight mechanical bond over the item it was placed.
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To obtain the correct fit, the material selected should have a recovered size (shrunk)
slightly less than the smallest item to be insulated. A range of moulded parts such as 'Y'
and 'T' junctions and 'boots' for connectors is also available.
The sleeving is shrunk using a Thermo Gun or Thermo Pistol.
22.3.2.1 Thermo Gun
The Thermo Gun is one device used for heat shrinking. It is mains operated and is specially
designed for the shrinkage of Thermofit products. It produces hot air feed through a range
of deflector shields. It is ideal for workshop loom manufacture, however, due to the
exposed heating elements and motor, the Thermo Gun is not suitable for aircraft use. For
aircraft applications Thermofit products should be shrunk with a Thermo Pistol.
22.3.2.2 Thermo Pistol
This device uses an air supply obtained from a special air regulator control box. A pressure
switch in this regulator cuts out the heating element if air pressure falls. The heating
elements is of the totally enclosed type and is mains operated. A range of heat deflector
shields is again available.
22.3.3 Wrapping
Efwrap and Spywrap are forms of extensible wrapping that can be wound around looms
without having to disconnect the cables. It comes in a variety of sizes, to provide
protection for single cables or looms. When applied, the wrapping needs to be held in
place at either end by cable ties.
22.3.4 Rubber beading & grommets
Rubber beading and grommets are used on parts of the airframe to prevent chafing of
cables or looms that may come into contact with the airframe.
22.3.5 Conduits
Conduits are generally used for conveying cables where there is the possibility of exposure
to oil, hydraulic fluid or other fluid. Cables may take the form of plastic, flexible metal or
rigid metal sheaths. Where shielding against signal interference is necessary the cables are
conveyed by metal conduits in contact with metal parts of the aircraft structure to ensure
good bonding.
22.3.6 Cable seals
In pressurised aircraft it is essential for many cables to pass through pressure bulkheads
without a break in them an without causing leakage of cabin pressure. This is accomplished
by sealing the necessary apertures with either pressure bungs or pressure proof plugs and
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sockets. A pressure bung comprises a housing, perforated synthetic rubber bung, anti-
frictional washer and knurled clamping nuts; the housing is flanged and threaded, having a
tapered bore to accept the bung. The holes in the bung vary in size to accommodate
cables of various diameters, each hole being sealed by a thin covering of synthetic rubber
at the smaller diameter end of the bung. The covering is pierced by a special tool when
loading the bung with cables.
The cables are a tight fit in the holes of the bung which, when fully loaded and forced into
the housing by the clamping nut, is compressed tightly into the housing around the cables.
The anti-friction washer prevents damage to the face of the bung when the clamping nut is
turned. On assembly, holes not occupied by cables are plunged with plastic plugs.
In instances where cables 'breaks' are required at a pressure bulkhead, the cables at each
side of the bulkhead are terminated by specially-sealed plug or socket assemblies of a type
similar to those shown in the diagram below.
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23. Terminating cables

All aircraft cables must be terminated at both ends. The terminations required will depend
on the installation specification. Up to the late 1950's aircraft cables were largely soldered.
Since that time the main method of terminating cables has been by 'crimping', with
soldering being retained for use inside equipment's.
23.1 Crimped terminations
A crimped connection is one in which a cable conductor is secured by compression to a
termination so that the metals of both are held together in close contact. A typical crimp
termination has two principal sections, crimping barrel and tongue, together with, in some
types, a pre-insulated copper sleeve which mates with the crimping barrel at one end and
is formed, during the crimping process, so as to grip the cable insulation at the other in
order to give a measure of support.
The barrel is designed to fit closely around the cable conductor so that after pressure has
been applied a large number of points of contact are made. The pressure is applied with a
hand or hydraulically operated tool fitted with a die or dies, shaped to give a particular
cross-sectional form to the completed joint.
The precise form of the crimp is determined by such as the size and construction of the
conductor, the materials, and the dimensions of the termination. It is, therefore, most
important that only the correct type of die and crimping tool should be used, and that all
necessary calibration checks have been carried out on the tool.
There are several advantages of crimping. They can be listed as follows:
 Does not degrade the cable as other joining methods e.g. soldering.
 Reduces the problems of corrosion and oxidisation.
 Gives a standard level of quality each time.
 Reduces the time of connection i.e. has a greater ease of production.
 Provides a simpler approach to repetition.
 Simpler to inspect.
Crimped terminations today are supplied by various manufactures. The range of crimps
they supply is extensive. Reference should always be made to the installation
requirements. The majority of terminations are usually either Ring, Tag, Spade, Ferrules or
Pins and sockets. The pins and sockets are for use with connecting plugs and sockets whilst
the other terminations are used with terminal blocks.
23.1.1 Crimping ring, tag and spade type terminations
The principle terminations for cables rated at 35 amp and below is a pre-insulated
connector known as the 'Pre-insulated Diamond Grip' (P.I.D.G.), manufactured by Aircraft
Marine Products (AMP).
An earlier uninsulated form of this crimp type was known as the 'Diamond Grip', but this is
rarely seen nowadays.
The use of the AMP P.I.D.G. type termination far outweighs all other AMP terminations. It
is also one of the most common forms of ring or tag type terminations in use on aircraft.
Pre-Insulated Ring Tag and Spade Connectors
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Pre-insulated ring tags and spade terminations comprise a cable receiving barrel and
tongue, these both being made of tin plated copper. A copper sleeve is pressed over the
barrel which in turn is covered by a plastic sleeve. One end of the insulated sleeve overlaps
the barrel. During the crimping operation this portion is compressed over the cable
insulation in order to provide support to the cable.
The insulation on each PIDG connector is colored Red, Yellow, Black or Blue. The color of
each connector is related to and is an indication of the size of the appropriate crimping
tool. These in turn may be recognized by similar colored handles. The tool size is stamped
on the tongues of each connector. This marking also indicates the cable sizes for which it is
suitable.
The size of the connector tongues are varied and as such may be attached to terminal
studs and screws in the B.S.F., B.A., Unified and Metric ranges.
Pre-Insulated In-Line Connectors
In-line connectors comprise a two way receiving barrel made of tin plated copper. A
copper sleeve is pressed over and overlaps each end of the barrel. During the crimping
operation this portion is compressed over the cable insulated in order to provide support.
The whole of the connector is covered by a hard plastic sleeve. This has an indentation
midway along its length so as to provide a means of locating the connector in the crimping
tool. The sleeve is again colored for the purpose of identifying the appropriate crimping
tool.
23.1.1.1 AMP crimping tools
There are three different sets of AMP PIDG type crimping tools, however, the basic design
and operation of each set of tools is the same, so the earliest version will be used for the
tool description.
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The tools have two sets of crimping jaws. A set of barrel crimping jaws which are preset
and not adjustable, these crimp the conductor inside the conductor receiving barrel of the
connector. The second set are the insulation gripping jaws which are adjustable by means
of adjusting pins (2 pins in the older style tools, 1 pin in the newer style tools), these jaws
crimp the connector to the wire insulation, forming a cable support. The adjusting pins can
be put in one of three positions. Position 1 sets the jaws to the smallest opening for thin
insulation, position 3 sets the jaws to their largest opening for thick insulation.
The handles are color coded to match the color of the insulation on the appropriate size
connectors (crimps). On the newer tools the two handles have two different colors, one to
match the color of the insulation on the high temperature connectors, the other to match
the color of the insulation on the low temperature connectors. The handles also
incorporate a certi-crimp ratchet. This is to ensure completion of the crimping operation.
It should be noted that, once the handles start to close, they must be fully closed before
the tool can be opened again and any work removed.
23.1.1.2 Terminating a cable with an AMP termination
The double action hand tools have three insulation adjustments. Firstly it is necessary to
determine which insulation crimping adjustment is needed for the cable being used. The
crimping operation must crimp the insulation as well as the cable.
Proceed as follows.
Place both Insulation Crimping Adjustment pins in the No.3 position.
Place terminal or connector in crimping jaws of correct tool (wire size range is stamped on the
tool) so that the terminal barrel tests against the locator. Squeeze handle until the terminal
or connector is held lightly in place.
Insert unstripped wire into only the insulation grip
portion of terminal or connector sleeve.
Crimp the terminal or connector.
After crimp is made, check the insulation support as
follows; Hold on to the terminal or connector
and bend the wire back and forth once. The
terminal or connector sleeve should retain its
grip on the insulation of the cable.
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If the wire pulls out, set both Insulation adjustment pins to the No. 2 position and repeat test.
If the wire pulls out, set both Insulation adjustment pins to the No. 1 position and repeat test.
If the wire still pulls out, something is wrong i.e. incorrect or worn tool.
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Removing the cable insulation

Having determined the correct setting for the insulation gripping jaws, the wire can now be
stripped for the crimping operation. When stripping the wire the insulation should be
stripped back until the:
Stripped Length = Barrel length of terminal or connector + 1/32 inch
or Barrel length of terminal or connector + 06mm
Wire stripping should be completed using stripmaster (or equivalent) semi-automatic wire
strippers fitted with the appropriate set of jaws. Jaws designed for the new thinwall cables
can be used on cables with conventional insulation, however the converse is not true, jaws
designed for conventional insulation must not be used on thin wall cables, they will
damage the conductors.
Having stripped the insulation from a cable, it should be inspected to ensure that the:
A. correct number of strands remain
B. strands are not damaged
C. insulation is cleanly cut
Under no circumstances should cables be stripped using manually adjusted stripping pliers.
Crimping the termination onto the cable
The procedure for crimping the terminals or connectors is as follows:
Open crimping jaws by squeezing handles of crimping tool until the ratchet releases. Handles
will now open automatically.
Place terminal in crimping jaws so that the terminal tongue goes under the locator and terminal
barrel rests against locator.
Squeeze handles until terminal is held lightly in place. Do not deform terminal. Note that once
the ratchet is engaged, the handles cannot be opened.
Insert stripped wire into terminal barrel.
Hold wire in position and complete crimp by squeezing handles until the ratchet releases.
If the terminal referred to above were an in-line connector then to crimp the other half of the
connector, it should be removed, repositioned and the process repeated. If the connector
cannot be turned, turn the crimping tool over and repeat the process.
Remove the work from the crimping tool and inspect the termination, looking for:
A. Deformity of the termination
B. Sharp edges on the terminal insulation
C. Correct formation of the dot code
D. Correct positioning of the crimp
E. Conductors protruding correct length from barrel
F. Correct number of strands visible in conductor
DO NOT bend the wire or attempt to pull it from the termination
23.1.1.3 Dot Coding
The handles of the crimping tools are color coded to indicate the correct PIDG terminals to
be used. When crimped, the process leaves a 'Dot' code on the insulation barrel to
indicate whether the correct crimping tool has been used for that connector. The 'Dot'
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code enables an inspector to confirm that the correct tool has been used, it is not intended
as a means of checking for the person completing the crimping operation.
The table below sets out the relationship of AWG, the AMP PIDG terminals and the Dot
coding for the earliest set of tools:
AWG Wire Color Identity Dot Coding

Size of P.I.D.G.
Terminals
26 - 22 Sm Yello One
all w dot
22 - 16 Red One 2
dot lin
es
16 - 14 Blue Two 2
dots lin
es
12 - 10 Lar Yello One 2
ge w dot lin
es
26 - 22 Black Two
(Minyvin) dots
For crimping thinwall or lightweight cables e.g. Kapton KP or Raychem 55 a later, similar set
of tools are used. These have smaller insulation crimping dimensions. These tools are also
identified by a color code and the table below sets out the same relationships of AWG wire
PIDG terminals and Dot coding:
Wire Dot Handle Color Terminal Color

Size Code Code High Temp. Low
a.w.g Temp.
.
24 & 2 dots 1 Black 1 Brown Black
22 Brown
20 1 dot 1 Grey 1 Grey or Purple
Purple Purple* with
Black
stripe
18 2 dots 1 Orange 1 Orange Orange
Black with
Black
stripe
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16 1 dot Both Orange Orange Orange

with
Black
stripe
14 2 dots 1 White 1 White White
Black with
Black
stripe
12 1 dot Both White White White
with
Black
stripe
10 1 dot Both Black Black -----------
----
* Depends on model of tool used.
23.1.1.4 Insulation Resisting
AMP introduced the latest series of Insulation Resisting P.I.D.G. (TM) Terminals in about
1987. These are designed to be used with the newer thinwall cables that are now
extensively used e.g. Raychem 55, BMS 13-51 which is a Boeing cable. The terminals are
characterized by the inclusion of colored stripes on a clear pink or blue insulation. The
colored stripe provides an indication of the size of the crimp in relation to the AWG size of
the cable. There are normally three stripes on each termination insulation. The table
below gives the AWG size, color and dot code for this new range of terminals. Engineers
must ensure that the correct range of crimps are used for the appropriate cables
designated for use.
AWG Wire Size Tool Crimping
Wire Color Handle & Dot
Size Stripes Insul. Code
Sleeve
color
26 Black Yellow 1 Dot
24 Blue Yellow 1 Dot
22 Green Red 1 Dot
20 Red Red 1 Dot
18 White Red 1 Dot
16 Blue Blue 2 Dots
14 Green Blue 2 Dots
12 Yellow Yellow 1 Dot
10 Brown Yellow 1 Dot
23.1.1.5 Maintenance of AMP crimping tools
In order to ensure that the crimping tool is functioning correctly, one percent of each batch
of crimped terminations with a minimum of 2 specimens are subjected to Tensile and
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Millivolt drop tests in accordance with the manufacturers instructions. A specimen table
shown below.
Con Eq AM Col AM T M Te
duc uiv P or P e V nsil
tor AN De of To s D e
Str Ca vic Ins ol t r Str
and ble e ula C o en
ing siz siz tio u p gth
e e n r M Lbs
r a .
e x Mi
n n
t
A
m
p
s
Mi BL 57
19/ 1
22 ni AC 50 8 14
006 1
22 K 91
47
38
19/
22- RE 6 1
007 20 7 19
16 D 57 4
6
50
25
47
38
33/
22- RE 6 1
007 18 7 32
16 D 57 8
6
50
25
47
38
40/
22- RE 6 2
007 16 7 38
16 D 57 1
6
50
25
47
40/
16- BL 38 2
007 16 7 38
14 UE 7 1
6
57
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50
24
47
38
70/
16- BL 7 3
007 14 6 57
14 UE 57 1
6
50
24
If any of the test specimens fail to pass the performance requirements, all the terminations
made with the crimping tool must be quarantined and individually inspected. The crimping
tool must then be removed from service and the die dimensions checked using a 'GO/NO-
GO' gauge to ensure they fall within the limits specified by the manufacturer. A specimen
table is shown below.
Tool A-MP Device 'A' Dimension 'G' Dimension
No. Size Go No Go No
Go Go
473 22 - 16 PIDG 109 115 035 055
86
473 16 - 14 PIDG 120 126 045 065
87
When measuring the 'G' dimension, the insulation crimping adjustment pins should be in
position No. The tool must be closed before inserting the gauge.
The tool must be withdrawn from use if it fails to meet any of the above conditions.
Crimping tools in regular service should be inspected every three months or 1000 crimping
operations, whichever comes sooner, to ensure they are in good working order and that
the dies are undamaged and are free of foreign matter.
23.1.1.6 Inline crimping
The procedure for crimping "inline crimps" or "butt splices" is basically the same as that
used for tags or connectors. If the connector cannot be turned over to complete the
second crimping operation, then the tool must be turned over, this may take some
practice.
When using inline crimps certain points should be noted:
 Each barrel must carry only one cable unless specifically permitted by the airworthiness
authority.
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 The crimp must be fitted horizontally or positioned so that ingress of moisture is not
possible.
 Additional sleeving is not permitted to achieve the above.
 Ensure operating temperatures not exceeded.
 Specific approval must be obtained from the appropriate airworthiness authority before
using in:
 Screened cables
 Co-axial cables
 Multi cored cables
 Cables greater than size 10
 Thermocouple cables
 HV cables (above 250V rms)
 Fire resistance cables in protective zones
 Totally enclosed cables, that cannot be inspected
 Use of inline is currently restricted to size 10 (35A) or smaller.
 Low temperature connectors must not be crimped on size 12 or larger EFGLAS.
 Repair schemes are restricted to:
 Minimum distance between joints in one cable is 2ft.
 No more than 2 joints permitted in 10ft.
 Maximum joints; runs of 20ft - 3, runs of 200ft - 5, runs over 200ft - 8.
 On installation wherever possible observe the following:
 All joints must be accessible for visual inspection.
 Joints should be positioned so as not to touch:
 One another
 Ducting
 Straps
 Other features
 Joints must if possible be positioned on outside of loom.
 All fixing attachments must be approved.
 Joints must be staggered. If this is not possible then positive separation must be carried
out using insulation or cable clips.
23.1.2 Erma crimping machine
Whilst hand tools such as the AMP PIDG are suitable for most smaller size cables, they are
of no use for terminating larger cables. For terminating larger cables, un-insulated ring tags
are used in conjunction with a special hydraulic crimping tool. The tool incorporates a
hydraulic ram and hand pump and comes with range of interchangeable crimping dies, a
bleed hose and two Allen Keys.
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The die set comprises matching upper and lower die sets coded hg to hn for cable sizes
a.w.g. 6 to a.w.g. 0000. These are fitted into the crimping tool using the Allen keys provide.
Care must be taken to ensure matched dies are fitted into the tool.
The tool is used in much the same manner as any other crimping tool, with the exception
that the pump has to be operated several times before the crimping operation is complete.
When the correct pressure is attained a ratchet operates preventing any further increase in
pressure.
Once the crimping operation has been completed, the pressure is released by operating a
pressure relief valve on the side of the tool. When the pressure is released the jaws open
and the crimped cable can be removed for inspection.
23.1.3 Crimping of connector pins & sockets
Modern plug and socket connections have removable insert pins or sockets made to
American Wire Gauge specifications. Again, various systems are in use, and it is not
possible to cover them all on the course. One typical system in common use employs the
AF 8 crimping tool, and it is this system that will be examined in these notes. Again,
students are expected to make themselves conversant with other systems and their
associated tooling.
23.1.3.1 AF8 Crimping tool
This tool will normally be supplied with a changeable turret and is used with a selection of
pin and socket type inserts.
Basic tool M22520/1-01
Turret head TH-1 or 1A.M22520/1-02
Crimping tool test gauges G125 or M22520/3-1
Both tool handles and turret head body are colored blue.M22520/1-01 refers to the basic
tool, without the turret and is designed for size 12 up to 22 contacts using 12 - 26 AWG
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cable.
As with the AMP tools, the AF8 tool has a double acting ratchet and cannot be opened
without completing the crimping operation.
Eight indentor closures are provided,
choice is by selector knob.
23.1.3.2 AF8 Crimping Procedure
Setting up tool for operation
Tool must be in open position.
Installation of turret heat assembly:
Press trigger to release turret to indexing
position.
Position turret head onto retainer ring in tool.
With turret head properly seated against
retainer ring, tighten socket head screws,
using 9/64 in. Allen key. The turret should
index without binding.
251

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Code – IATC- 1103
Indexing the turret:

Press trigger so that indexing turret pops out to indexing position.
Selector positioner, refer to color code date plate on side of turret head for color of correct
positioner.
Rotate turret until color position is in line with index mark on top of turret head.
Press in turret until it snaps into locked position.
Setting the Indenter Closure Selector:
Refer to the data plate on the turret head assembly. Below the wire size and opposite the
contact size is listed the correct indenter closure number.
Remove the spring clip lock from the selector knob.
Tool must be in the open position when using the selector.
Raise selector knob and rotate to desired selector number.
Replace the spring clip, and the tool is ready for use.
Repeat above procedures when changing contact and / or wire size
Crimping procedure
Assuming the tool has been set correctly and that the correct termination has been selected.
Strip the cable insulation so that when the conductors are inserted into the termination, the
insulation is 1/64" - 1/32" from the bucket of the termination. Ensure conductor is visible
in inspection hole of termination.
Insert contact and prepared cable through the indenter opening into the turret positioner.
Squeeze handles together until ratchet releases. Allow handle to return to the open position
then remove crimped contact and cable.
Inspect crimp for correct formation, and again ensure cable is visible in inspection hole.
23.1.4 Terminating screened cables
Cables which have a braided outer conductor or screen, such as metsheath are often used
in audio applications. In order to connect this outer conductor, the screen, to a terminal
block, connector or another screen a 'tail' or 'fly-lead' is used. There are three principal
ways of connecting the tail to the screen, these are:
 Whipping with tinned copper wire
 Using mechanical crimping procedures
 Using a heat shrink solder sleeve
23.1.4.1 Whipping
This method is rarely used today. It calls for a high degree of engineering skill. The tail is
whipped onto the screen or braid of the cable using thin tinned copper wire. After
whipping the wire is soldered. Unless utmost care is exercised, damage to the insulation of
the cable is inevitable.
23.1.4.2 Heat Shrinkable Solder Sleeve
This method employs the use of special sleeves that contain two bands of sealant and a
central band of solder. The sleeve is placed over the screen and stripped end of the fly-
lead. Heat is applied using a Thermo Gun or Thermo Pistol which shrinks the sleeve and
melts the adhesive and solder. Again, utmost care must be exercised if the conductor
insulation is not to be damaged.
252

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Code – IATC- 1103
23.1.4.3 Mechanical Crimping Procedures

A variety of mechanical crimping systems are available for the application of tails. The
Thomas and Betts system has been used as an example in these notes.
Installing the dies in the WT740 tool:
 Insert the stem of upper die into the tool frame.
 Insert the separation spring of the lower die into the upper die opening. Push up firmly and
insert the lower die stem into the hole in the ram.
Installing the connector on shielded cable:
 Insert the connector, with the ground trap facing up, into the nest area of the die. Be sure
to center the connect.
 Place the ground wire into the ground trap and the shielded cable into the bottom of the
connector. Be sure to butt the cable jacket and ground wire insulation against the metal
connector edge. The ground wire can exit from either direction.
 Squeeze the tool handles to form the connector around the shield.
 Caution: Be sure that neither the cable outer jacket nor the ground wire insulation is under
the metal portion of the connector. This will overload the dies.
Matching the connector and die to the cable:
 Measure the diameter of the cable shield using a calibrated measuring tool. Rotate the
cable in order to locate the maximum shield diameter. Exert only light pressure on the
cable to get an accurate measurement.
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Code – IATC- 1103
 For twisted pair and other non-symmetrical shielded cables, measure the dimension of the
major axis or the largest width of the cable.
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Code – IATC- 1103
 Use the "Diameter of Shield"

column in the table below to
match the measurement to
the correct connector and
installing die.
Con
nect
Di
or
e Ground
Diameter Cat. Die Gage
Cat Wire
of Shield No. Cat. No.
. Range
&
No
Cod
e
255

Rev: 00
Code – IATC- 1103
(1.27 - 1.78 1 OR 2
mm.) 10 *24
RSK 101AG
050 - 070 1A AWG
101
in. STR
RED
(1.80 - 2.26 OR 1
101
mm.) 10 *22
RSK 101BG
071 - 089 1B AWG
in. STR
(2.29 - 2.54
mm.) 20
201CG
090 - 100 1C
in.
(2.56 - 300 1 OR 2
mm.) RSK 20 *22
201DG
101 - 118 201 1D AWG
in. BLU STR
(3.022 - E OR 1
3.33 mm.) 201 20 *20
201EG
119 - 131 RSK 1E AWG
in. STR
(3.35 - 3.63
mm.) 20
201FG
132 - 143 1F
in.
(3.66 - 4.11
mm.) 30
1 OR 2 301GG
144 - 162 1G
*22
in. RSK
AWG
(4.14 - 4.70 301
STR
mm.) YELL 30
OR 1 301HG
163 - 185 OW 1H
OR 2
in. 301
*20
(4.72 - 5.10 RSK
AWG
mm.) 30
STR 301JG
186 - 201 1J
in.
(5.13 - 5.84 RSK 1 OR 2
mm.) 401 40 *20
401KG
202 - 230 GRE 1K AWG
in. EN STR
256

Rev: 00
Code – IATC- 1103
(5.87 - 6.35 401 OR 1

mm.) RSK 40 *18
401LG
231 - 250 1L AWG
in. STR
(6.37 - 6.98
mm.) 40
401MG
251 - 275 1M
in.
(7.01 - 7.62
mm.) 40
401NG
276 - 300 1N
in.
Cable preparation:
Note: These connectors should not be
used with multi-conductor shielded cables
whose conductors are solid or stranded
bonded wire.
 Remove the cable jacket as required and prepare the shield as shown in the standard
method illustration.
 Caution: During all stripping operations, use
extreme care to prevent nicking or cutting of
the shield or inner conductor insulation.
This could result in short circuits.
 When the cable inner conductor insulation is
vinyl of.015 in. or less thickness or Teflon or
0.10 in. or less thickness, use foldback
method 1 or 2 as illustrated.
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 When the shield is foil or is spiral wrapped,

use foldback method 2.
 When using either foldback method, be sure
to measure the diameter of the shield after it
is folded back. Refer to the table for proper
die selection.
 Ground wire preparation:
 For a single ground wire, strip the wire 7/16

in. (11 mm) and twist the strands together.
 For two ground wires, strip each wire 1/2 in.
(12 mm) and twist the two wires together.
 If hairpinning (hooking) the ground wire is
desired, strip the wire 1/2 in. (12 mm) and
bend it as shown. Use one die size larger.
 Caution: Do not solder dip the ground wire ends.
 Caution: Do not use solid ground wire.
Gaging the dies:

 Install the die set into the WT740 tool.
 Close the handles of the tool so that the face of the red insert in the lower die just touches
the face of the upper die. Do not squeeze the tool beyond this point.
 Select the gage whose catalogue number corresponds to the die catalogue number and
insert it from either side of the die into the slots in the upper and lower dies as shown.
 If the gage freely enters until the gage shoulder touches the side of the lower die, the die is
worn beyond limits. If the gage will not enter with gentle pressure up to its shoulder, the
dies are within limits and will produce good installations.
Intended Use:
Wrap around connectors have been designed to ground the shield of single or multiple
conductor shielded cables. It is suggested that the customer evaluate the suitability of
these connectors and verify their performance for the particular application.
258

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Code – IATC- 1103
23.2 Soldering
Connections inside electronic equipment are normally made by soldered joints. Due to the
increasing reliability of modern components, failure of soldered connections is causing an
increasing proportion of the total equipment failures.
The reliability of a soldered joint depends on the condition of the material to be joined and
on the care and skill of the operator making the joint. Poor joints caused by surface
oxidization can be virtually eliminated by sealed storage methods and by careful
preparation of the materials immediately prior to soldering.
A high level of operator skill can only be maintained by regular repetitive practice and by
meticulous attention to detail when making a joint.
23.2.1 Soldering Irons
To enable the solder to run freely and to combine with the surfaces to be joined, the solder
and the surfaces must be at the correct temperature. The normal method of applying heat
is with an electrically heated soldering iron. The working end, or bit, is made from copper
because it is a good conductor of heat which allows the solder to create a tinned working
face.
A large number of different types of soldering irons are in service use, and it is essential
that the correct iron is chosen for a specific task.
Mains operated irons. The Antex type G240 is one of a large range of general purpose
mains operated miniature irons. This iron has an 18 watt element which reaches working
temperature in about 90 secs. The bits are interchangeable with four different sizes being
available; 3/32 inch, 1/8 inch, 3/16 inch and 1/4 inch.
Low voltage Irons. Several types exist with operating voltages of 6 volts, 12 volts and 24
volts. These irons are used mainly for work on printed circuits boards and transistorised
equipment and operate from the mains through electrostatically screened isolating
transformers.
Heavy duty irons. Solon 983/984 are two commonly used heavy duty irons. These irons
have either 65 watt or 240 watt elements and have an oval shape bit. They are designed
for heavy duty soldering tasks and must not be used for printed circuit or other
transistorised work.
Temperature controlled irons. Soldering irons used in micro-miniature work should be

temperature controlled where the bit temperature is monitored and maintained stable
within specified tolerances. Servo controlled or Curie effect irons meet this requirement.
259

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Solder pots. For certain soldering operations, e.g. tinning the ends of jumper leads, the
use of a bench mounted solder pots is recommended. A typical pot consists of an
electrically heated crucible and a tube which is tapered so that the end of a lead inserted
into it is guided down and dipped into the molten solder. In some case a thermostat
control and thermometer are incorporated.
Bits. These are generally detachable and designed in a variety of shapes and sizes to
enable selection of the best suited for the job. Bits are manufactured from high grade
copper and may be unplated, or plated with an iron coating called ferroclad. The shanks
are normally chromium plated to protect against corrosion, to prevent feed-back of solder,
and to facilitate removal and replacement. Unplated bits require frequent dressing with a
file on account of wear, this results variations in heat retention capabilities. Ferroclad (Iron
clad) bits wear less rapidly and are therefore recommended. Ferroclad bits must not be
cleaned with a file, use a damp sponge.
23.2.1.1 Care & maintenance of irons
When properly used a soldering iron has a long life. The following hints will help to achieve
this.
 The bit must be kept clean and tinned at all times.
 Any oxides that form on the bit should be removed immediately and should be retinned
immediately.
 Do not overheat, it causes the bit to pit and oxidise. To prevent this the iron should be
switched off when not in use, alternatively, place on a heat sink between jobs.
 Ensure the leads are not frayed or damaged. If so they can kill, also ensure that a hot iron
does not come into contact with the mains lead as a fire or worse can result.
23.2.2 Solder
Soft solder is an alloy of tin and lead. It is melted and allowed to flow between the
surfaces to be joined. A fused joint is formed by an alloying action between the solder and
the metal surfaces. The joint produced is not very strong mechanically but is a good
conductor of electricity. The lack of strength in a solder joint means that a good
mechanical joint must be formed prior to soldering.
The most suitable solder for electrical work contains 60% tin and 40% lead, melting at
190ºC. Some solders contain small amounts of antimony or copper and melt between
190ºC and 240ºC. The soft solder normally used for electrical work as supplied at 22 SWG,
flux-cored wire.
Soldered joints can only be used at temperatures below 150ºC.
23.2.3 Flux
Soft solder cannot alloy with a metal if there is any barrier such as oil, grease or oxide
present at the joint surfaces. These surfaces must be thoroughly cleaned and a flux must
be used to prevent oxide formation when making the joint. The flux used for electronic
work is a high-grade chemically developed resin. The residue is not-corrosive, moisture
proof and hard. Residue should always be removed from joints used at high frequencies to
prevent its dielectric properties from affecting the circuit.
260

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Code – IATC- 1103
23.2.4 Heat Sinks

Some components e.g. transistors are easily damaged by heat and must be protected
during the soldering operation. Heat sinks are designed to shunt the heat away from the
soldered joint, thereby protecting components. In use the heat sink is clipped to the wire
between the component as near the joint as possible so that heat is absorbed by the heat
sink and does not reach the component. Heat sinks can also be used where application of
heat to, and joint is likely to melt the solder of adjacent joints.
When soldering leads to miniature connectors, the connectors should be mated and heat
applied for the shortest possible time. The mated connector will act as a heat sink for the
one being soldered and help to prevent damage to the insulation.
A thermal shunt can be made by sweating copper bars into the jaws of a crocodile clip.
23.2.5 Anti-Wicking tool
Wicking is a term used in connection with the soldering of leads, and it refers to the
seepage of solder along the conductor. Wicking should not be allowed to extend beneath
the insulation covering of a lead and it is therefore recommended that an anti-wicking tool
be used. See diagram below.
261

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Code – IATC- 1103
The jaws of the tool are of the reverse-spring type, and the shape of the tips permits
gripping of the lead insulation and the exposed part of the lead, so that during soldering
the tips serve as a heat sink.
23.2.6 Soldering procedure
Good soldering is a skill which can be developed only by repetitive practice. The basic
methods is as follows:
Clean and tin the working face of the soldering iron bit. Allow iron, time to reach the correct
working transistorised circuits.
The surfaces to be soldered must be clean, bright and free from oxides. Some cables have a
protective wax coating which must be removed with a suitable solvent.
Make a firm mechanical connection and apply heat sinks to protect sensitive components.
Apply the tinned iron to the surfaces to be joined. Apply the flux-cored solder to the work, not
to the iron. If the work is sufficiently hot the solder will readily melt and run into the joint.
When enough solder has been applied the iron should be removed and the joint allowed to cool
naturally. It is important that the solder solidifies before the surfaces are allowed to move.
Remove any surplus flux from the joint and remove the heat sinks.
23.2.7 Inspection of soldered joints

On completion of a soldering operation, joints should be visually inspected, paying
particular attention to the points below. Where necessary a magnifying device be used:
262

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Code – IATC- 1103
 All joints should present a neat, bright and shiny appearance with well formed solder films
or fillets feathering out to a thin edge.
 The quantity of solder should not be excessive. If the contour of the conductor and joint
configuration cannot be seen then there is excessive solder.
 The ends of leads protruding through holes should not extend excessively from their
mounting lands.
 There should be no evidence of flux residue at points of contact, or of pitting and holes in
solder. Joints with such defects should be carefully inspected to ensure that no movement
of the conductor occurs when the joint is probed, and to determine whether the defects are
only surface imperfections.
 There should be no evidence of cold joints as indicated by a dull, chalky or crystallised flaky
surface of the solder.
 There should be no solder spikes.
 Insulated leads should be checked to ensure their insulation is at the specified distance from
the termination and that the insulation is not damaged.
23.2.8 Common soldering faults
All the faults described are the result of careless working methods or lack of skill.
 Dry Joints. This is the name given to a joint when the solder fails to alloy with the work
surfaces. A dry joint usually has a dull rough surface and can easily be broken by slight
pressure with the blade of a screwdriver. It will cause a high resistance connections possibly
intermittent, which may be very difficult to trace after the equipment has been returned to
service. The most common causes of dry joints are grease, dirt and moving the joint before
the solder has solidified.
 Insulation Damage. The insulation on a wire or component can be damaged by the
application of heat for too long a period. A short circuit can then be caused by vibration or
movement of the exposed conductor which could result in an equipment fire. The damaged
insulation must be replaced or a suitable insulating sleeve fitted.
 Excessive Solder. The flexibility of a stranded cable can be destroyed by allowing excess
solder to run along the strands from a joint. The rigid end could fracture under vibration
conditions causing an open circuit and total loss of the circuit function. Excessive solder on
the buckets of miniature connections or the conducting strips of a printed circuit board will
reduce the spacing between adjacent connections and may allow arcing to occur at high
altitudes.
 Spikes. A spike or tail of solder projecting from a joint can be caused by using an iron which
is not at its full working temperature or which has a dirty bit. These spikes may cause
corona discharge to take place at high voltages and affect the operation of the circuit. In
extreme cases the tail may touch an adjacent connection under vibration conditions and
cause a short circuit
 Excess Flux. Flux residue left on or near a joint will act as a dielectric at high frequencies
and may affect the circuit. It can be removed by gentle pressure with a small screwdriver
blade.
263

Rev: 00
Code – IATC- 1103
23.2.9 Desoldering methods

23.2.9.1 Wicking Method
This method utilizes a length of flux impregnated braid formed to resemble a lamp wick,
which is applied to a solder joint between the solder and the heated bit of the soldering
iron. The combination of heat, molten solder and spaces in the wick creates a capillary
action, which causes the solder to be drawn into the wick. In the absence of commercially
available wicks, lengths of stranded wire such as bonding straps made be used.
This method should only be used to remove solder from surface joints
23.2.9.2 Solder Suckers
In this method de-soldering is carried out by drawing molten solder from a joint through a
hollow bit. The hollow bit may form part of a separate suction de-soldering tool which is
used in conjunction with a conventional soldering iron, or it may form part of a specially
designed iron.
In a separate de-soldering tool the suction is generated by depressing a spring loaded

piston inside the tool body, and then releasing it when the solder at the joint has melted.
The solder is drawn into a chamber from which it can be immediately ejected by pressing
the piston again. In simpler types the suction is generated by a squeeze bulb of stiff rubber
connected to the hollow bit via a small collecting chamber.
23.2.9.2.1 Operation
Press the reset knob to engage the release latch.
Apply heat to the joint. Hold the tip firmly against the joint at an angle of 45 degrees. Do no
press into the joint. Damage may result.
As soon as the solder has melted, press the operating trigger. Remove the iron as soon as the
vacuum stroke has ended.
Reset the tool immediately to eject the solder from the tip.
264

Rev: 00
Code – IATC- 1103
23.2.9.2.2 Cleaning
After several cycles of operation the tool should be cleaned out. This involves unscrewing
the teflon tip and removing the solder deposits from inside the tube and tip if necessary.
23.2.9.3 Hot Air Jet method

This method uses a controlled
flow of hot air and permits
melting of a solder joint without
physical contact. The heated air
may be supplied through the
hollow bit of a specially designed
tool, or, in some commercially
available solder extractor irons, it
may also be selected as a mode of operation.
These devices allow the rapid removal of solder from tags or printed circuit board
component mounting points. This can greatly simplify the servicing tasks and reduce the
possibility of damage caused by the application of excessive heat during component
replacement.
23.2.9.4 Heater Block method
The heater block method is intended for the simultaneous de-soldering of a number of
connections, e.g. the connection of dual-in-line circuit packages. The de-soldering bit take
the form of a small copper block which is normally arranged in the manner shown in the
diagram below.
The pins are of tubular steel and are precision brazed in the block at a spacing which
corresponds both to the relevant hole spacing of the board and to the pin configuration of
the package. The block should be applied to connections on the circuit side of a board and
with the aid of tweezers the package should be gently pulled from the board. Residual
solder should be removed from the holes by a solder extractor iron before remounting the
original package or a replacement.
Extreme care should be exercised when using heater blocks of all types. They act as heat
reservoirs and when applied to a board considerable heat can be transmitted into the base
material.
265

Rev: 00
Code – IATC- 1103
23.3 Wire-wrapping of electrical connections

The wire-wrapping procedure is based on the elasticity of metals and is aimed at producing
a corrosion-resistant joint, with low electrical resistance.
A wire is stretched around a terminal post by means of a bit and sleeve, under such tension
that the wire is deformed around the edges of the post. After relaxation, a constant
tension will remain in the wire, and this will exert sufficient pressure to maintain good
electrical contact between the wire and the post.
23.3.1 Types of Wire-Wrap
Conventional wire-wrapping (class B), only the stripped part of the wire is wrapped around
the post, and the procedure is primarily used for heavier-gauge wire, i.e. with a cross-
sectional area of 25 mm2 or above (see Detail A in the diagram below).
Modified wire-wrapping (class A), the stripped end must be wrapped 8 turns around the
post, followed by about one turn of the insulated part of the wire. This provides
significantly improved resistance to vibration (see Detail B in the diagram above).
The wire must be a single-strand conductor with good electrical properties. The post
should be relatively hard. It is usually made of bronze and has at least two sharp corners.
The wire is usually tin-plated or silver-plated.
The wires are run bunched together into looms along special paths on a circuit board, or
directly between the wire-wrap points, criss-crossing the board. The latter is known as
point-to-point wiring. The advantages of point-to-point wiring include simplified service,
less risk of interference and lower weight.
23.3.2 Tools
The wrapping tool consists of a metal rod, known as the bit, with a central guide hole,
which fits into the terminal post, and with a narrow groove in the periphery, which fits the
wire. The bit is caused to rotate, and the wire is then stretched around the terminal post
(see diagram below).
266

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The tensile force during wrapping around the post is decisive to the quality of the
connection and is determined by the dimensions of the tool. In other words, it is
important to employ the correct tools, which are suitable for the intended combination of
wire area and type of post.
Tools for stripping and wire-wrap must have gained type approval and must be subjected
to periodic inspection.
23.3.3 Wire-Wrapping procedure
Stripping is an extremely important operation in wire-wrapping. The correct length of wire
must be stripped, so that the correct number of turns will be obtained, and the wire must
be entirely free from scratches and other stress-raisers.
The correct length of stripped end for modified mini-wrapping is 25 mm for posts 0025” x
0025” and 35 mm for posts 0045” x 0045”.
Fit the stripped end of the wire as far as it will go into the wire groove of the bit (see Detail A in
the diagram below).
Fit the wire into the recess in the sleeve and bend the wire towards the sleeve, along its length
(see Detail B in the diagram below).
Hold the wire with the fingers and push the tool into the terminal post, to the position at which
wrapping is to start (see Detail C in the diagram below).
During wrapping, hold the tool straight and exert slight pressure in the direction of the post
(see Detail D in the diagram below).
If a connection must be re-wrapped, cut the wire and unwrap it with an unwrapping tool.
(The unwrapped end of the conductor must be not be used again).
Wrapping may be repeated on a post from which earlier wire had been unwrapped,
provided that the post is undamaged.
267

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Code – IATC- 1103
23.3.4 Incorrect Wire-Wrapping
Wire-wrapping with one of the defects specified below shall be rejected. (Refer to above
diagram).
 Insufficient number of turns (see Detail A)
 One turn not closed (see Detail B).
 Spiral wrapping (in the case of open turns and in spiral wrapping, the distance between the
turns must not exceed one-half of the wire diameter) (see Detail C).
 Overlapping turns (see Detail D)
 Overlapping wire-wraps (see Detail E).
 Wrap too far up on the post (the wrap must not exceed beyond the chamfered part of the
post) (see Detail F).
 Projecting end of the wire (the wrapping operation has been interrupted too early) (see
Detail G).
 Physical damage (the wire must be free from scratches) (see Detail H).
 The relieving turn, i.e. the bottom turn of insulated wire must be wrapped around at least
three corners (see Detail I).
 The wire must be run so that the bottom turn will not be unwound (see Detail J).
 The wire must not be stretched between wrap points.
23.3.5 Modification and Repairs
If a connection must be made again, cut off the wire and leave the wire-wrap in position or
remove it by means of an unwrapping tool. Never pull the wire off. The corners of the
post will then be deformed and it will be impossible to use the post again.
The unwrapped end of the wire must be straightened and wrapped again. The entire wire
must be replaced or, if the length is sufficient, the end should be cut off, stripped and
wrapped again.
If one conductor must be soldered (e.g. in a multi-strand conductor) to a post or is one
unsatisfactory wire-wrap must be soldered, all wire-wraps on that particular post shall be
soldered.
268

Rev: 00
Code – IATC- 1103
23.3.6 Methods of inspection
The following methods of inspection are intended for checking the tools and terminal
posts, and shall be carried out as random sample tests in production.
Separate test post and conductors of the same type as those employed in the relevant
work shall be used.
Note: The methods of inspection are of the destructive type.
The pull test involves applying a force to the wire-wrap and measuring the force at which
the wire-wrap slides off the terminal post (see Detail A in the diagram above).
Wire Size - Min. Pull-off

Diameter
AWG Force (N)
20 0.80 40
22 0.65 35
24 0.50 30
26 0.40 25
28 0.32 20
30 0.25 15
The unwrapping test involves wrapping the wire off the post (see Detail B in the diagram
above). The test can be carried out in different ways:
 By means of special tools.
 By means of the unwrapping tool.
 By hand.
During the unwrapping test, the conductor must not be subjected to tension and/or
torsion. The unwrapping test is considered to be satisfactory if unwrapping is carried out
without the wire fracturing.
269

Rev: 00
Code – IATC- 1103
24. Interconnecting Cables

There are three types of wire connection; permanent, semi-permanent and those which
can be rapidly broken and remade for installation or maintenance purposes and which
usually involves a number of circuits or wires which must automatically be connected
correctly. The first two types are used in the manufacture and testing of aircraft and
generally employ terminal blocks or strips. The last type, by no means the least important,
employs plugs and sockets otherwise referred to as multi way connectors.
24.1 Terminal strips
The earliest form of terminal blocks consisted of phenolic mouldings which housed two or
more terminals and were available in various sizes. Connection was made by gripping the
wire under a screwed down terminal head. A connection such as this is totally
unpredictable, if too much pressure is applied it will crush the conductor, mechanically
weakening it, removing the tinning and sometimes even fracturing one or more of the
strands. Methods like this are totally unacceptable for aircraft use.
24.1.1 SBAC terminal blocks
Immediately after World War II the Electrical Committee of the Society of British Aircraft
Constructors developed a new terminal block known as the S.B.A.C. system. This terminal
block bore some resemblance to a system used on German military aircraft during the war,
but was more fully developed. It comprised a block of phenolic insulation arranged with a
number of barriers to accommodate from 5 to 15 cable ways. The actual connectors were
in either single or double tier and incorporated both a spring lock a locking screw. The
connection was made on circular ferrules crimped onto the ends of the cables. The simple
insertion of the crimped end into the terminal block metalwork ensured a satisfactory
spring loaded electrical connection which could be rendered permanent by tightening
down the screw.
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The block was ultimately found to be too large for the confined conditions resulting from
the use of extended electrical systems and panels in later installations. A miniature block of
a similar nature was developed but never produced.
24.1.2 Plessey terminal blocks
Whilst the British were preoccupied with elaborate designs, in America terminations were,
as they still are, on plastic strip bases with fixed terminal pillars, the cables being fitted
with ring type tags which were placed over the pillars and clamped down with an ordinary
nut. This method has been extremely successful in providing solid reliable connections in
thousands of aircraft over millions of hours.
The decision not to proceed with the S.B.A.C. miniature block led the Plessey Company to
develop a smaller terminal block which was used extensively on British aircraft. The unit
could accommodate up to 20 terminations and employed a spade type crimped terminal,
locking into a metal clamp with spring retainer, which could be further secured by a screw
to from a rigid connection, as shown above.
24.1.3 Ward Brook terminal blocks
Later built British aircraft use a terminal block which has screw studs for mounting ring
terminals. These blocks are called ward Brook terminal blocks. The ring tags are secured
using special torque spanners.
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These terminal blocks are made from Polyethersulphate 430P and are either black or red in
color. The screw studs are made of stainless steel and secured by steel cadmium plated
stiff nuts called 'Kaylock fasteners'. They are supplied in both single and double row of
either 1,2,3,5 or 10 way configuration.
24.1.4 Terminal Junction Module

Today newer types of terminal block are available, having lower toxicity together with
easier construction and maneuverability of pins. A typical example of this is the Terminal
Junction Module shown below.
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These terminal blocks have a temperature range from -50C to 175C. They are made from
Diallyl Phthalate and are red or black in color. They are sealed with flourosilicone rubber
colored red or white. The contacts and the bus plate assemblies are made from gold plated
copper alloy. Although the bus plates cannot be seen, the layout is indicated by trace lines
on the top of each module as shown below.
The contact sizes are determined by their current rating and each contact size can
accommodate more than one conductor size as shown below:
 Size 21 - 3 amps conductor sizes 22 and 24
 Size 20 - 7.5 amps conductor sizes 20,22 and 24
 Size 16 - 13 amps conductor sizes 16,18 and 20
 Size 12 - 23 amps conductor sizes 12 and 14
The dielectric use can withstand 1500 volts rms at sea level.
24.2 Connectors
Electrical connects are designed in many shapes and sizes to facilitate the installation and
maintenance of electrical circuits and equipment in all types of aircraft. For example, if
may be necessary to replace a damaged section of electrical harness in an aircraft. If the
section of harness is connect other sections by connectors, it is a comparatively simple
matter to unplug the section at both ends and remove the damaged section. A completely
new section may then be quickly installed. If the damaged section were connected by
terminal strips, the operation would take a considerable amount of time. It can be seen
that if larger electrical or electronic equipment were connect by terminal strips a similar
problem would result.
A conductor assembly comprises two principal parts. These parts are generally called the
plug and socket or receptacle. The plug section generally contains 'pin sockets' and the
socket or receptacle, contains pins. Some confusion may arise concerning plugs and
receptacles because some authorities call the section containing the pin sockets, ‘the
receptacle’ and the section containing the pins ‘the plug’. In many cases it is simpler to
refer to the two sections as ‘the socket section’ and ‘the pin section’. Whichever way the
connectors are described, the live side of the circuit should always be connected to the
socket section. This arrangement reduced the risks of shorting the circuit and of electrical
shock.
Connectors may be fixed or free items, i.e. fixed in a junction box, panel or equipment, or
free as part of a loom assembly to couple onto a fixed item.
There are numerous variations in the design of connectors governed principally by the
requirements of the circuit, the number of conductors to be terminated and the
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environmental conditions in which the connector is to be used. The bodies or shells are
mostly of light alloy or stainless steel finished overall with cadmium plating. They may be
provided with either a male or female thread, or may be of the bayonet type for quick
connection and disconnection. Connectors used on rack mounted equipment may be
square and simply push together, retention being achieved by locking the equipment into
the rack.
Polarising keys and keyways are provided to ensure that plugs and sockets mate correctly,
they also prevent movement between the contacts, thereby reducing strain when the
coupling rings are tightened.
The shells of free connectors are extended as necessary by the attachment of outlets.
These provide a means of supporting the cables at the point of entry to the connector,
thereby preventing straining of the conductor and pin or socket joints, they also prevent
displacement of the contacts in the softer material insulators. In many cases special
clamps are provided, these compress the soft insulation material so that it grips the
conductors, thus providing support and preventing the ingress of dirt or moisture.
To prevent distortion of the insulated moulding and to assist in correct mating of the
connectors, all positions in the connector should be fitted with a pin or socket as
appropriate, in some instances this may require the use of special pin insertion tools. In
addition, a special ‘filler’ insert must be fitted to ensure correct cable support and to
prevent the ingress of dirt or moisture.
Plug contacts are usually solid round pins, and sockets contacts have a resilient section
which is designed to grip the mating pin. The contacts are retained in position by
insulators or inserts as they are often called, which are a sliding fit in the shells and secured
by retaining rings and /or nuts. Insulators are made from a variety of materials depending
on the connection application.
Cables were originally attached to connector pins and sockets by soldering and although
retained within some equipment, this has now been superceded by crimping techniques
which have already been studied.
Identification of pins and sockets is achieved by numbering or lettering. In many
connectors, but not all, a spiralling guideline embossed on the faces of the inserts is used
to signify the sequence. When letters are used I, O and Q are not used and to allow for
larger numbers of contacts capitals are used first, then low case letters and then double
capital, i.e. AA.
To provide information in respect of all manufacturers and all specifications is beyond the
scope of these notes, students must therefore consult both manufacturers’ literature and
maintenance manuals whenever possible.
The diagrams and procedures that follow are only intended to give an insight into what can
be considered as a subject in its own right. Detailed information must be obtained from
the relevant aircraft maintenance manuals.
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A variety of old connectors
Old Bendix MS type connectors
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Assembly of Mil-C-26482 Type Connectors

Connector Part Numbering
A. Typical ITT Cannon Part Number
KPSE00 E - 18 - 32 S X ( )
Modification
Alternate Insert Position
P = Pins S = Sockets
Insert Arrangement
Shell Size
Class
00 Wall Mounted Receptacle
01 Cable Connecting Plug
02 Box Mounted Receptacle
06 Straight Plug
07 Jam Nut Receptacle
08 90º Angle Plug
B. Typical Burndy Part Number
L 22 T F 55 P 0 N A*
Keyway Position
Shell Style
Contact Style
'P' for Pin, 'S' for Socket
Insert Arrangement
Class 'E' Grommet Seal
'F' Grommet Seal with Strain

Relief
Shell Style
Shell Size
Smooth Bantam
Insert Configurations for MIL-C-26482 Series Connectors

View shown is Front Face of Pin Insert.
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Additional Insert Configurations for MIL-C-26482 Series Connectors

View shown is Front Face of Pin Insert.
Removal tools for unwired connectors - (rear release connectors)
Installing and removal tools for front release connectors

Operating Instructions - installing tools
Select correct insertion tool and place contact/wire assembly in tool.
A. #20 contacts with insulation cups are inserted by sliding cup into front end of
insertion tip until end of cup butts against shoulder in insertion tip. (see diagram 1
below).
B. Contacts without insulation cups are inserted by sliding wire barrel into front end of
insertion tip until contact shoulder butts against insertion tip. (see diagram1 below).
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Align tool and contact axially with grommet hole and carefully guide contact through grommet
into lock position. (see diagram 2 below).
Operating Instructions - removal tools
Select correct contact removal tool.
Tool must be held in straight line; parallel to contact and square to connector face.
Insert removal tool tip into connector. Push plunger slide forward to eject contact.
Note: Plunger slide must remain in retracted position as removal tool tip is inserted into
connect.
Tweezer type installing and removal tools for rear release connectors.
Identification
Col Contac
Part No.
or t Size
Yel 12 MS27495
lo A12
w
Blu 16 MS27495
e A16
Installing Tool:
Re 20 MS27495
d A20
Br 22 MS27495
ow A22
n
Bla 22D, MS27495
ck 22M A22M
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Col Contac
Part No.
or t Size
Yel
MS27495
lo 12
R12
w
Blu MS27495
16
e R16
Removal Tool:
Re MS27495
20
d R20
Br
MS27495
ow 22
R22
n
Bla 22D, MS27495
ck 22M R22M
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Instructions
To install contacts:
Open the tool tips by squeezing the handles and the tips around the wire insulation. Slide tool
along the wire until tip ends butt against the shoulder on the contact.
Carefully push the contact forward and directly in line with the grommet hole until contact is
felt to snap into position.
Slide the tool back along the wire insulation until it clears the grommet and remove tool from
wire.
To remove contacts:
Open the tool tips sufficiently to be places around the wire insulation. Slide the tool down the
wire until tool tips enter the grommet and come to a positive stop (see diagram below). A
slight increase in resistance will be noticed just before contact.
Holding the tool tips firmly against the positive stop on the contact, grip the wire and
simultaneously remove the tool, contact and wire.
Caution!! The tips on installing and removal tools used on small contacts have very thin wall
sections. This causes them to have sharp edges which can cut the wire insulation or
connector sealing grommet.
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Do not squeeze, spread, tip or rotate the tweezers while entering the connector
grommet.
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Instructions For Plastic Tools.

Installing (colored end):
Hold the insertion half of tool (colored)
between the thumb and forefinger
and lay the wire to be inserted along
the slot, leaving about ½" protruding
from the end of the tool to the crimp
barrel of the contact.
Squeeze the wire hard into the tool at the

tip, between the thumb and forefinger,
and at the same time quickly pull the
protruding wire with the other hand
away from the tool.
The wire will now have snapped into place.

Pull it back through tool until the tip
seats on the back end of the crimp
barrel.
Holding the connector with the rear seal

facing you slowly push the contact
straight into the connector seal.
A firm stop will be evident when the contact

positively seats in the connector.
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Removal (white end):
With the rear of connector facing you, lay

the wire of contact to be removed
along the slot of removal half (white) of
the tool, leaving about ½" from the end
of the tool to the rear of the connector.
Squeeze the wire hard into the tool

between the thumb and forefinger
about ¼" from the tip and at the same
time quickly pull the connector away
from the tool with the other hand.
The wire will now have snapped into place.

Slide the tool down over the wire and
into the rear seal and push it slowly into
the connector until a positive resistance
is felt. At this time the contact retaining
clip is in the unlock position.
Press the wire of the contact to be removed

against the serrations of the plastic tool
and pull both the tool and the contact-
wire assembly out of the connector.
Caution: Do not tip, spread or rotate
tool while it is in the connector.
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25. Measuring INSTRUMENTS

The variety of electrical and electronic circuits is forever on the increase. The voltage,
current and frequency ranges over which the circuits operate is immense and has
undergone many changes over the years. To enable efficient maintenance and testing of
these circuits, a range of instruments are required that enable these variables to be
effectively and accurately measured. The introduction of digital measuring instruments
has simplified the task of making measurements and greatly improved accuracy, however,
there remains certain situations that require the use of an analogue instrument.
25.1 Basic moving coil type
25.1.1 Construction
A basic moving coil instrument comprises a horse-shoe shaped permanent magnet that is
aged to reduce the rate at which the flux density decreases. The poles of the magnet are
shaped and have a soft iron cylinder, supported by brass supports, positioned between
them. This arrangement reduces the reluctance of the magnetic circuit and produces a
radial field in the airgap between the cylinder and the pole pieces. It is in this airgap that
the coil rotates.
The coil consists of fine copper wire wound on an aluminum former that is fitted with a
spindle at either end. The coil is terminated on the spindles, which are insulated from the
aluminum former. The spindles run in jewelled bearings that are mounted in nonmagnetic
frames positioned either side of the magnet. The coil is free to rotate in the airgap
between the cylinder and the permanent magnet, although its angle of rotation is limited
due to the cylinder supports. The pointer is attached to one of the spindles and rotates
with the coil and aluminum former, moving across the scale or scales on the face of the
instrument.
With no opposition to the motor torque, the pointer would simply move across the scale to
the end stop. Opposition is provided by two contra-wound springs that are attached at
one end to the spindle and at the other to the spindle support frames. The springs are
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contra-wound to provide temperature compensation and also provide for electrical

connection to the moving coil.
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25.1.2 Principle of operation

With no current flowing in the coil, there is a uniform field in the air gap between the
permanent magnet and the soft iron cylinder as shown in the diagram.
When the meter is connected to an electrical circuit, current flows through the coil
creating a field around its conductors. The direction of field rotation can be found using
the Right Hand Grasp rule. The field around the conductors of the coil react with the main
field, the field above the conductor on the right is strengthened whilst the field below the
conductor is weakened, causing the conductor to move down. The field above the
conductor on the left is weakened, whilst the field below is strengthened, causing the
conductor to move up. Both conductors form part of the coil, so the coil will rotate on its
pivots. As the coil rotates it will continue to distort the main field, without a controlling
force to oppose the movement, even a small current would cause the coil to rotate to its
end stop and indicate full scale deflection. Control for the movement is provided by the
contra wound springs. As the coil rotates, one spring is compressed the other extended.
Hookes law states that the extension of an elastic body is directly proportional to the
applied force, provided the force remains within the elastic limits of the material. This
means that the relationship between the extension and the applied force is linear, the
applied force is the motor torque, which also has a linear relationship with the current
creating it. Therefore the meter movement is linear and the scale can be linear.
The coil and pointer will come to rest when the torque created by the springs cancels the
torque created by the moving coil. The larger the current flowing in the coil, the greater
the torque produced and the further the coil will rotate. Rotation of the coil moves the
pointer across a scale calibrated to indicate the value of circuit current or voltage.
The current required to move the pointer to the furthest point on the scale is called full
scale deflection current, i.e. the current required to move the pointer to full scale
deflection. If the current in the coil is less than I f.s.d. the pointer will take up a position
between zero and full scale deflection.
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25.1.3 Damping
The moving coil meter is designed to move quickly from zero to the required value. With
no damping, momentum will cause the movement to overshoot. When the movement
overshoots, the force created by the springs is greater than the torque created by the coil,
so the meter swings in the opposite direction back towards its intended position. Again,
with no damping, the meter will overshoot. The torque produced by the fields is now
greater than the force produced by the springs and so the meter swings back in the original
direction towards its intended position. With no damping the movement oscillates, each
over-swing being smaller than the previous, until the movement comes to rest. To prevent
the meter oscillating, a damping system is incorporated.
Damping is provided by the aluminum former on which the coil is wound. Aluminum is a
conductor. When moved in the field of the permanent magnet the former has emf’s
induced in it that result in eddy currents and the production of a field. The field around the
former opposes the main field and tries to prevent movement, thus providing damping.
The faster the meter moves, the greater the induced emf, eddy currents and field, and the
greater the damping provided.
The amount of damping used is important, too little and the movement will oscillate, too
much and the movement will be sluggish and may not stop at the correct position, the
motor torque being unable to overcome the damping force. When the damping is
insufficient, the movement is said to be under-damped, when too much damping is
provided the meter is over-damped.
The amount of damping necessary to get the meter to move to the correct position with no
over-swings, in the shortest possible time is called critical damping. Critical damping is one
specific value of damping, this is difficult to obtain and is easily changed by changes in
operating conditions, and any changes affect the response of the movement.
Meters are normally set up with ideal damping. Ideal damping allows the meter to move
to its intended position with one over-swing. The initial speed of response is quicker than
a critically damped movement, however, the meter takes slightly longer to come to rest at
the required position. An advantage of ideal damping is that, as the meter ages and
friction increases, the damping tends towards critical damping, thus improving its response
time.
25.1.4 Parallax error
When the value displayed on an instrument is read, the value returned is dependent on
the position of the reader. If the reader moves, the value appears to change, this is known
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as parallax error. To prevent parallax error, some meters have a mirror fitted behind the
pointer, adjacent to the scale. When reading the meter, the observer positions themselves
so that the reflection of the pointer is hidden by the pointer itself. Under these conditions
the meter is being read correctly.
25.1.5 Meter position
Errors in meter readings can also be caused by incorrectly positioning the meter. If a meter
is stood upright during calibration, it should be stood upright whilst making measurements,
if the meter was laid down for calibration it should be laid down whilst making
measurements.
25.1.6 Extending the meter range
Typical values of full scale current and voltage for a basic moving coil are 100A and 0.005
volts. This makes it far too sensitive for use in practical circuits where voltages and
currents far in excess of these values are encountered. The range of use can be extended
by using shunts for higher currents, and multipliers for higher voltages.
25.1.6.1 Determining the shunt resistance
When using the meter to measure
current it must be connected in series
with the circuit under test. The
maximum current which can pass
through the movement is that value
giving full scale deflection, the
remainder must be made to bypass it.
This is achieved by connecting a
resistor in parallel with the movement, the resistor being known as a shunt
To determine the value of shunt resistor required ,V fsd must be calculated. Vfsd can be
calculated from the meter resistance and Ifsd, both of which are normally written on the
movement, Vfsd = Ifsd Rmeter. In a parallel circuit the voltage is common to both arms.
The amount of current that the shunt must bypass is the difference between the total
current and the movement current; Is = IT - Imeter
The value of shunt resistance can now be calculated from Vfsd and IS.
Vfsd Ifsd x Rmeter
RS =I - I = IT - Imeter
T meter
When using a shunt it should be connected directly to the main conductors of the circuit
under test, the meter movement should then be connected to the shunt. This will prevent
an accidental open circuit damaging the meter movement.
25.1.6.2 Determining the multiplier resistance
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When using the meter to measure voltages it is connected in parallel with the circuit under
test. The maximum current that can pass through the movement is again that which gives
full scale deflection, this is determined by the circuit voltage and the meter resistance, and
may well exceed Ifsd.
To limit the current through the movement, a resistor must be connected in series with it.
This resistor is known as a multiplier.
To determine the multiplier value, Ifsd and the meter resistance must be obtained from the
movement. The series combination of meter resistance and multiplier resistance must
limit the maximum current to Ifsd. Therefore:
V
Ifsd =R as RTotoal = Rmeter + Rmult
total
V
Ifsd = R
meter + Rmult
V
Rmeter+ Rmult = Ifsd
V
therefore Rmult = Ifsd - Rmeter
Shunts and multipliers should both be made from metals that have low temperature co-
efficient of resistance, metals such as Manganin and Eureka.
25.1.7 Meter loading
Whenever a meter is connected into an electrical circuit it changes the total circuit
resistance, and therefore changes the values of voltage and current in the circuit. This
means that the values of voltage and current indicated on the meter will differ from those
in the circuit when the meter is disconnected. The degree of error caused depends on the
resistance value of the meter used.
An ammeter and its shunt are connected in series with the circuit under test, therefore in
order not to change the circuit current their resistance must be as small as possible. If the
meter resistance is too large, the circuit current will be reduced and the meter will under
read.
A voltmeter and its multiplier are connected in parallel with the circuit under test,
therefore the combined resistance must be as high as possible in order not to short circuit
the circuit under test. If the resistance is too low, the majority of current will flow through
the meter instead of the circuit under test, changing the voltage drop across the circuit
component.
Using a meter with an incorrect resistance value can cause very large errors in the
measurements taken.
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25.1.8 Ohm’s per volt

When a meter is used as a voltmeter, the degree of circuit loading is indicated by the
“Ohms per volt” value. This is calculated from the combination of meter and multiplier
resistance and the full scale deflection voltage of the meter.
Meter + Multiplier resistance = 100k
fsd voltage = 100 volts
Ohms/volt = 100 000/100 = 1000
Meter + Multiplier resistance = 2M
fsd voltage = 100 volts
Ohms /volt = 2 000 000 / 100 = 20 000
The second meter in the examples above has the higher Ohms per volt value and will
therefore cause a smaller loading effect on the circuit when used for voltage
measurement.
An alternative method used for calculating the Ohm per volt value s to take the reciprocal
of the fsd current.
If Ifsd = 1mA the Ohms per volt value would be 1/001 = 1000
If Ifsd = 50A the Ohms per volt value would be 1/00005 = 20 000
The Ohms per volt value also gives an indication as to the sensitivity of the meter, and is
sometimes called the “Figure of Merit”.
There are numerous types digital meters on the market, but even the most basic have
input impedances of 2M or greater for d.c. measurement and 1M for a.c. The
frequency range varies from 0 to 20 kHz upwards. The values for each meter should be
confirmed before use.
25.1.9 Measuring resistance
In order to use a basic moving coil instrument for measurement of resistance, a battery
must be connected in series with the movement. and the circuit under test. To limit the
circuit current to Ifsd, a current limiting resistor is connected in series with the movement
and circuit under test.
For the meter to indicate correctly, the current must flow from the red to the black
terminal of the meter. The positive terminal of the cell must therefore be connected to
the meter movement and the negative terminal to the red terminal of the meter. Under
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these conditions, the black terminal of the meter is positive with respect to the red
terminal, and current flows through the circuit under test from black to red.
When the probes or meter terminals are open circuit zero current flows and the meter
should indicate maximum resistance that is no pointer movement. When the test leads are
shorted together maximum current flows and the meter should move to fsd, indicating
zero resistance. When a resistor is connected between the terminals, the current will be
determined by the value of the resistance and the meter will move to some intermediate
position to indicate the value of the resistor.
When using a multimeter to measure resistance, the meter movement is determined by
the amount of current flowing in the circuit under test. In accordance with Ohms law, the
value of current is determined by both the circuit resistance and the circuit voltage,
therefore any change in voltage will affect the value of current. When a multimeter is used
for resistance measurement, the circuit voltage is derived from the cell, therefore if the cell
voltage decreases, the circuit current will decrease and the meter will under-read. Cell
voltage reduces with age, therefore another variable resistor must be connected in series
with the meter movement and the circuit under test to enable correction. As the cell ages,
the value of resistance is reduced increasing the circuit current to its correct value.
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25.2 Ratiometer type instruments

A ratiometer is basically a moving coil instrument that uses two coils as opposed to a single
coil. One coil is used to measure current, the other voltage. Both coils are mounted on the
same spindle but are wound in such a manner that the torque's produced are in
opposition, i.e. one coil tries to move the pointer clockwise the other anti-clockwise. The
air gap between the soft iron spindle on which the coils are wound and the permanent
magnet between which it rotates is no-linear. This creates a reduction in torque as the coil
moves into the larger air gap and vice versa.
Under most conditions current flows in both coils of a ratiometer. The coil with the larger
current creates a torque that causes that coil to rotate towards the larger airgap,
decreasing the torque it is producing. At the same time the other coil is pushed into the
smaller airgap, creating an increasing torque. When the two torque's are balanced the
pointer stops moving.
The two coils can be inter-connected in two different ways as shown below.
In circuit 1, the current coil measures the sum of the current flowing in the unknown
resistor and the voltage coil, and the voltage coil measures the voltage across the unknown
resistance only.
In circuit 2, the voltage coil measures the voltage drop across both the current coil and the
unknown resistance, and the current coil only measures current through the unknown
resistor.
If the unknown resistance is high, i.e. when carrying out an insulation resistance check, it is
better to use circuit number 2. When measuring a large resistance the current flow
through it will be low. If circuit 1 were used, the current through the voltage coil would be
large in comparison, creating a large error in the current measured. Using circuit 2, the low
resistance of the series current coil has little effect on circuit current, and the voltage drop
across the small resistance of the current coil is negligible in comparison to that of the
unknown resistance.
If the unknown resistance is low, i.e. when carrying out a bonding check, it is better to use
circuit number 1. When measuring a low resistance the current through it will be relatively
high. If circuit 2 were used, the voltage drop across the current coil would be very large in
comparison to that across the unknown resistor, creating a large error in the voltage
measured. Using circuit 1, the high resistance of the voltage coil draws little current in
comparison to the unknown resistor, creating a negligible error in the current reading, and
the voltage coil only measures the voltage drop across the unknown resistor.
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25.2.1 The Bonding tester

The Bonding tester employs the ratiometer principle, because the expected resistance
values are small, the two coils are connected as in circuit 1. As only small resistances are to
be measured, currents up to one amp may be required, therefore a small wet NIFE cell is
used as the power supply.
Two test leads are used, a 60 ft "static" lead that is fitted with a single spike and an open
ended ring terminal, and a six foot lead that is fitted with a double spike. The double spike
acts as a switch, both spikes having to be in contact with the bond under test in order for
the meter to work.
The 60
ft lead
is
connected to a fixed terminal point, either the aircraft main bond datum or a secondary
bonding point thus ensuring a good connection. The 6 ft test lead is pressed onto the item
whose resistance is to be measured.
When the two spikes of the 6 ft test lead are shorted by a suitable conductor and the 60 ft
lead is left disconnected, the current through the voltage and current coils is the same,
however, the torque produced by the voltage coil is arranged to be greater than the torque
produced by the current coil and consequently a full scale reading is obtained, indicating a
high resistance.
When the single spike of the 60 ft lead is used to short circuit the double spike of the 6 ft
lead, the voltage coil is shunted by the test circuit.
Under these conditions no current flows in the
voltage coil, and consequently the pointer moves,
under the influence of the current coil, to give a zero
resistance indication.
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When the meter is used to measure the resistance of a bond, the voltage coil is no longer
shorted. Some current will flow through the voltage coil and some will flow through the
circuit under test. The ratio of current through the two paths is determined by the value of
the resistance being tested and the meter will take up an intermediate position to indicate
the value of this resistance.
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Prior to carrying out a bonding test, a check should be made on the state of the nickel-
alkaline cell of the tester by observing that:
 a full-scale deflection of the meter is obtained when the two spikes of the 6-foot cable
probe are shorted by a suitable conductor; and
 that the meter reads zero when the two spikes of the 6-foot probe are shorted by the single
spike of the 60-foot probe.
The 60-foot lead of the test equipment should be connected to the main earth (also known
as the bond datum point) at the terminal points which are usually shown diagrammatically
in the relevant Aircraft Maintenance Manual. Since the length of a standard bonding
tester lead is 60 feet, the measurement between the extremities of the larger types of
aircraft may have to be done by selecting one or more main earth points successively, in
which event the resistance value between the main earth points should be checked before
proceeding to check the remote point.
The 6-foot test lead should be used to check the resistance between selected points; these
are usually specified in the bonding test schedule or the Maintenance Manual for the
aircraft concerned. When the two spikes of the test lead probe ate brought into contact
with the aircraft part, the test-meter will indicate, in ohms, the resistance of the bond.
It may be necessary to remove a small area of protective finish (e.g. strippable lacquer or
paint) in order to carry out a Bonding check, any protective treatment removed must be
re-applied after the measurements have been taken.
25.2.2 The Insulation Resistance tester
The Insulation resistance tester also uses the ratiometer principle, because the expected
values of resistance are high, circuit 2 from chapter 34.2 is used. The high values of
resistance being measured also mean that, unlike the bonding tester, any test leads can be
used, although they are generally supplied with the instrument. In order to generate a
useable current, a high supply voltage is required, this cannot be obtained from a battery
and therefore a hand wound generator is used, this negates the need for an on/off switch.
If the test terminals are open

circuited, the current through the current deflection coil is zero. The generator current
flows entirely through the voltage or control coil and the pointer is arranged to indicate
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infinity on the scale. If the test terminals are short circuited, current flows through both
coils and the pointer is arranged to indicate zero on the scale. A finite value of resistance
between the test terminals will cause the pointer to take up an intermediate position
dependent on the value of the resistance.
25.2.3 Carrying out an insulation resistance test
Insulation resistance testing is carried out with an instrument whose working voltage is
nominally 250V, but which does not exceed 300 volts. Insulation testers are also available
in a range of higher voltages, these should only be used if specified in the maintenance
manual. Care must be taken to ensure the correct voltage tester is used.
Tests are normally carried out between individual conductors and also between individual
conductors and earth.
When the insulation test is completed, functional checks should be carried out to ascertain
the serviceability of the system. If a fault is detected it should be ratified and the
insulation test repeated.
Prior to carrying out the insulation resistance check, the following should be observed:
 The battery and external supply must be disconnected.
 All relevant CB's must be closed.
 All appropriate switches should be set for normal in-flight operation. All other switches
involved should be put to 'ON' or minimum resistance position.
 All relevant equipment must be disconnected. This includes radio, electronic and supply
systems.
 Where necessary, components such as out-puts and relays may be bridged to ensure
continuity of the circuit.
 All necessary safety precautions must be taken.
 Ensure no semi-conductor devices are included within the circuits to be tested.
All insulation resistance tests carried out should ensure the proper functioning of both
individual and integrated elements of the circuits. They should be carried out in
accordance with the details of the maintenance manual, wiring diagram manual or
modification instruction. On completion, all connections should be remade and all
switches reset to their correct positions.
The results obtained may signify little when taken on their own. They should be related to
the results obtained during previous tests. This will indicate a possible deterioration in the
insulation resistance.
Typical minimum values are:
 Wiring - not less than 10M
 Terminals - not less than 100M
 Between terminals bunched together and also to earth
200
No. of terminals M
aircraft manuals
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The purpose of this section is to give an introduction to the publications associated with
the maintenance of aircraft. Although much of the terminology is the same, there is a
marked difference between the manuals associated with public transport aircraft and the
manuals associated with other categories of aircraft, therefore the two will be looked at
individually.
25.3 Large commercial aircraft
Maintenance documentation associated with large commercial aircraft is produced in a
variety of different formats, in the main this is due to changing technology. You may
encounter any of these formats and are therefore expected to be familiar with all of them.
 Paper. Printed both sides, generally A4 or letter size depending on origin, although some
manuals use other formats.
 Microfilm. Photographed version of the manuals put onto what looks like cine-film,
contained within a cartridge rather like a small video cassette. This format requires the
use of special reader-printers. The printer is used to make a working 'hard copy' of any
section relevant to a maintenance task. Once the task is completed the hard copy must be
destroyed.
 CDRom. CDRom formats vary. In some cases the manual is presented very much like the
paper version and suffers the same limitations. In other cases the manuals have been
formatted especially for use on the computer giving far greater flexibility. Although this
format requires the use of a computer, the use of a laptop makes the documentation
transportable unlike the book version.
 DVD. This is the format being used for the latest Boeing manuals.
Manuals are still produced in all of the above formats because some operators are not up-
to-date with the latest technology, others prefer certain formats and some are loath to
change. There are advantages and disadvantages to each format, although the writer
believes that CDRom versions designed specifically for computer use are far superior and
will no doubt take over in time.
25.3.1 ATA 100
The majority of manufacturers and operators of commercial aircraft use the ATA 100
Specification as the plan for the manuals needed to maintain, overhaul, and repair their
aircraft. It is one of several such specifications issued by various bodies, but has gained
much wider acceptance than any of its competitors and will therefore form the basis of
these notes.
The specification was drawn up by the member airlines of the Air Transport Association by
America, and was thus prepared primarily to meet the needs of large passenger carrying
airlines. Its basic principles have, however, been successfully applied to small aircraft.
One of the main aims of the specification is to ensure that all the information needed by an
operator is included in one or other of the manuals provided by the aircraft manufacturer,
except accessory overhaul data which is covered in vendor overhaul manuals. This is in
contrast with some other specifications, which require not only the use of manuals
supplied by the aircraft manufacturer, but the extensive use of vendor manuals for
descriptive, servicing and maintenance data on accessory equipment.
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ATA Specification 100 calls for the following manuals:

 Maintenance Manual
 Wiring Diagram Manual
 Illustrated Parts Catalogue
 Overhaul Manual
 Structure Repair Manual
 Tool and Equipment Lists
 Weight and Balance Manual
The Specification calls for another medium for Information-Service Bulletins. These
bulletins provide two different types of information. Some bulletins provide a quick path
for any urgent "once over" inspections that may have been highlighted by a fault
discovered on another aircraft of the same type; others provide information on
modifications, explaining their purpose and giving the method of incorporation.
According to the Specification, the manufacturer’s recommended time limits for
inspections, tests and overhaul should be provided in a separate manual wherever
possible. These time limits are contained in a separate manual called the Maintenance
Schedule. The maintenance schedule can be amended by the operator, but only if the
amendment increases the scope, or reduces the time interval.
The Specification ‘breaks’ an aircraft down into its systems, etc.., such as air conditioning,
electrical power and landing gear, and then allocates these systems chapter numbers.
Thus, air conditioning is Chapter 21; electrical power, Chapter 24; and landing gear,
Chapter 32. The various system chapters are arranged alphabetically, there being no
natural order of precedence or importance.
A feature of the Specification is that where applicable the various Chapter Numbers are the
same in all the manuals. Thus, information on the landing gear is found in Chapter 32 in
the Maintenance Manual, in the Wiring Diagram Manual, in the Overhaul Manual and in
the Illustrated Parts Catalogue. Should it be necessary to issue a Service Bulletin referring
to the landing gear, the bulletin would carrying the prefix ‘32’. Fuselage structure data,
covered in Chapter 53, is found under Chapter 53 in the Maintenance Manual, in the
Illustrated Parts Catalogue and in the Structural Repair Manual.
Most systems are too complex to be covered in one go, and accordingly ATA Specification
100 provides for such systems to be subdivided. Thus, landing gear is described generally
and then divided into main gear and nose gear. The general description is referenced 32-
00, the sub-systems being allocated the numbers 32-10 and 32-20, respectively. Some sub-
systems may be sufficiently complex to require further subdivision. Thus ‘main gear’ could
be broken down into main leg, side stay assembly, the fairlings, these being allocated
reference numbers such as 32-10-11, 32-10-21 and 32-10-31 respectively.
The Overhaul Manual referred to previously contains information on components designed
and manufactured by the aircraft manufacturer. Overhaul information on other
components and on the engines is produced by the vendors and engine manufacturer.
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A.T.A.100 CHAPTER BREAKDOWN
Ch Ch
Co Co
apt Title apt Title
de de
er er
Equipment ab
b 35 Oxygen .
List cd
ab
Dimensions
6 a 36 Pneumatic cd
& areas
Lifting & Water / ab
7 a 38
Shoring Waste cd
Airborne
Levelling & ab
8 a 49 Auxiliary
Weighing cd
power
Towing & Structure -
9 a 51 ae
Taxing General
Parking & a c
10 a 52 Doors
Mooring de
Required a c
11 d 53 Fuselage
placards de
Nacelles / a c
12 Servicing a 54
Pylons de
Standard
ab a c
20 practices - 55 Stabilisers
cd de
Airframe
Air ab a c
21 56 Windows
conditioning cd de
Auto pilot
ab a c
22 (or Auto 57 Wings
cd de
flight)
Standard
Communicat ab *7
23 practices - ac
ions cd 0
Engine
Electrical ab *7 Power plant ab
24
power cd 1 - General cd
Equipment / ab *7 ab
25 Engine
Furnishings cd 2 cd
Fire ab *7 Engine fuel ab
26
protection cd 3 & control cd
Flight ab *7 ab
27 Air
controls cd 5 cd
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ab *7 Engine ab
28 Fuel
cd 6 controls cd
Hydraulic ab Engine ab
29 77
power cd indicating cd
Ice & rain ab *7 ab
30 Exhaust
protection cd 8 cd
ab *7 ab
31 Instruments Oil
cd 9 cd
ab *8 ab
32 Landing gear Starting
cd 0 cd
ab *8 Water ab
33 Lights
cd 2 injection cd
ab
34 Navigation 91 Charts ab
cd
34
- GPWS
50
Code: a. Maintenance Manual

b. Wiring Diagram Manual
c. Overhaul Manual
d. Illustrated Parts Catalogue
e. Structural Repair manual
* Issued in part or complete by the engine manufacturer.
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A.T.A.100 PAGE BLOCK BREAKDOWN

Each chapter of the manual is further sub divided by page as follows
Description and operation 1 to 100
Trouble shooting 101 to 200
Maintenance practice 201 to 300
Or where complex:
Serving301 to 400
Removal/Installation 401 to 500
Adjustment/Test 501 to 600
Inspection/Check 601 to 700
Cleaning/Painting 701 to 800
Approved repairs 801 to 900
Routing charts (Diagram) Fig.1 to 100
Theoretical (schematics) Fig.101 up
 Overhaul Manual
Description, operation and data 1 to 100
Disassembly 101 to 200
Cleaning 201 to 300
Inspection/Check 301 to 400
Repair 401 to 500
Assembly 501 to 600
Fits and clearances 601 to 700
Testing 701 to 800
Trouble shooting 801 to 900
Storage instructions 901 to 1000
special tools, fixtures and
equipment 1001 to 1100
Illustrated parts list 1101 to 1200
For simple units, pages are numbered consecutively, with paragraphs numbered 1 to 12
corresponding to the above breakdown.
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25.3.1.1 Customization and effectivity

Aircraft have different equipment fitted and are at different modification states, therefore
a single manual cannot apply to all aircraft, not even to all aircraft of the same type. The
differences in specification are catered for by customizing the maintenance
documentation. Customization is limited to the:
 Illustrated Parts Catalogue
 Overhaul Manual
 Fault rectification or Isolation manuals exist in customised and no customised versions.
A non-customised document will apply to all aircraft produced by a manufacturer.
A customised document covers all of the aircraft within a customer's fleet, or all of the aircraft
within a pool's fleet.
When the information in a manual is not applicable to all aircraft, the pieces of information are
grouped in paragraphs of effectivity. The effectivity is generally shown at the bottom of each
page of each manual and is indicated by customer or pool fleet numbers, aircraft registration
numbers or a manufacturer’s serial number.
It is essential that the effectivity is checked when carrying out maintenance work of any
description on an aircraft. There may be several pages one after the other in a manual, each
page looking similar to the one in front, but only one page may apply to the aircraft being
worked on.
The statement of effectivity is included in the introduction to each manual.
25.3.1.2 Special mention
Although you should take every opportunity to become totally conversant with all
maintenance documentation in all formats, some manuals warrant special mention at this
stage. This should be taken as an indication of the importance of these manuals to your
daily work.
25.3.1.2.1 Component Location Manual
The component Location Manual (CLM) follows the same chapter breakdown as the
Maintenance Manual and lists all functional systems with their respective locations and
access doors. Each component is identified by an electrical or mechanical identifier and a
designation.
25.3.1.2.2 Maintenance Manual & Standard Practices
As we have seen the Maintenance Manual (MM) is divided into chapters and each chapter
is further divided into page groups. The maintenance manual is the basic document for all
information concerning maintenance procedures.
The chapters containing standard practices are considered to be the engineers Bible. They
comprise 3 main books; Standard Practices Airframe - Chapter 20, Standard Practices
Engine - Chapter 70 and Standard Practices Avionic, contained in Chapter 20 of the Wiring
Diagram Manual. It is not possible to detail all the information contained within these
three manuals, therefore YOU MUST EXAMINE THESE MANUALS YOURSELF AND BECOME
FULLY CONVERSANT WITH THEIR CONTENTS.
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25.3.1.2.3 Illustrated Parts catalogue

The illustrated parts catalogue is used for the identification and provision of replaceable
aircraft parts and units. The IPC is a companion document to the MM and includes all parts
for which maintenance practice has been provided.
Guidance on the use of illustrated parts catalogues is given in the introduction chapter of
the manual. You will be expected to be able to use this manual to identify part numbers,
this can only be achieved through practice.
25.3.1.2.4 Fault Isolation Manual
The Fault Isolation Manual (FIM) is a ground manual allowing the maintenance engineer to
perform quick trouble shooting and to determine which line replaceable unit (LRU) is
faulty. This manual was designed to reduce the ‘down time ‘ of aircraft, however it should
be noted that it will not (in the foreseeable future) replace the experienced engineer. On
occasions the manual can be misleading and can result in the replacement of serviceable
components or equipment’s. To use the manual properly, one needs a good understanding
of the system under test.
This manual is effectively being built into modern aircraft and equipment’s. Aircraft
continually monitor and test themselves, should a fault condition arise the LRU at fault is
normally identified by the automatic test procedure and displayed or stored for later
identification.
25.3.1.2.5 Wiring diagram manuals
The wiring diagram manual is the basic document concerning electrical system
information, it contains:
 The electrical and electronic block and wiring diagrams
 The list of cables and connectors
 The wiring repair procedures
Diagram numbering is in accordance with ATA specification 100. Each diagram is assigned a
page number. When only one configuration of a diagram exists, it will be page 1, when
different configurations of the same system exist, they will be reflected on page 2, 3 etc.
When a diagram is referenced to another, only the diagram number is used. Therefore,
when there is more than one page of the same diagram, it is necessary to refer to the
effectivity block to make certain the diagram applies to the aircraft of interest.
If diagrams of the same circuit cannot be shown on one sheet, they are shown on
additional sheets, having the same title and diagram number. These additional sheets are
identified as sheet 2, sheet 3 etc.
Chapter 20 of the WDM is the avionic engineers primary source of information for ALL
standard practices used on the associated aircraft. READ IT and LEARN HOW TO USE IT.
Excellent guidance on its use is generally provided in the manual.
25.4 Light aircraft manuals
The ATA specification 100 is generally used for all large commercial aircraft, however it is
not a legal requirement, but simply an international agreement. This agreement does not
extend to smaller aircraft. The much smaller scale of operation does not warrant the use
of such systems and therefore individual companies are left to their own devices. This
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results in a variety of different formats and variations in the level of information or detail
provided. In the worst case, the only information given for maintenance procedures are
expected values or tolerances, the procedure is left to the engineer’s experience.
Circuit symbols
The following circuit symbols have been taken from a typical aircraft manual and are
intended to be a small selection of what you will find being used in aircraft maintenance
documentation. You will be expected to memorise common symbols, as without them you
will be unable to negotiate the aircraft schematic diagrams and wiring diagram manuals.
This applies irrespective of your intended trade.
For manuals produced i.a.w. the ATA specification 100, a list of circuit symbols can be
found in the WDM Chapter 20. For other aircraft no such list may exist and you will have to
rely on memory.
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EASA Part 66

Module 3: Electrical Fundamentals

Compiled by Engr. Hamza Asharf

© Edulearn @ i.ATC, Institute of Space Technology. All rights reserved

Aircraft Maintenance Engineering Training Notes

All rights reserved

No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or

5.1.4 Cell Emf 27

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8.4.1 Fixed Resistors 54

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12.6 Capacitor Construction 75

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19.3.1 Construction 118

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19.11.7 Reactive power & reactive current 161

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20.17.3 Band pass filters 185

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21.7.5 Fireproof cables 213

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21.13.3 RISTS WIRE AND CABLES LTD 230

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24.1.3 Ward Brook terminal blocks 271

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Protons Neutrons Electrons

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3.2.3 Electron Flow

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5. Cells & Batteries

5.1.2 Construction & Chemical Action

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With nothing connected to the cell terminals, the electrons would be

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lug that forms both a mechanical support and the terminal.

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All of these advantage result in a battery that is stronger, less susceptible

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the water content of the electrolyte decreases, the internal resistance

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5.2 Nickel Cadmium Batteries

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5.2.2 Chemical Action

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Thus the ratio V

R thus resistance may be calculated if V and I are known.

I = thus current may be calculated if V and R are known.

thus voltage may be calculated if I and R are known.