LESSON 1

- It is a graphical representation of the relationship between two

variables.

– TYPES OF LINEAR CORRELATION

Karl Pearson (1857 – 1936)

- He was an influential English mathematician and biostatician.
- In 1911, he founded the world’s first University statistics
department at the University College of London, and contributed
significantly to the field of biometrics, meteorology, social
Darwinism and Eugenics.

What is Correlation
• It is a statistical method used to determine whether a relationship
between two variables exists.
• It also measures of the direction and strength of linear
relationship between two variables.
➢ Direction
- maybe positive, negative or zero.

Types of Correlation (Direction)

• Positive Correlation
• Negative Correlation
• Zero Correlation

1. Positive Correlation
• A positive correlation exists when high values of one variable
correspond to high values in the other variable or low values in one
variable correspond to low values in the other variable.

• The graph indicates a direct correlation between variables x and y

which appears to be increasing.

2. Negative Correlation
• A negative correlation exists when high values of one variable
correspond to low values in the other variable or low values in one
variable correspond to high values in the other variable.
PEARSON PRODUCT – MOMENT CORRELATION
- The most widely used in statistics to measure the degree of the
relationship between the linear related variables.
- The Pearson r correlation would require both variables to be
normally distributed.

• This time the trend of the data is decreasing, hence, the variables
are negatively correlated.

3. Zero Correlation
• A zero correlation exists when high values in one variable
correspond to either high or low values in the other variable.

The following summarizes the correlation coefficient and strengths of

relationships:
0.00 no correlation, no relationship
±0.01 to ±0.20 very low correlation, almost
negligible relationship
• The scatter graph of the data above is either increasing or ±0.21 to ±0.40 slight correlation, definite but
decreasing. This graph represents a zero correlation. small relationship
±0.41 to ±0.70 moderate correlation, substantial
Examples: relationship
1. Room rate and size of a room in a hotel – POSITIVE ±0.71 to ±0.90 high correlation, marked
2. Weight and Height of students – POSITIVE relationship
3. Pressure and Volume of a gas – NEGATIVE ±0.91 to ±0.99 very high correlation, very
4. IQ and height of persons – ZERO dependable relationship
5. The number of customers and sales in a dept. store – POSITIVE ±1.00 perfect correlation, perfect
relationship
➢ Strength
- can be perfect, strong or high, moderate, low, zero or no Example:
correlation. Determine the relationship between the scores of 10 students who took
• Note: Correlation between two variables does not prove X causes Mathematics and English quiz. Assume that the data is normally
Y or Y causes X. distributed.

❖ A scatter plot (or scatter diagram) Math Score (x) English Score (y)
- is used to show how each point collected from a set of bivariate 4 5
data are scattered on the Cartesian plane. 5 4
- It gives a good visual picture between the two variables.
 9 8
2 3
8 9
1 2
• It is a specific statistical method
2 1
• for finding the “line of best fit” for one response (dependent)
7 6 numerical variable based on one or more explanatory
6 7 (independent) variables.
4 5 • It is the line for which the sum of the squares of the residuals is a
minimum.

Three Main Purpose:

• To describe or model a set of data with one dependent variable
and one (or more) independent variables.
• To predict or estimate the values of the dependent variable based
on given value(s) of the independent variable(s).
• To control or administer standards from a useable statistical
relationship.

Linear Regression Equation

• The equation of a regression line for an independent variable 𝑥 and
a dependent variable 𝑦 is
• 𝑦ො = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥
• where: a is the y-intercept while b is the slope of regression line.
• It is used to predict the value of 𝑦 (predictand) from the knowledge
of 𝑥 (predictor).

Very high positive, very dependable relationship

Interpretation:
There is very high positive correlation between the scores in Mathematics
and scores in English.
Example:
• Determine the linear regression between the scores of 10 students
Coefficient of Determination:
who took Mathematics and English quiz. Assume that the data is
- This tells us how much of dependent variable (𝑦) is due to or can
significantly correlated.
be attributed to independent variable (𝑥).
- This is denoted as r2
- r2 = (0.92)2 = 0.8484 = 0.85

Interpretation:
Eighty-five percent of the variation in scores in Mathematics is due to or can
be attributed to the variation in the scores in English. The remaining 15% is
due to another factor.

➢ r is equal to ±1.0 perfect

➢ r = 0 could mean many things:
➢ No relationship at all between X & Y
➢ Non-linear relationship between X & Y
➢ Restricted range on X and/or Y
➢ Outlier may be causing problems
 Ha The average saturated fat content of a certain brand of rice
cereal is less than 1.5 grams.

State the null and alternative hypothesis of the following problems:

The soft drink dispenser of a fast-food center was just readjusted. The
manager, wanting to know if the dispenser is really in good condition, got
a sample of 50 cups filled by the dispenser. She would only classify the
dispenser as “in good condition” if the average fill per cup of the
dispenser is 8 ounces.
H0 The average fill of the soft drink dispenser per cup is 8
ounces
Ha The average fill of the soft drink dispenser per cup is not
equal to 8 ounces.

State the null and alternative hypothesis of the following problems:

Mikki suspects that male EAC students spend less time studying
compared to their female counterpart. She decided to conduct a study
regarding the study habits of both male and female EAC students. She
intends to find out if the average time per day that a male EAC student
spends doing his schoolwork is less than the average time per day a
female EAC student spends doing her schoolwork.
H0 The average time per day that a male EAC students spends
• The linear regression is given by: doing his schoolwork is equal to a female EAC students.
y = 0.76 + 0.88x Ha The average time per day that a male EAC students spends
• In the context of the problem: doing his schoolwork is less than to a female EAC students
Math score = 0.76 + 0.88 (English score)
Types of Errors
Interpretation: Type I Error Type II Error
y = 0.76 + 0.88x usually committed if the Ho is usually committed if the Ho is
• The slope, b means that for every 1 unit increase in Math score an rejected when the Ho is true accepted when the Ho is false
increase of 0.88 in English Score
• The y – intercept, a means a score of 0.76 in English score when the Status of Hypothesis
student score zero in MATH Accept Ho Reject Ho
Ho Correct Decision Type I error
Prediction: Ho Type II error Correct Decision
• What will be the English score if the Math score is 95?
Solution:
Let x = 76, find y.
y = 0.76 + 0.88x
7 = 0.76 + 0.88 (95)
y = 0.76 + 83.6
y = 84.36
• Hence the English score will be 84.36

There is but one correlation with success, and that is ATTITUDE – Harry
Wong

LESSON 2
Example
Study the following examples carefully and the notes that follow. Discuss
for better understanding of hypothesis testing
Population Stephen says that he is not bald. Answer: Yes. A receding hairline
- It is the total number of people, animals, other living or nonliving His hairline is just receding. Is he indicates balding. This is a Type I
things under consideration. committing an error? If so, what error. Stephen action may be to
type of error? find remedial measures to stop
Sample falling hair.
- It is the portion or part of the population. A man plans to go hunting the Answer: Hunting in the Philippine
Philippine monkey-eating eagle eagle is prohibited by law. Thus, it
BASIC CONCEPT believing that it is a proof of his is not a good sport. It is a Type II
• A hypothesis is a statement or a tentative theory that may or may mettle. What type of error is this? error since hunting the Philippine
not be true, but is initially assumed to be true until new evidence monkey-eating eagle is against the
suggests otherwise. It may be proposed from a preliminary law, the man may find himself in
observation, a guess or based from previous experiences. jail if he goes out of his way
hunting endangered species.
Null Hypothesis Alternative Hypothesis
- often denoted as Ho is a statement - A hypothesis is a statement or a TYPES OF TEST
of what is being investigated. tentative theory that may or may ONE SIDED TEST TWO – SIDED TEST
not be true, but is initially assumed - The Ha specifies that the - The Ha specifies that the
- It is usually written in the negative to be true until new evidence unknown population unknown population
form such as “Characteristic X has suggests otherwise. It may be parameter is entirely parameter can lie on
no significant effect” or “There is no proposed from a preliminary above or entirely below either side of the value
significant difference between the observation, a guess or based from the specified value of specified by Ho. It is
two variables under study” or “X previous experiences. the Ho. It is called one – called two – tailed or
has no significant relation with Y” tailed or a directional non-directional test.
- It is the null hypothesis without test.
- The test of significance is designed the word “no”
to assess the strengths of the
evidence against the null “Characteristic X has a significant
hypothesis. effect” or “There is a significant
difference between the two
variables under study” or “X has a
significant relation with Y”

State the null and alternative hypothesis of the following problems:

A manufacturer of a certain brand of rice cereal claims that the average
saturated fat content does not exceed 1.5 grams.
H0 The average saturated fat content of a certain brand of rice
cereal is equal to 1.5 grams.
LEVEL OF SIGNIFICANCE
• The probability of committing type I error is denoted by alpha (α).
• The probability of committing type II error is denoted by β= 1- α.

CRITICAL REGION
• The set of all values of the test statistics that would cause to
reject the null hypothesis.

BASIC STEPS IN HYPOTHESIS TESTING

1. State the Ho and Ha
2. Specify the level of significance α and the sample size n
3. Test statistic
4. Critical region or decision rule
5. Computation of the test statistics, for a sample size n
6. Decision/Conclusion.

Example:
Scores from the Blended Learning Scores from the Traditional
(Xi) Classroom (Yi)
20 16
12 5
14 14
15 19
8 20
9 15
10 13
14 11
15 9
11 12

STEP 1: Null Hypothesis, Ho:

Null Hypothesis “There is no significant difference
in the mean scores of the
achievement test in basic statistics
of those who were though using
blended learning and those who
were taught using purely
traditional classroom methods”
Alternative Hypothesis “There is a significant difference in
the mean scores of the
achievement test in basic statistics
of those who were though using
blended learning and those who
were taught using purely
traditional classroom methods”

STEP 2: Level of significance and Sample size, n

a = 0.5, n = 10

STEP 3: Test Statistics −𝟎.𝟎𝟔√𝟏𝟎−𝟐

• t – distribution with the degree of freedom (n – 2) (if two tailed) t=
df = 10 – 2 √𝟏− (−𝟎.𝟎𝟔)𝟐
df = 10 −𝟎.𝟎𝟔√𝟖
• T – test – used to test if there is significant between two set of t=
score. √𝟏−(𝟎.𝟗𝟗𝟖𝟐

t=
𝒓√𝒏−𝟐 t = -0.17
√𝟏− 𝒓𝟐
• Pearson r Correlation Coefficient
STEP 5: Decision
tcomputed = -0.17 < tcritical = 2.306
Hence, Accept Ho

STEP 6: Conclusion
Therefore, there is no significant difference in the mean scores of the
achievement tests in basic statistics of those who were taught using
blended learning and those who were taught using purely traditional
classroom methods
STEP 4: Decision Rule
- If the computed t is greater than or equal to the critical value of t
then reject the null hypothesis
- If the computed t is less than the critical value of t then accepts
the null hypothesis.
 LESSON 3
ISOMETRY
(RIGID TRANSFORMATION)
- It is a transformation that preserves size and shape.
- Translation, reflection and rotation are example of isometry
except dilation.

GLIDE REFLECTION
- It is a special type of two-step isometry, uses a combination of a
reflection and translation.
TRANSFORM AND ISOMETRY
MOTIF PATTERN
- Any non-empty plane - Repetitions of motif
set (Granbaum and
Shepard).
- -Any object drawn in a
plane

Image
SYMMETRY
• The movement establishes a correspondence between the set of
- Similarity or exact correspondence between different things
points in the original figure and the set of points of the new figure
- Came from Greek word “symmetrein” which means to measure
which we called image.
together.
-
Transformation
• If we can pair each point of a figure with exactly one point of its
Three types of Geometrical Symmetry
image on a plane and vice versa, then the correspondence is
1. Reflectional symmetry (mirror symmetry)
called transformation.
2. Rotational symmetry
• It is a way to change the position of a figure.
3. Translational Symmetry
• FOUR TYPES: Translation, Rotation, Reflection, and Dilation
REFLECTIONAL SYMMETRY (mirror symmetry)
1. TRANSLATION - Is a symmetry in which half of the image of an object is exactly same
- It is the simplest type of isometry, when a figure moves a fixed as the other half?
distance in a fixed direction.
- A figure in any particular direction or distance.

ROTATIONAL SYMMETRY
2. ROTATION - Is a symmetry in which the image is rotated to a certain degree
- It is an isometry in a turning motion, when points in the original about at axis and does not affect the shape of the image.
figure rotate or turn an identical number of degrees about a fixed
center point.
- Turns a figure about a certain point in a plane.

3. REFLECTION
- A line reflection defines reflection, it serves as perpendicular TRANSLATIONAL SYMMETRY
bisector reflection to every segment joining a point in the figure - Is a symmetry in which a particular pattern or design is shifted from
with the image of the point. Line of reflection one place to another.

4. DILATION
- It shrinks or expands a figure by some scaling factor.
 LESSON 4
4. SLIDE
- Slide (TV) it has translation and vertical reflection symmetries

Three broad types of symmetry

1. Rosette patterns
2. Frieze patterns
3. Wallpaper patterns

ROSETTE PATTERN 5. SPINNING HOP

- Has only reflections and rotations, and has no translations or glide - Spinning Hop (TR) it has translation and rotation (by a half turns)
reflection. symmetries.
- It is a pattern consist of taking a motif or element and rotating
and/or reflecting that element – “Leonardo’s Theorem”

Two types of Rosette Pattern

1. Cyclic Rosette Pattern
- Are rosette patterns
that do not contain
reflection symmetry
2. Dihedral Rosette Pattern
- Are rosette patterns
which have reflection
symmetry.
6. SPINNING JUMP
- Spinning jump (TVHRG) it has all symmetries (translation,
horizontal and vertical reflection, and rotation).

7. SPINNING SIDLE
- Spinning sidle (TVRG) it has translation, glide reflection and
rotation (by a half turn) symmetries.

FRIEZE PATTERNS
- Has reflections and rotations. It also contains translations and glide
reflections but only along one line.
- It is a design or pattern on a two-dimensional surface that is
repetitive (or translational symmetry) in one direction.

Types of frieze patterns (John Conway) Sample Arts using Frieze Patterns
1. HOP Hop
- Hop (T) this pattern only involve translation.

Jump
2. STEP
- Step (TG) it has a translation and glide reflection symmetry

Slide or Sidesteps
3. JUMP
- Jump (THG) it is reflection across a horizontal symmetry
Spinning Hop SIMPLE INTEREST
Simple Interest Rate of interest is the
percent charged or earned

I=Pxrxt
Principal is the amount of money
SPINNING JUMP borrowed or invested
Time that the money is borrowed
or invested (in years

Example 1
Question 1:
To buy a cellphone, Jade borrowed Php15,000.00 for 3 years at an annual
simple interest rate of 9%. How much interest will she pay if she pays the
entire loan off at the end of the third year? What is the total amount that
she will repay?

Solution:
Spinning Sidle
• First, fine the interest she will pay.
I=Pxrxt
I = 15,000 x 0.09 x 3 (Use 0.09 for 9%)
I = 4,050
Jade will pay 4,050.00 in interest
• You can find the total amount A to be repaid on a loan by adding
the principle P to the interest I.
P + I = A (Principal + interest = amount)
15,000 + 4,050 = A
19,050 = A
Jade will repay a total of Php 19, 050.00 on her loan.

WALLPAPER PATTERN Example 2

- It is a mathematical classification of a two-dimensional repetitive Question 2: Determining the Amount of Investment time.
pattern which covers a plane and can be mapped based on the Airish invested Php6,000.00 in a bond at a yearly rate of 3%. She earned
symmetries on the pattern in more than one direction. P450 in interest. How long was the money invested?
- 17 Different Wallpaper
Solution:
I=Pxrxt
450 = 6,000 x 0.03 x t – Substitute the values into equation
450 = 180t
450 180𝑡
=
150 180
2.5 = t
The money was invested for 2.5 years, or 2 years and 6 months.

Example 3
Question 3: Computing total savings
John’s parents deposited Php1,000.00 into a savings account as a college
fund when he was born. How much will John have in this account after 18
years at a yearly simple interest rate of 3.25%?
Tessellation
- a repeating pattern of closed shapes that covers a surface with no
Solution:
gaps and no overlaps.
I=Pxrxt
- The word tessellation comes from the root word, tesserae, which
I = 1000 x 0.0325 x 18
means tile. Many mosaic tile installations are tessellations.
I = 585 - Interest

P + I = A (Principal + interest = amount)

1000 + 585 = A
1585 = A
John will have 1,585.00 in the account after 18 years.

Example 4
Question 4: Finding the rate of Interest
Mr. Johnson borrowed Php8000 for 4 years to make home improvements. If
he repaid a total of P10,320, at what interest rate did he borrow the
money?

Solution:
P+I=A
• M.C. Escher is the most famous tessellation artist. He was born in
8000 + I = 10,320
the Netherlands in1898 and he lived until 1972. I = 10,320 – 8000
• His father was a civil engineer who wanted his son to be an I = 2,320
architect. He paid Php 2,320 in interest. Use the amount of interest to find the interest
• Escher loved to draw and was fascinated by the mathematical rate.
patterns in the world.
I=Pxrxt

LESSON 5 2,320 = 8,000 x r x 4

2,320 = 32,000r
2320 32,000𝑟
=
32,000 32,000
0.0725 = 7 (0.0725 x 100 = 7.25%)
Mr. Johnson borrowed the money at an annual rate of 7.25% or 7 1/4 %
INTEREST
- When you borrow money from a bank, you pay interest for the use
of the bank’s money.
COMPOUND INTEREST
- When you deposit money into a savings account, you are paid - -It is calculated on the principal amount and also on the
interest. Simple Interest is one type of fee paid for the use of accumulated interest of previous periods, and can thus be
money. regarded as “interest on interest”.
𝑟
A = P (1 + 𝑛)𝑛𝑡
 - -The formula for calculating the amount of money accumulated ANNUITIES
after n years, including interest Annuity
𝑟 • A sequence of payments made at equal (fixed) intervals or period
A = P (1 + 𝑛)𝑛𝑡 of time.
Where:
Payment Interval
P is the principal amount
• The time between successive payment
r is the annual rate of interest
t is the number of years the amount is deposited or borrowed for
CLASSIFICATION OF ANNUITIES
n is the number of times the interest is compounded per year
Annuities
Simple Annuity General Annuity
COMPOUND INTEREST
According to payment - An annuity where - An annuity where
Compounding Frequency Number of Compounding Periods
interval and interest the payment interval the payment
Annually 1
period is the same as the interval is not the
Semi – Annually 2
interest period. same as the interest
Quarterly 4 period
Monthly 12
Annuities
Example 1
Ordinary Annuity or Annuity Due
Airish invested Php50,000 in a bank that pays 8% computed quarterly for 5
Annuity Immediate - The type of
years. How much is her money in the bank after 5 years?
According to of time of - The type of annuity annuity in which the
payment in which the payments are made
Solution:
𝑟 payments are made at the beginning of
A = P (1 + )𝑛𝑡 at the end of each each payment
𝑛
0.08 (4)(5)
A = 50,000 (1 ++ ) payment interval. interval
4
A = Php 74,297.37
Annuities
Example 2 Annuity Certain Contingent Annuity
Deposit the principal amount of Php10,000 into a savings account that pays - An annuity in which - An annuity in
interest at the rate of 5%. What is the amount in the account after 1 year if payments begin and which the payments
the account is: According to duration end at definite times. extends to over an
𝑟
A = P (1 + )𝑛𝑡 indefinite or
𝑛
indeterminate
A. Compounded Annually length of time.
0.05
A = 10,000(1+ )(1)(2)
1 Term of an annuity, t
A = Php10,500.00 • Time between the first payment interval and the last payment
interval
B. Compounded Semi – Annually
0.05
A = 10,000(1+ )(1)(1) Regular or Periodic payment, R
2
A = Php 10,506.25 • The amount of each payment

C. Compounded Quarterly Amount (Future Value) of an annuity, F

0.05
A = 10,000(1+ )(4)(1) • Sum of the future values of all payments to be made during the
4
A = Php 10,509.45 entire time the annuity

D. Compounded Monthly Present value of an annuity, P

0.05 • Sum of the present values of all payments to be made during the
A = 10,000(1+ )(12)(1)
12 entire time of the annuity.
A = Php 10,511.62
Note:
Example 3 • In solving worded problem, it is important to determine which
Find the total amount if Php100 is invested at 10% interest compounded formula to be used. Present value problems involve expenses and
yearly for 6 years cash loan while future value problems involve income or revenue.
Solution: FORMULA FOR THE PRESENT VALUE
𝑟
A = P (1 + )𝑛𝑡 𝒊𝒎
𝟏−(𝟏+ 𝒎 )−(𝒎𝒕)
𝑛
.10 1(6) P=R( 𝒊𝒎 )
A = 100 (1 + )
1 𝒎
A = 100 (1.1)6
A = 117.16 Where:
R is the regular payment
Example 4 im nominal rate
Find the total amount if Php250 is invested at 6.5% for 8 years m frequency of conversion
compounded monthly. t time in years

Solution: Example 1
𝑟
A = P (1 + )𝑛𝑡 Miller likes to invest in an annuity that will pay him Php5,000 at the end of
𝑛
.065 each month for five years after his retirement. What is the present value of
A = 250 (1 + )12(8)
12 the annuity if the prevailing interest rate is 12% compounded monthly.
A = 250(1.0054)96
A = 4.19.25 Given:
R 5,000
PRESENT CALUE (PV) im 12% or .12
𝐹𝑉 m 12
PV =
1+𝑟𝑡
t 5
Find the Present Value, where:
Solution:
PV Present Value 𝒊𝒎
𝟏−(𝟏+ 𝒎 )−(𝒎𝒕)
FV Future Value P=R( 𝒊𝒎 )
r Interest Rate (as a decimal value) 𝒎
.𝟏𝟐
t time 𝟏−(𝟏+ 𝟏𝟐 )−(𝟏𝟐 𝒙 𝟓)
P = 5,000( 𝟏𝟐 )
𝟏𝟐
Example 1 P = 224,775.19
What is the present value of P5,275 due in 6 months if 11% interest is paid? Miller must invest 224,775.19 now so that he will get 5,000 at the end of
𝐹𝑉 each month for 5 years
PV =
1+𝑟𝑡
5,275
PV = FORMULA FOR THE FUTURE VALUE
1+0.11(0.5)
5,275 𝒊𝒎
PV = (𝟏+ 𝒎 )(𝒎𝒕) −𝟏
1.055 F=R( 𝒊𝒎 )
PV = 5,000.00 𝒎
Where: always true. The opposite of a tautology is a contradiction or a
R is the regular payment fallacy, which is "always false".
im nominal rate - The tautology (p ^(p →q) →q)is the bases of the tule of inference
m frequency of conversion called modus ponens, or the law of detachment. (Modus ponens
t time in years in Latin is for mode that affirms).

Example 1 p
Winnie makes it a habit to deposit ₱1,000 into a bank account every month p→q
for five years. The account pays 4% interest rate compounded quarterly. ∴q
How much is her saving at the end of five years, assuming she does not
withdraw anything during the period? - This tautology leads to the following valid argument form, (where,
Given: as before, the symbol ∴ denotes “therefore”).
R 1,000
p
im 4% or 0.040
p→q
m 4
∴q
t 5

Solution: Conjunction: p and q | p ^ q

𝒊𝒎
(𝟏+ 𝒎 )(𝒎𝒕) −𝟏 Disjunction: p or q | p v q
P=R( 𝒊𝒎 )
𝒎
Negation: not P | ¬𝑃
𝟎.𝟎𝟒
(𝟏+ 𝟒 )𝟒(𝟓)−𝟏 Implication: p then q | p → q
F = 1000 ( 𝟎.𝟎𝟒 ) - Converse: Q → P
𝟏𝟐
F = 22,019.00 - Inverse: ¬𝑃 → ¬Q
So, Winnie will have 22,019.00 at the end of five years - Contra+: ¬Q → ¬P
Example:
FORMULA FOR THE REGULAR PAYMENT - Determine whether the argument given here is valid and
𝑖𝑚 determine whether its conclusion must be true because of the
𝐹( )
𝑚 validity of the argument.
R= 𝒎
𝒊 𝑚𝑡
(1+ ) −1
𝒎
1. “If M is the midpoint of a segment, then it divides the segment into
Where: two congruent segments.
R is the regular payment
im nominal rate
m frequency of conversion
t time in years

Example 1 Solution:
Myrna is 50 years old now. She plans to retire at the age of 65, which is 15 - Let p be “M is the midpoint of a segment” and q the “it divides the
years from now. She wants to have half a million pesos at the end of her segment into two congruent segments”
retirement. An investment company offered her a portfolio that will give - The premises of the argument are p →q and p, and q is its
her an interest rate of 8% compounded monthly. Assuming ordinary conclusion
annuity, how much does she have to pay per month so that she will be half-
millionaire when she retires? This argument is valid because it is constructed by using modus ponens, a
valid argument form. Since all the premises are true, then the conclusion is
Given: also true.
F 500,000
im 8% or 0.08
m 12
t 15

Solution:
𝑖𝑚
𝐹( )
𝑚
R= 𝒊𝒎 𝑚𝑡
(1+ 𝒎 ) −1
0.08
500000( )
12
R= 𝟎.𝟎𝟖
(1+ 𝟏𝟐 )12(5)−1
R = 1,444.93
So, Myrna has to invest an amount of 1,444.93 per month for 15 years

LESSON 6

Rules of Inference
- An argument in propositional logic is a sequence of propositions.
All except for the final proposition in the argument are called
premises and the final proposition is called the conclusion. An
argument is valid if the truth of all its premises implies that the
conclusion is true.
- Establishing the validity if some relatively simple argument forms.
Tautology
- A tautology in math (and logic) is a compound statement (premise
and conclusion) that always produces truth. No matter what the
individual parts are, the result is a true statement; a tautology is
EXAMPLE:
A. Alice is a mathematician major. Therefore, Alice is either a
mathematics major or a computer science major.
Solution:
- Let M be “Alice is mathematics major” and S be “Alice is a computer
science major”. Then this argument is of the form:
M
∴MvS
- This is an argument that uses the addition rule.
B. Jerry is a mathematics major and a computer science major.
Therefore, jerry is a mathematics major
Solution:
- Let m be “Jerry is a mathematics major” and s be “Jerry is a
computer science major”. Then this argument is of the form”
m^s
∴m
 - This argument that uses the simplification rule. x is B
Reasoning in a chain with “some” Some A are B
C. If it is rainy, then the pool will be closed. It is rainy., Therefore, the Some A are C
pool is closed. Some B are C
Solution: Arguing background with “no” All A are B
- Let r be “it is rainy” an p be “the pool will closed.” Then this No C is B
argument is of the for: No C is A
r→p
r
∴p
CONTENT FALLACIES
- A content fallacy is a logical fallacy that is not due to the way the
argument is stated, but rather due to what the argument actually
- This is an argument that uses the modus ponens. says.

D. If it snows today, the university will close. The university is not

closed today. Therefore, it did not snow today.
Solution:
- Let S be “it snows today” and U be “The university will close.” Then
this argument is of the form :
S→U
¬U
∴ ¬S

- This is an argument that uses the modus tollens.

E. If I go swimming, then I will stay in the sun too long. If I stay in the
sun too long, then I will sunburn. Therefore, if I go swimming, then
I will sunburn.
Solution:
- Let a be “I go swimming,” b be “I will stay in the sun too long” and
c be “I will sunburn” then this argument is in the for:
a→b
b→c
∴a→ c

- This is an example that uses the hypothetical syllogism.

STRUCTURAL FALLACIES
- A form of argument that is not valid is called a fallacy. It follows
that for an argument to be invalid means that there is an argument
whose all premises are all true and whose conclusion is false. One
of them is structural fallacy, also known as formal fallacies.

EXAMPLE:
A. “He thinks Ferraris are the best cars, but he likes VW Bugs, so what
does he know”?
The argument is an ad hominem fallacy. Based on the premises that Ferraris
are the best cars while VW Bugs are not; having a conclusion of what does
he know means that the person has a bad taste on cars based on the brand
EXAMPLE: of a car.
a. a. If you do every problem in this book, then you will learn discrete
mathematics. You learned discrete mathematics Therefore, you
B. “The last three days I walked to school and it rained, so we deserve
did every problem in this book.
a longer lunch break.”
Solution:
The argument is a non-sequitur fallacy. The premises do nothing to do with
- let p be “You do every problem in this book” and q be “You will
the conclusion.
learn discrete mathematics” Then this argument is in the form
p→q C. “Mom, why can’t I have a slice of my birthday cake?.”
q “You can’t eat nothing but sugar all the time, it is unhealthy”.
∴p The argument is a Straw man. Mom is avoiding to answer the initial question
and setting-up the argument that all sugar diet is unhealthy.
- this argument is not valid because of the fallacy of affirming the
conclusion.

b. b. If it is sunny, Ben will go biking. Ben did not go biking. Therefore,

it is not sunny.
Solution:
- let s be “if it sunny” and B be “Ben will go biking” Then this
argument is in the form:
S→B
¬B
∴ ¬S

- This argument is not valid because of the fallacy of denying the

hypothesis

STRUCTURAL FALLACIES
Arguing backwards with “all” All A are B
x is A
x is B
Arguing backgrounds with “almost Almost all A are B
all” x is A