Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Household greywater treatment ‐ Nakuru overall project:
Greywater use in peri‐urban households in
Kitgum, Uganda
Authors: Kulabako, Kinobe, Mujunga, Olwenyi, Sleytr
Abstract
In this study, undertaken within the ROSA project (Resource oriented Sanitation concepts in peri‐urban areas in
Africa), an understanding of greywater characteristics is created to demonstrate a low cost reuse option
involving direct application of untreated greywater to small so called “greywater towers” at household level in
peri‐urban settlements in Kitgum Town Council. It can be concluded that greywater towers provide a simple
method to treat and use greywater for gardening.
Introduction
Urbanization in cities of the developing world like connected to the sewerage system with the
Uganda is virtually synonymous with formation of majority using on‐site sanitation systems while in
dense human settlements inhabited by the poor, Kitgum Town Council (KTC), a semi‐arid town in
lack of adequate safe drinking water, lack or Northern Uganda, on‐site sanitation systems
inadequate sanitation (excreta, greywater and predominate (ROSA, 2007).
solid waste) and generally a degraded In the peri‐urban areas of Kitgum town like in most
environment. The high populations living under cities of developing countries, greywater is
such conditions are subject to health risks. With disposed of, untreated onto the ground and into
the increasing demand for freshwater, it is of open storm water drains. The unsanitary disposal
paramount importance that water consumption results in creation of malaria mosquito breeding
shifts towards one, which promotes consumption grounds, smelly stagnant waters, children falling ill
of adequate amounts of water of acceptable after playing in the wastewater, etc. (ROSA, 2007).
quality. However, this shift requires that The majority of the communities in the peri‐urban
alternative sources of water are identified. settlements of KTC do not reuse the greywater and
Experiences elsewhere in the world including yet frequently experience water supply shortages
several arid and semi‐arid countries indicates that following power outages (pumping from the
greywater can be a cost effective alternative central water supply stalls) and have an
source of water (Morel and Diener, 2006). inadequate number of boreholes (ROSA, 2007).
Greywater is water coming from cloth washers, According to Imhof and Muhlemann (2005), the
bathtubs, showers, kitchen sinks and dishwashers main barrier for wider and faster dissemination of
and comprises between 50 to 80% of residential suitable greywater management systems at
wastewater (Al‐Jayyousi, 2003). household level in the developing countries, is the
Governments allocate substantial amounts of lack of knowledge and experience. Scientific
money to develop, treat and transport water knowledge is sparse regarding greywater
resources. On the other hand, more money is characteristics allowing its reuse. This study,
spent to collect wastewater, treat it and then undertaken within the ROSA project (Langergraber
transport it to distant places for potential uses. To et al., 2008), seeks to create an understanding of
address the externalities of this paradigm, greywater characteristics and demonstrate a low
attention is to be focused on small‐scale and on‐ cost reuse option involving direct application to
site treatment of wastewater/greywater. In small gardens at household level in peri‐urban
Uganda, very few households particularly in the settlements in KTC.
peri‐urban settlements are connected to the
sewerage system. In Kampala, the capital city of
Uganda < 7% of the city’s households are
Technical detail:
greywater tower gardens; poles (wooden, iron bars or fence posts) and shading material surrounding the
soil and a central stone‐packed drain; vegetables (e.g. tomatoes, spinach) are planted into slits of the
shading material in the soil;
Material and methods Setting up of the greywater towers
3 greywater towers were set up at each of the
Research baseline selected households. At one household, a control
To ascertain the baseline situation in the study tower garden was set up in exactly the same way
area regarding greywater reuse practices (if any), a as the greywater tower. It was also planted with
review of available publications and or reports was the same vegetables, but with the only difference
undertaken. Additionally, interviews were held that it was being fed with groundwater and not
with 38 households within Kitgum Town Council with greywater. Greywater towers are a user
area. friendly and innovative way of using greywater for
gardening in low and middle income countries and
Identification and sensitisation of study have been implemented for example in Kenya,
households South Africa and Ethiopia. The study households
The characterization of greywater and installation were trained by the research team on how to set
of greywater towers was limited to selected up the greywater towers as well as on the
households in Pondwongo village in KTC. operation and maintenance aspects of these for
Pondwongo was selected because it is a semi‐arid effective performance.
area with water scarcity problems necessitating When setting up a greywater tower garden, a circle
alternative water sources for agriculture. The was marked out on the ground with a diameter as
selection of the study households involved that of the shade cloth (Figure 2a). This circle was
consultations with the town council authorities, dug out to form the bottom layer of the tower
community leaders and local residents by the garden. Side wooden poles (2m high) were planted
research team. Seven households categorized as i) firmly into the bottom following which a shade
high class: households with iron roofed houses cloth was tied around the poles to make a cylinder
with cemented floors and plastered walls; ii) (Figure 2b). The sides of the shade cloth were then
medium class: households with iron roofed houses, rolled cylinder out before back filling (Figure 2c).
a b c
d
e f g h
i j k
Figure 2 Setting up of a tower garden at one of the households in KTC
The back fill consisted of a mixture of three parts was applied on a daily basis. On average each
of soil, two parts of animal manure and one part of greywater tower could receive about 3 litres of
ash to provide facility. The different parts were greywater per day. Over the weekend, the
measured out by volume using a bucket greywater towers were splashed with 2 buckets
(Figure 2d). The backfill was then well mixed (about 10litres) of clean water to wash away the
before applying it (Figure 2e). A bucket with its soap. Selected vegetables such as tomatoes and
bottom removed was placed at the bottom in the onions were planted on the greywater towers. The
middle of the tower (Figure 2f). Stones were control tower garden received about 3 litres of
carefully packed in the bucket in such a way that groundwater per day that was used by the
did not permit fast flow of the water through household for domestic purposes.
(Figure 2g). The sides of the bucket were back filled
with the soil mixture (Figure 2h). The bucket was Greywater sample collection and analysis
then partially pulled out leaving the stones in Samples were collected from 6 households every
position. The bucket was placed again and filled two to three weeks from 3 greywater streams
with stones and sides back filled (Figure 2i). This (kitchen, laundry and bathroom) for a period of 6
was repeated for each soil layer until the top layer months. Physico‐chemical and bacteriological
of the tower garden (Figure 2j and Figure 2k). analyses of the greywater were determined for the
selected parameters: pH, Dissolved Oxygen (DO),
Electrical conductivity (EC), Temperature, Total
Operation of the greywater towers Dissolved Solids (TDS), Turbidity, Chemical Oxygen
Greywater towers were operated in such a way Demand (COD), 5‐day Biochemical Oxygen Demand
that greywater from the bathroom and laundry (BOD5), Ammonia‐Nitrogen (NH3‐N), Ortho
Phosphorus, Total Phosphorus, Sodium Adsorption Plant measurements
Ratio (SAR) and E. Coli. The parameters pH, DO, EC To assess the impact of greywater application on
and Temperature were determined in‐situ using a plant growth, measurements at two households
calibrated multi‐parameter meter (Quanta‐ with greywater towers and the control were taken.
Hydrolab). Samples for physico‐chemical and This involved measurements of stems, leaves,
bacteriological analyses were collected in acid number of seeds, number of leaves, and length of
rinsed and steriled bottles respectively, stored in a internodes.
o
cool box at 4 C and transported for analysis to the
Public Health and Environmental Engineering
Results
Laboratory at Makerere University in Kampala.
Prior to the analysis for ortho and total
Greywater reuse
phosphorus, and ammonia nitrogen. The samples
were filtered through a 1.2 m Whatman glass A review of the baseline study report (ROSA, 2007)
microfibre filter paper (GF/C). COD was indicated that there was no greywater reuse in the
determined using the Closed Reflux, Titrimetric study area. The generated greywater is either
method (APHA/AWWA/WEF, 1998). BOD5 was disposed of in open places (68%) and or open
determined by pressure difference within a closed channels traversing the area and where possible, in
system (BOD5 CW7000 direct reading apparatus) soak pits by 21% of the households (ROSA, 2007).
according to the instrument manual. Total These findings were corroborated by the interview
phosphorus was determined using the ascorbic findings in this study with the majority of the
acid method with persulfate digestion while Ortho respondent households, 61% and 76% disposing of
phosphorus was measured using the ascorbic acid kitchen and laundry wastewater respectively on
method (APHA/AWWF/WEF, 1998). NH3‐N was the ground. Most of the respondent households
determined using the Direct Nesslerization method (71%) discharge their bathroom wastewater into
(APHA/AWWF/WEF, 1998). Potassium, sodium, soak pits. Interestingly, a few respondent
calcium and magnesium were determined using households (11%) pour their kitchen greywater
atomic absorption spectrometry (Perkin‐Elmer into the gardens. Interviews with the locals
2380). Sodium Adsorption ratio was calculated indicated that they were not aware of any
from the measured concentrations of sodium, greywater disposal best practices but expressed
calcium and magnesium ions (Alit et al., 2006). willingness to reuse greywater if taught how.
E.Coli determination was according to the Responses from the study households indicated
membrane filtration technique using Chromocult that they had no objection to having the
agar (APHA/AWWF/WEF, 1998). demonstration units for greywater reuse
(greywater towers) set up at their homes.
Soil sample collection and analysis
Amount of greywater produced
To ascertain the impact of the greywater on the
soils, soil samples were collected at each The generation of grey water by households is
household initially prior to greywater application directly related to the consumption of water. Of
and analyzed for pH, organic matter content, the 38 households interviewed, the majority (63%)
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. After the use 3 to 5 jerrycans of water daily for domestic
application of greywater, soil samples from the cores including drinking. Given that each jerrycan
greywater towers were later picked on a monthly holds 20 liters, about 60 to 80 liters of water are
basis for a period of 3 months and analysed for the used daily for washing kitchen utensils, laundry,
same parameters at the Soil Science Laboratory at bathing and drinking by each household. Since no
Makerere University, Kampala, according to wastewater enters the sewers in Paradwong parish
analytical techniques in Okalebo (2002). pH was in KTC, the quantity of greywater generated daily
measured using the electrode method in a soil‐ per household may be estimated to be 80% of the
water suspension using a 1:2.5 (w/v) ratio, organic water consumption (Punimia, 1998). This means
matter determination was according to the that approximately 48 to 64 liters of grey water are
Walkley and Black Method, Total nitrogen was being produced on a daily basis by each household
analysed using the Kjeldahl method, potassium in Ktigum town council. As a result of the water
was determined by flame photometry method scarcity in the region the quantity of greywater
while measurement of phosphorus was according produced is low. The greywater quality generated
to the Bray method (Okalebo, 2002). Given the by these households is therefore highly polluted
close proximity of the households in the area, the (section 4.3) as small quantities of water are used
soils used in the greywater towers were loam soils. for a number of domestic purposes before
eventual disposal, as observed in informal
settlements worldwide (Armitage et al., 2009).
Figure 3 Characteristics of greywater from different sources in Kitgum Town Council (bars
represent mean values standard deviation; n ≥ 35)
Table 1 Bacteriological quality (E.Coli) of the mg/kg, Landon, 1991) and low nitrogen, potassium
greywater source types (n = 8; Log 10 and organic matter. The phosphate decrease in the
E.coli/100 ml) soils following greywater application may be
Greywater source Average value Range attributed to plant uptake as indicated by the
Kitchen 8.42 <0‐ 9.32 healthy appearance of these (Figure 4). Despite the
Bathroom 7.50 <0‐ 8.24 high ammonia‐nitrogen levels in the greywater
Laundry 8.53 <0‐ 9.40 (Figure 3), the nitrogen contbent in the soils
following greywater application are hardly
Soil Characteristics affected. This may be attributed to uptake by
The initial characteristics of the soils at the study plants and also to a less degree the relatively high
households prior to application of greywater are pH values (pH>7) leading to ammonia volatilization
presented in Table 2. The results indicate largely and loss to the atmosphere as nitrogen (Zimmo et
alkaline soils with high phosphorus contents (> 15 al., 2003).
Community perceptions and challenges to used was attacked by roaming animals in the area
greywater reuse using greywater towers and tore within two months. Here, some
Informal interviews held with the locals in protection fences had to be installed around the
greywater towers. The planted vegetables
Table 3 Plant measurements were attacked by pests and diseases
Control A B implying the need for pest control.
Tomatoes
Length of 1st Stem (cm) 3 3 3.4
Length of 1st leaf (cm) 43.3 27.2 37.5
Conclusions
Length of leaflet (cm) 10.4 8 11.7 ‐ Greywater is poorly managed in
No of flowers 16 7 18 Kitgum Town Council with the largest
No of seeds 1 5 5 population of the community (68%)
Length of inter‐node (cm) 14.5 17.2 18 pouring the greywater onto the
No of branches 4 4 7 ground while 21% dispose their
Onions greywater into drain channels and
No of leaves 9 10 8 soak pits. Very few (11%) pour this
Length of leaf (cm) 8.7 15 19 wastewater into the garden.
‐ The main sources of greywater in the area are References
Alit, W., Zeev, R., Noam, W., Eilon, A., Amit, G. (2006). Potential
laundry, bath areas and kitchen.
changes in soil properties following irrigation with surfactant‐
‐ Laundry water except for temperature rich greywater. Ecological Engineering 26, 348‐354.
generally had the highest mean values of the Al‐Jayyousi, O.R. (2003). Greywater reuse: towards sustainable
parameters assessed followed by kitchen and management. Desalination 156, 181‐192.
bathroom greywater. Armitage, N.P., Winter, K., Spiegel, A., Kruger, E. (2009).
‐ The effect of greywater application on the soil Community‐focused greywater management in two informal
characteristics was not significant with settlements in South Africa. Water Science and Technology
59(12): 2341‐2350.
respect to potassium, organic matter and
APHA/AWWA/WEF (1998): Standard methods for the
nitrogen content. However there was a slight examination of water and wastewater. 20th edition,
decrease in phosphorus content. American Public Health Association, American Water Works
‐ Tomato and onion plants grown in the Association, Water Environment Federation Publication,
greywater towers thrived with the greywater. Washington, D.C., USA.
However, they were attacked by pests. Birks, R., Hills, S. (2007). Characterisation of indicator organisms
and pathogens in Domestic greywater for recycling.
Environmental Monitoring Assessment 129, 61‐69.
Recommendations Carden, K., Armitage, N., Winter, K., Sichone, O., Rivett, U.,
‐ Given the greywater characteristics presented Kahonde, J. (2007). The use and disposal of greywater in the
non‐sewered areas of South Africa: paper 1‐Quantifying the
in this study, greywater should be properly greywater generated and assessing its quality. Water SA
managed to prevent contamination of the 33(4), 425‐432.
environment and disease prevalence. Christova‐Boal, D., Eden, R.E., McFarlane, S. (1996). An
‐ Given the positive response to the application investigation into greywater reuse for urban residential
of greywater in gardens in Kitgum Town properties. Desalination 106, 391‐397.
Council, there is need to increase sensitization Crosby, C. (2005): Food from Used Water: Making the
Previously Impossible Happen. URL:
of the community people on greywater reuse
http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Events/WaterWeek/2005/Docume
and associated benefits to scale up this reuse nts/WaterWheelJan05d.pdf [Accessed on 31.03.2007].
option. Eriksson, E., Auffarth, K., Henze, M., Ledin, A. (2002).
‐ There is need for research to ascertain the Characteristics of grey wastewater. Urban Water 4, 85‐104.
bacteriological quality of the leafy crops to Imhof, B. and Muhlemann J. (2005). Greywater treatment on
assure safety. household level in developing countries‐A state of the art
‐ The hydraulic load of a greywater tower review. Department of Environmental Sciences at the Swiss
Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), Zürich, Switzerland.
should be ascertained so as to guide the
Landon, J.R. (ed.) (1991). A Handbook for soil survey and
number of gardens needed for a particular agricultural land evaluation in the tropics and subtropics.
quantity of the generated greywater for Longman Scientific and Technical Group Ltd, Hong Kong, PR
optimum performance. China.
Langergraber, G., Meinzinger, F., Lechner, M., de Brujne, G.,
Sugden, S., Niwagaba, C.B., Mashauri, D., Mutua, B.M.,
Teklemariam, A., Achiro, I., Kiarie, S.C., Laizer, J.T., Ayele, W.
Acknowledgements
(2008): The ROSA project – A new approach to sustainable
The work is carried out within the project ROSA sanitation in Eastern African cities. Proceedings of the 6th
(Resource‐Oriented Sanitation concepts for peri‐ IWA World Water Congress, 8‐12 September 2008, Vienna,
urban areas in Africa; Contract No. 037025‐GOCE; Austria. (CD‐ROM, paper 664279)
duration: 1.10.2006 – 31.3.2010), a Specific Target Morel A. and Diener, S. (2006). Greywater Management in Low
and Middle‐Income Countries,Review of different treatment
REsearch Project (STREP) funded within the EU 6th
systems for households or neighbourhoods. Sandec (Swiss
Framework Programme, Sub‐priority "Global Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology
Change and Ecosystems". The authors are grateful (EAWAG), Dübendorf, Switzerland.
for the support. NEMA, (1999). Environmental standards and preliminary
environment impact assessment for water quality and
discharge of effluent into water/land in Uganda. National
Environment Management Authority, Kampala, Uganda.
Okalebo, R. (2002). Laboratory methods of soil and plant
analysis. A working manual, 2nd Edition, Nairobi, Kenya.
Punimia, A. (1998). Wastewater Engineering (Including Air
Pollution). Environmental Engineering‐2. Laxmi Publications
(P) Ltd., New Delhi, India.
ROSA (2007).Baseline study of Kitgum Town Council. Makerere
University ROSA Staff, Kampala, Uganda.
Travis, M.J., Weisbrod, N., Gross, A. (2008). Accumulation of oil
and grease in soils irrigated with greywater and their
potential role in soil water repellency. Science of the Total
Environment 394, 68‐74.
Wiel‐Shafran, A., Ronen, Z., Weisbrod, N., Adar, E., Gross, A.
(2006). Potential changes in soil properties following
irrigation with surfactant‐rich greywater. Ecological
Engineering 26, 348‐354.
WHO (2006). WHO guidelines for the safe use of wastewater,
excreta and greywater, Volume IV Exctreta and greywater
use in agriculture. World Health Organisation, Geneva,
Switzerland.
Zimmo, O.R., van der Steen, N.P., Gijzen, H.J. (2003) Comparison
of ammonia volatilisation rates in algae and duckweed‐based
waste stabilisation ponds treating domestic wastewater.
Water Research 37(19), 4587–4594.
.
Name: R. Kulabako,
J. Kinobe,
J. Mujunga
S. Olwenyi
Organisation: Department of Civil Engineering,
Makerere University
Town, Country: Kampala, Uganda
e‐mail: rkulaba@tech.mak.ac.ug,
jkinobe@tech.mak.ac.ug,
olwenysamuel@yahoo.com,
jmujunga@tech.mak.ac.ug
Name: K. Sleytr
Organisation: University of Natural Resources
and Applied Life Sciences, Vienna; Institute for
Sanitary Engineering and Water Pollution
Control
Town, Country: Vienna, Austria
e‐mail: Kirsten.sleytr@boku.ac.at