Groundwater for Sustainable Development 18 (2022) 100802

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Groundwater for Sustainable Development

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/gsd

Research paper

Plant-based point-of-use water filtration: A simple solution for potable

water in developing countries
Nadeem Ibrahim a, Lidori Edri a, Ava Bellizzi b, Christina Kozlovsky b, Mira Wiley b,
Frank G. Jacobitz b, Martha G. Fuller c, Keith Macdonald d, James P. Bolender e,
Gad Ruzaaza Ndaruhutse f, Yaal Lester a, *
a
Environmental Technologies, Department of Materials Engineering, Azrieli College of Engineering, Jerusalem, 9103501, Israel
b
Mechanical Engineering Department, Shiley-Marcos School of Engineering, University of San Diego, 5998 Alcalá Park, San Diego, CA, 92110, USA
c
Hahn School of Nursing and Health Science, University of San Diego, 5998 Alcalá Park, San Diego, CA, 92110, USA
d
Biology Department, University of San Diego, 5998 Alcalá Park, San Diego, CA, 92110, USA
e
Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of San Diego, 5998 Alcalá Park, San Diego, CA, 92110, USA
f
Department of Community Health / Community Based Education Research and Service Program, Mbarara University of Science & Technology, Mbarara, Uganda

H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

• Rural communities in Africa are often

provided with contaminated drinking
water.
• Plant xylem is proposed as a sustainable
household water treatment device.
• The xylem completely removed bacteria
from water but could not remove T4
viruses.
• Positively charged toxic metals were
removed by > 70%, via ion exchange
mechanism.
• A single element could filtrate ≥5 L
groundwater, but was clogged by sur­
face water.

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Rural communities in Africa consistently lack access to safe drinking water, free from chemical contaminants and
Water filtration pathogens. One of the approaches to improve access to drinking water in these areas is point of use treatment,
Plant xylem using household water treatment devices. The objective of this work is to demonstrate the applicability of plant
Groundwater
xylem filtration, as a water treatment device for households in rural Africa. Pine xylem acted both as a physical
Africa
Safe water
filter and a cation exchanger, removing suspended contaminants and positively charged chemicals. For example,
Escherichia coli bacteria (E. coli) was completely attenuated during xylem filtration, whereas waterborne viruses
(i.e., T4) could not be removed, due to the small size of viruses. Removal of inorganic anion contaminants, i.e.,
fluoride and nitrate, was ineffective, as was the removal of negatively charged arsenate (removed by merely
40%). On the other hand, removal of six, positively charged, toxic metals was in the range of 70%–100%:
Cadmium, copper, lead, chromium, cobalt and nickel. Treatment of natural water was successful principally for
groundwaters, which contained low level of suspended material and dissolved organic matter. In this case,
filtration could produce 5 L of treated water (for xylem of 1.5 cm diameter), enough to supply the minimum daily

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: yaalle@jce.ac.il (Y. Lester).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2022.100802
Received 8 January 2022; Received in revised form 12 June 2022; Accepted 26 June 2022
Available online 8 July 2022
2352-801X/© 2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
N. Ibrahim et al.
consumption required for one person for survival. In conclusion, Pine xylem can serve as an effective household
treatment device for groundwater contaminated with bacteria and toxic metals.
1. Introduction
The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), adopted
in 2015, guide development to improve equity and health around the
world (https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment). Two SDGs (the
third and the sixth) relate directly to clean water availability. They
emphasize the importance of access to clean water and sanitation for all,
and the need to prevent deaths of infants and children under 5 years of
age. Despite these SDGs, adequate access to safe drinking water con­
tinues to be a challenge in most developing countries, notably in rural
areas of Africa and Asia (World Health Organization 2019; Rakotoma­
nana et al., 2020). In sub-Saharan Africa, a quarter of the population
does not have access to safe drinking water (Armah et al., 2018).
Common drinking water sources in rural Africa include shallow
boreholes, groundwater-wells, springs, rivers, and other local reserves
(Armah et al., 2018). These provide water for the majority of the pop­
ulation. In Uganda, for example, where 80% of the population live in
rural communities and informal settlements, access to piped, treated
water remains low (Nayebare et al., 2014). Treated water, supplied by
the Ugandan National Water and Sewerage Corporation, is found pre­
dominantly in urban areas, only available to approximately 17% of the
population (Nayebare et al., 2014; Zerbo et al., 2020).
Local, unprotected water sources, in Uganda and elsewhere in Africa,
are often contaminated with bacteria and other pathogenic organisms,
as a result of poor sanitation facilities (Fewtrell and Colford Jr. 2004).
Waterborne pathogens cause diarrheal diseases, which lead to the death
of more than 800,000 people globally each year (many of them children
under the age of 5, World Health Organization, 2019), and are a major
factor in undernutrition in low- and middle-income countries (Swinburn
et al., 2019). In East Africa, for example, improved water sanitation has
been associated with improved growth in young children (Rakotoma­
nana et al., 2020). In Uganda, waterborne diseases (specifically diar­
rheal diseases) are the sixth leading cause of death (Center for Disease
Control and Prevention, 2019).
In addition to microorganisms, natural water often contains different
inorganic contaminants, such as nitrate (NO−3 ), fluoride (F− ) and toxic
metals, originating from natural and anthropogenic sources (Yabe et al.,
2010; Fernández-Luqueño et al., 2013; Akhtar et al., 2021; Fisher et al.,
2021; Owamah et al., 2021). Unlike pathogenic microorganisms, which
causes acute illness, exposure to inorganic contaminants through
drinking water mostly leads to chronic illnesses (Biney et al., 1994; Fu
and Xi 2020). Analysis of drinking water in Southwestern Uganda found
contamination with multiple metals, including lead, iron, and cadmium
(Kasozi et al., 2019).
One of the approaches to improve access to drinking water in rural
Africa is point of use treatment, using household water treatment de­
vices (Fewtrell and Colford Jr. 2004). The main advantage of this
approach is its low cost, availability and the prevention of contamina­
tion taking place during collection, transport, and storage (Clasen and
Cairncross 2004; Clasen et al., 2004; Lantagne et al., 2006; Clasen
2015). Point-of-use approaches have gained popularity since 2003, with
the foundation of the international network to promote Household
Water Treatment and Safe Storage (HWTS), under the WHO, aiming to
promote HWTS among vulnerable populations and reduce waterborne
disease (World Health Organization 2019). Some widespread HWTS
options include on-site chlorination, filtration and solar disinfection
(WHO/, 2012). Their use, in conjunction with hygiene education and
sanitation, is considered an intermittent solution until the infrastructure
to reliably deliver safe water to the entire rural population is created.
A successful implementation of a household treatment technology
largely depends on the availability and cost of materials. A technology
2
Groundwater for Sustainable Development 18 (2022) 100802
that is based on a local, available, and cheap material is likely to provide
a long-term sustainable solution. A typical example for an effective
product is the widely distributed ceramic filter: The Potters for Peace
(PFP) filter (Lantagne 2001), which is produced in Nicaragua from
native materials and distributed to local houses by NGOs. The PFP
showed to be effective in removing waterborne bacteria, but could not
remove viruses, due to their smaller size. No other water contaminants
were tested. In addition, filtration rate decreased markedly over time,
especially in turbid waters. Filtration devices in general are an attractive
option for household treatment, since they can make use of locally
available and inexpensive porous media, they are simple and easy to use
and can potentially remove bacteria and other contaminants (Lantagne
2001).
One of the porous material previously proposed for household water
filtration is plant xylem (Boutilier et al., 2014). Xylem is a porous tissue
material, composed of a variety of specialized tube-like cells, responsible
for water conduction in plants. The diameter of these closed-end parallel
conduits is often too large for an effective water filtration (>10 μm).
However, conduits are connected to adjacent conduits via ‘‘pits’’,
covered with membranes with pores in the range of a few nanometers to
a few hundred nanometers (depending on the species of plants), suitable
for attenuating many water contaminants. Employing plant xylem for
household water treatment is highly advantageous, as it is a local and
cheap material, easily available in many rural areas. A filtration system
based on xylem involves forcing of water through the cross-section of a
cut plant stem. As water flows through the xylem, it crosses the pits
membranes, which may attenuate pathogens and other contaminants
(Boutilier et al., 2014; Ahmad Ansari et al., 2019).
The potential of this filtration method was demonstrated earlier by
Boutilier et al. (2014), who used pine xylem to filtrate contaminated
deionized water. The researchers found that the specific xylem could
effectively attenuate dead bacteria, and thus has high potential as a
household treatment device. Still, large amounts of data are missing for
the full-scale application of this treatment method, notably: (i) filtration
effectivity of live bacteria, which may differ from dead ones due to, for
example, the production of extracellular polysaccharide substances, (ii)
data on filtration with xylem from different tree types, since confining
the method to pine highly limits its geographical application, (iii)
filtration effectivity of other important water contaminants, such as
toxic metals and waterborne viruses and, most importantly, (iv) data on
xylem filtration of natural waters, containing large amount of back­
ground constituents such as organic matter and suspended material.
The hypothesis of the present study is that plant xylem, from a va­
riety of trees, can be used to remove key contaminants from natural
waters, providing safe drinking water for at least one person per day.
Subsequently, the general goal of the study was to determine the
applicability of plant xylem as a household treatment device, through
(a) the analysis of the effectiveness of different xylems in removing live
waterborne bacteria and viruses, and relevant toxic metals and ions and
(b) examine filtration of natural waters from different sources.
2. Material and methods
2.1. Materials
Branches for filtration tests were taken from different trees (Table 1),
located on private properties in Israel. Escherichia coli (E. coli, ATCC
35218), used as model bacteria, was purchased from Hy-Labs (Rehovot,
Israel), as well as the Luria–Bertani (LB) medium used to grow and
maintain the bacterial culture. T4 bacteriophage (ATCC 11303-B4),
used as a model for waterborne viruses, was a donation from the
N. Ibrahim et al.
Pharmaceutical Engineering laboratory (Azrieli College of Engineering,
Jerusalem). Sodium fluoride, sodium nitrate, cadmium chloride, copper
sulfate, lead bromide, chromium nitrate, cobalt chloride and nickel
chloride, all with 99% purity, were from Sigma Aldrich (Rehovot,
Israel). Deionized (DI) water was taken from a Direct-Q3 UV system
(Millipore). All chemicals were used as obtained.
2.2. Filtration setup and procedure
In a typical filtration experiment, a 2-cm long section was cut from a
branch, the bark was peeled off, and the piece was inserted into a plastic
threaded adapter reducer nipple. The nipple was tightened to a 2-L
plastic pipe which served as a feed container. The xylem was sealed
with rubber bands to avoid leaks. The water solution was spiked with the
tested contaminant and placed inside the feed container, which was
sealed and pressurized using a nitrogen tank connected to its upper side
(at approximately 5 psi; 34.5 kPa). Filtrate was collected from the bot­
tom in glass vials.
For E. coli filtration, bacteria were first grown in 50 mL liquid LB
medium to optical density (OD600) of approximately 1, corresponding to
approximately 108 colony forming units per mL (CFU/mL). A pre­
determined volume from the concentrated stock was then added to the
tested water, to achieve the desired initial concentration. For T4 filtra­
tion, the bacteriophage was first propagated using E. coli as the host in
nutrient broth (Acumedia). Following propagation, the solution was
centrifuged (10 min, 8000 × G) and filtered through a 0.45-μm low
protein binding filter (PES Stericup filter, Millipore), to remove cellular
debris. A few mL of the T4 stock were added to the water solution, to
achieve the initial concentration of approximately 106 plaque forming
units - PFU/mL. Filtration of ions and toxic metals was done by adding
the contaminants to tap water, and measuring their concentrations
before and after filtration.
2.3. Analytical methods
E. coli were enumerated by the drop plate method (Chen et al., 2003).
In brief, samples were serially diluted in saline water, and 20 μL of the
diluted sample was dropped onto mFC agar plates (in triplicates). Plates
were incubated for 24 h at 37 ◦ C. The E. coli colonies were counted to
determine bacterial concentration. T4 samples were enumerated by the
double agar layer method (Wolf et al. 2018). Metals in the water were
quantified by Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrom­
etry (ICP-OES, Spectro Genesis, Kleve, Germany). Analytical quality
control included weekly analysis of a certified reference standard (Fluka
Analytical, 90243 for ICP) and replicate analysis of samples and blanks.
Prior to analysis, samples were acidified with 2–3 drops of 70% nitric
acid. Each sample was analyzed three times and the results are expressed
as mean ± SD (SD: standard deviation). Relative standard deviation
(RSD) of the three results was less than 5% for all metals. Limit of
quantification for the tested metals was 5–10 μg/L.
Groundwater samples were collected from two operating pumping
wells (prior to disinfection), supplying drinking water to nearby com­
munities. Surface water was taken from two different recreational ponds
Table 1
Filtration of 200 mL saline water, spiked with E. coli bacteria, by different trees.
Tree Group E. coli conc. (cfu/ml)
Before filtration
Pine (Pinus halepensis) Conifer 1000
Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) angiosperms 1050
Populus (Populus tremula)
Mulberry (Morus mesozygia)
Jujube (Ziziphus jujuba) 720
Almond (Prunus dulcis) 650
Moringa (Moringa oleifera) 1080
3
Groundwater for Sustainable Development 18 (2022) 100802
near Jerusalem, receiving their water from small tributaries. All samples
were collected in clean 2.5 L amber glass bottles, kept in an ice box, and
immediately transferred to the laboratory for analysis (within 24 h).
Total organic carbon (TOC) was measured using a TOC analyzer
(Acqurey TOC, Langenselbold, Germany). Fluoride (F− ) and nitrate
(NO−3 ) were analyzed by an ECO Ion Chromatograph (Metrohm,
Switzerland). Other water quality parameters were analyzed using
standard methods (APHA, 2005).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Filtration with xylem from different types of trees
Different types of trees have differently structured xylem, which may
affect their filtration capabilities. For example, angiosperms (flowering
plants) have relatively large and long xylem vessels (centimeters to
meters in length); compared to gymnosperms (conifers), which have
thin and short tracheid (less than 1 cm in length). Separation of con­
taminants during xylem filtration is effectively done by pit membranes,
connecting the parallel xylem conduits, which have pore-sizes in the
nanometers to hundred nanometers range. Consequently, gymnosperms
will have a larger number of pits in a 2-cm long wood, as compared to
angiosperms, and are expected to filtrate water contaminants much
more effectively (Boutilier et al., 2014).
To test this hypothesis, we used several angiosperms and gymno­
sperms for water filtration, all abundant in Africa (Table 1) (Gessesse
and Teklu 2004; Lantschner et al., 2017; Gandji et al., 2018, www.cabi.
org/isc/). Experiments in this section were done using 1.5 cm diameter
brunches, filtrating 200 mL saline solution (0.9% NaCl) spiked with
E. coli bacteria at initial concentration of approximately 1000 cfu/mL.
Two key parameters were tested, removal of bacteria and filtration flow
rate. Surprisingly, many of the examined angiosperms removed more
than 90% of E. coli bacteria. Complete removal was achieved for Pine (a
conifer) and Populus (an angiosperm), whereas Eucalyptus and Moringa
had the lowest removal (7% and 13% removal, respectively). Filtration
flow rates varied between trees, from 12 mL/min for Almond to 20–25
mL/min for Moringa. In general, trees with the highest filtration rates
had lowest removal of bacteria (Eucalyptus and Moringa), indicative of
large xylem conduits with little pit membranes.
Our results imply that some species of angiosperms may nevertheless
be suitable for water filtration. This observation is significant since an­
giosperms are much more abundant than conifers in Africa (Kalema and
Hamilton 2020). Based on our results and a previous study (Boutilier
et al., 2014), pine tree was selected for further analysis.
3.2. Correlation between filtration area and volume of water filtered
The maximum volume of water that can be filtered (MVF) is a crucial
parameter in designing a household filtration device, since it can limit
the system’s applicability (or the mode of application). Filtration flow
rate is not a suitable parameter in this case, since it gradually decreases
during filtration of large volumes. The MVF was calculated herein as the
filtered volume of water passed through the xylem until filtration rate is
Removal Filtration flow (mL/min)
After filtration
0 100% 6–9
980 7% 8–11
0 100% 4–5
~30 97% 2–3
78 90% 2–3
30 95% 1–2
940 13% 20–25
N. Ibrahim et al. Groundwater for Sustainable Development 18 (2022) 100802

decreased by 50%. Filtration in this section was done using saline water
spiked with E. coli.
Clearly, increasing filtration area increased the MVF (Fig. 1). In
general, one piece of 9.61 cm2 (equivalent to 3.5 cm in diameter) can
supply a daily water consumption of approximately 3 L, which is
considered by the WHO as the minimum required for one person for
survival (WHO 2013). In cases where higher capacity is required, a
larger piece should be applied, or the piece can be replaced during
filtration. It is noteworthy that, first, E. coli removal remained 100%
throughout filtration and, second, the average filtration rate was
approximately 8 mL/min, resulting in a filtration time of ~6 h for 3 L.

3.3. Filtration of waterborne viruses

While pathogenic bacteria are the principal contaminants of concern

in developing countries, other microorganisms may also pose a signifi­ Fig. 2. Filtration of T4 virus (in saline solution) by pine xylem.
cant threat to human health and water availability. Viruses, such as
rotavirus, are a leading cause of acute diarrhea in young children in
many African countries (Magana-Arachchi and Wanigatunge 2020). It is
therefore important to further determine the capabilities of xylem
filtration in removing these harmful water contaminants.
Unlike E. coli bacteria, T4 viruses (tested in 0.9% saline) were only
marginally removed during xylem filtration (Fig. 2). This outcome was
unexpected, as previous studies estimated that pit membranes are dense
enough to filtrate viruses, based on filtration tests of inorganic particles
in the range of 20–200 nm (Choat et al., 2003, 2008). The T4 virus is
about 200 nm long and 90 nm wide, and is in the upper range of viruses’
size. Thus, it is safe to say that other waterborne pathogenic viruses will
unlikely be attenuated by the xylem filter (most waterborne viruses are
in the 40–100 nm range, see Magana-Arachchi and Wanigatunge 2020).

Fig. 3. Removal of NO−3 , F− and various toxic metals from water during pine
3.4. Filtration of inorganic contaminants xylem filtration.

High levels of ions such as NO−3 and F− in drinking water may
adversely affect the health of (mainly) young children, causing fluorosis
and methemoglobinemia. Whereas toxic metals such as arsenic and lead
may lead to long term neurological effects (Rocha and Trujillo 2019; Fu
and Xi 2020). Both group of contaminants are frequently detected at
high levels in groundwater wells in Africa (BGS - British Geological
Survey, 2001; Gamar et al., 2021). Subsequently, experiments in this
section aimed to (a) determine the capability of xylem to remove NO−3 ,
F− and relevant toxic metals from water and (b) identify the impact of
NO−3 , F− concentration on the removal of toxic metals.
Fig. 3 presents filtration results of 200 mL tap water, spiked with
NO−3 (5 mg/L-N), F− (1 mg/L-F) and different toxic metals (at initial
concentration of 1 mg/L each). While concentration of NO−3 and F− only
marginally decreased following filtration, metals were removed by ≥
70% (with the exception of arsenic). Notably, chromium and copper
were removed by > 99% (below detection limit). Additional filtration
experiments were carried out with varying concentrations of NO−3 and
F− (from zero to 10 mg/L-N and 5 mg/L-F) and constant concentrations
of metals, to test the impact of the ions on metals removal. Concentra­
tion range of NO−3 and F- was selected to cover typical groundwater
concentrations in Africa (Nayebare et al., 2014). Removal of NO−3 and F−
was negligeable in all experiments; whereas removal of metals remained
constant at approximately >70% (arsenic ≥40%) and was not affected
by the concentration of NO−3 and F− (see Fig. S2 in Supporting
Information).
A large number of publications already demonstrated the use of low-
cost biomass-based adsorbents for metals removal from water (e.g. Bilal
et al., 2022); however, these studies commonly employ pretreated
biomass material (grinded, chemically or thermally treated) in a batch
treatment configuration. This is the first time an intact xylem material
was applied, using a flow-through system configuration. Xylem com­
prises of highly lignified cell walls that provide mechanical support to
the plant. Lignin is a complex phenolic polymer, consisting of a large
number of carboxyl and hydroxyl groups. These negatively charged
functional groups may bind to metallic ions through ion-exchange
mechanism (Fig. 4), and are likely responsible for the high sorption
capacity of the xylem (Ge and Li 2018). Arsenic appears in natural water
as arsenous or arsenic acid (Guma et al., 2021), which are either neutral
or negatively charged, hence its low removal rate by lignin (and sub­
sequently by the xylem). The negligible removal and effect of NO−3 and
F− strengthen the ion-exchange hypothesis, since these ions are nega­
tively charged and do not compete with metals of sorption sites.

Fig. 1. Maximum volume of saline water (0.9% NaCl) filtered for different-size
pine xylem piece.

4
N. Ibrahim et al. Groundwater for Sustainable Development 18 (2022) 100802

Table 3
Filtration results for the five natural water samples.
Water source E. coli removal (%) Average flow (mL/min) MVF (L)

SW-1 100 1 0.2

SW- 2 1 0.15
GW-1 12 5
GW-2 13 5.5

3.6. Proposed filtration device prototype

To meet the need for improved water quality, a point-of-use water

filtration device was developed and prototyped. This device was
designed to be low-cost and low maintenance, to constitute appropriate
technology for the rural African user communities of focus (Bellizzi and
Kozlovsky 2020). The device consists of two principal subsystems that
Fig. 4. Schematic illustration of metals sorption to lignin. work in tandem: (i) A holder for the plant xylem sample and (ii) a
pressure supply system.
The first sub-system is designed to ensure sealing of the plant sample,
3.5. Filtration of natural water
and filtration of the entire flow of water through the sample cross-
section. The sealing mechanism comprise of three components—two
In the last stage of this study, we examined the applicability of xylem
machined plastic parts and a single rubber cone washer (Fig. 5). The top
filtration in treating natural water samples, taken from different sources
threaded connection piece consists of a primarily cylindrical piece of
in Israel: springs and groundwaters. These types of water represent a
plastic, featuring external threads cut into the top and bottom of the
wide range of natural waters (often encountered in places like rural
part. The center is conically shaped on the outside, with the base of the
Africa), mainly with respect to the concentration of organic matter,
cone closest to the top of the part. A bore exists through the center of the
suspended solids and salts. Two samples were collected from recrea­
entire part, with the edge of the bore at the bottom of the part featuring
tional ponds, receiving their water from different tributaries (SW 1 and
an angled cut.
2, Table 3). Groundwater samples were collected from two different
The tapped bottom piece consists of a cylindrical piece of plastic
aquifer basins in Israel: GW-1 was from a carbonate aquifer in the upper
featuring a hole drilled all the way through the part. This hole is smaller
Galilee, and GW-2 was taken from an interbedded carbonate and basalt
in diameter than the intended xylem samples. This part also features a
layers aquifer in the Golan Heights. The samples were analyzed for key
bore that extends about three-quarters of the way through the part and a
quality parameters (Table 2) and spiked with E. coli bacteria prior to
larger internally threaded bore that extends about halfway down the
filtration. None of the samples contained fluoride or any of the toxic
part. Prior to the assembly of this subsystem, a sample of plant xylem
metals tested in the previous section.
must be prepared by clipping off a branch from the desired species,
While removal of bacteria was complete for all water samples,
cutting the branch to size with respect to length (about 2 cm), and
filtration rate and MVF varied significantly (Table 3). The two surface
peeling the bark off the sample. The rubber cone washer serves as the
waters exhibited extremely low filtration rate, resulting in low MVF. On
the other hand, filtration rate of groundwater samples was relatively
high, even compared to that recorded for saline solution (Table 1),
leading to high MVF of ≥5 L. The reason for the low filtration rate of
surface water is most likely the relatively high content of suspended
solids and organic matter (Table 2), which clog the filtration matrix. In
an attempt to overcome clogging, we added 5 cm of sea sand on top of
the xylem piece as prefiltration, to remove suspended solids. The flow
rate slightly increased to 4 mL/min (compared to 1 mL/min without
sand), however, the sand was quickly clogged and the MVF remained
low at around 0.5 L (results not presented).
The high filtration rate for groundwater, as compared to saline
water, is probably the result of the water’s low salinity and low osmotic
pressure, which leads to the expansion of the xylem and the conduits
within. Filtration of saline water leads to the narrowing of the conduits
and a reduced filtration flow. The obtained MVF for groundwater easily
covers both WHO and the Food and Nutrition Board recommendation
for daily Adequate Intakes (AI) of water: 3.7 L for man and 2.7 L for Fig. 5. Exploded view of SolidWorks model of plant xylem sample sealing
woman (Institute of Medicine - IOM, 2008). mechanism subsystem.

Table 2
General quality parameters of the tested waters.
Water source pH Conductivity Alkalinity mg/L as CaCO3 TSS mg/L TOC mgC/L NO−3 mg/L-N E. coli cfu/mL
μS/cm
SW - 1 8 682 130 37.5 3.6 1.6 47
SW - 2 8.23 746 95 28.8 8.9 2.3 31
GW-1 7.8 457 260 < DL < DL 5.2 0
GW-2 8.2 456 217 < DL < DL 4.3 0

DL – Detection Limit; TOC – Total Organic Carbon; TSS – Total Suspended Solids.

5
N. Ibrahim et al.
casing into which the plant xylem sample is inserted for proper sealing
via this subsystem. The sample must be snugly fit into the center of the
cone washer. The cone washer can be compressed by hand into the hole
in the bottom of the top threaded connection piece. This tightens the seal
between the walls of the inner diameter of the cone washer and the
sample of plant xylem. The compression is facilitated by the angled cut
around the edge of the bore at the bottom of the top threaded connection
piece, designed to match the taper of the cone washer for a tight fit. The
external bottom threads of the top threaded connection piece can then
be fastened into the top internal threads of the tapped bottom piece. As
the parts are threaded together, the cone washer and bottom of the
sample of plant xylem bottom out on the ledge present inside the tapped
bottom piece created by the bore, further compressing the walls of the
inner diameter of the cone washer around the sample of plant xylem.
This results in the formation of a tight seal around the sample. The
bottom hole serves as the outlet through which water can exit this
subsystem post-filtration.
The second sub-system is designed to provide a pressure of approx­
imately 0.5 bar to the water, to force it through the plant xylem. This can
be done by multiple methods; for example, by using an elevation head or
with pressure provided by a weight. In the first option, the xylem holder
is connected via a flexible pipe to a container placed on the rooftop of
the house, at 5 m height. The second option makes use of a piston-
cylinder system comprised of a PVC pipe, corresponding hub cap, and
hand-machined plunger (Fig. S1 in Supporting Information). When fitted
with the hubcap, the PVC pipe serves as a feed container into which
water can be poured. A large O-ring is incorporated between the bottom
of the cylinder and the inner face of the hub cab to prevent leakage
between the two components at this connection point.
The total cost of the system was estimated at approximately US $45.
This number is based on the cost of all parts for the first and second sub-
systems. Two assumptions were made to translate the number to a
monthly cost: First, the piston cylinder and tapped bottom piece of the
sealing mechanism may last for several years, if properly maintained.
Second, the more sensitive parts, the piston (including the two O-rings)
and the other parts of the sealing mechanism should be replaced every 6
months, and their cost is approximately US $8.8. Using these assump­
tions, the total monthly cost of the systems would be approximately US
$1.47. It is noteworthy that (a) the cost of pieces is based on their retail
price in the U.S and (b) the proposed design was not cost-optimized, and
the system can be redesigned in future iterations to make use of less
expensive materials.
4. Conclusions
Providing inexpensive and easy to use household water treatment
devices can play an important role in improving water quality and
availability in rural Africa. Improved water quality, integrated with
community-based changes, has been recently proposed as an effective
intervention to decrease the burden of preventable diarrheal diseases
and improve health. In the present study, we show the applicability of
plant xylem, as a household treatment device. Xylem from different trees
presented effective filtration of E. coli bacteria, with Pine exhibiting the
highest potential. In addition, Pine xylem could remove a large number
of toxic metals, but was ineffective in removing T4 viruses and inorganic
anions. During surface water filtration, xylem was quickly clogged by
suspended solids and organic matter, whereas filtration of groundwater
could produce a large volume of filtered water. Altogether, pine xylem
(and potentially other trees) can be used for household water treatment,
in cases of bacteria and toxic metals contamination of groundwater, or
other water with low suspended and dissolved material. Nonetheless,
when evaluating the applicability of the system, some additional points
should be kept in mind: (i) Final filtration tests should be conducted with
local, abundant trees, to ensure the suitability the specific plant type, (ii)
other harmful contaminants may be present in the water, such as pes­
ticides, which were not tested and (iii) producing 1 L of drinkable water
6
Groundwater for Sustainable Development 18 (2022) 100802
may take more than an hour, which means that the method cannot be
used for immediate drinking.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Zohara Bowker, Sara Hayun and Noa Levin
for their work, and Aviv Kaplan and Dror Avisar for their help with
metals analysis.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.gsd.2022.100802.
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