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Water is one of the most important substances on earth because plants and
animals have used water to survive (Vanloon and Duffy, 2005). It is generally
obtained from two main natural sources, namely surface waters, such as
freshwater lakes, rivers, streams and groundwater, such as borehole water and
well water (McMurry & Fay, 2004; Mendie, 2005). Water use increases with
increasing population, which puts more pressure on these water resources.

Safe and readily available water is important for public health, whether it is used
for drinking, for domestic use, for food production or for recreational purposes.
Better water and sanitation supplies and better water resources management can
boost the economic growth of countries and contribute greatly to poverty
reduction (WHO, 2019). One of the most important environmental problems
today is the contamination of groundwater, which can be physical, chemical,
biological and radiological.

Physical contaminants are sediments or organic matter suspended in the water of

lakes, rivers and streams due to soil erosion. Chemical contaminants are elements
or compounds that can be of natural or human origin, such as nitrogen, bleach,
salts, pesticides, metals, toxins produced by bacteria, human or animal drugs.

Biological contaminants refer to microbes such as bacteria, viruses, protozoa and

parasites, while radiological contaminants are chemical elements with an
unbalanced number of protons and neutrons that result in unstable atoms that
can emit ionizing radiation. such as cesium, plutonium and uranium (Vodela et al.,
1997). According to the World Health Organization, it has been identified that
drinking water supplies worldwide contain thousands of chemicals potentially
harmful to human health in relatively high concentrations (Vikashni et al., 2012).

A group of contaminants are heavy metals that are mainly supplied by

anthropogenic sources, such as the assembly and manufacture of electronic
products, textiles, the use of fertilizers and pesticides and mining activities
(Kalavathy and Miranda, 2010). There are 59 recognized heavy metals where
cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn) are considered
highly toxic (Vikashni et al., 2012).

Even at low concentrations, these heavy metals can be toxic to living organisms,
including humans (Obuseng et al., 2012). In order to solve the problem of water
pollution, natural, cheaper and more environmentally friendly coagulants are
increasingly recognized. Natural coagulants are biodegradable and can be grown
locally. In addition, they produce less mud and are safer for humans compared to
chemical coagulants.

Natural organic polymers have been in use for more than 2000 years in India,
Africa and China as effective coagulants and coagulants in the high turbidity of
water. They can be made from seeds, leaves and roots of plants (Kawamura,
1991). These natural organic polymers are interesting because, compared to the
use of synthetic organic polymers that contain acrylamide monomers, there is no
danger to the health of humans and they are cheaper than conventional
chemicals because they are available locally in most rural communities.

Several effective plant-based coagulants have been identified, including Nirmali,

Okra, red beans, sugar and red corn (Gunaratna et al, 2007), Moringa oleifera
(Jahn, 1988), Cactus latifera and seed powder of Prosopis juliflora (Díaz et al.,
1999). Natural coagulants have a bright future and interest many researchers due
to their abundant sources, their low price, their respect for the environment, their
multifunctional and biodegradable nature in water purification. The turbidity
removal by Cicer arietinum and Moringa oleifera was found to be 90% and 82%,
respectively.

Other research by Patil et al. (2013) have shown that Calotropis procera sheets
and latex can be used in bioremediation of heavy metals. Moringa oleifera is one
of the best natural coagulants reported to date that can be used to replace
conventional methods widely utilized around the world. It is a small, versatile
tropical tree up to 12 meters tall (Araújo et al., 2013).

It is mainly used for food, but it also has many medicinal, industrial and
agricultural uses, including animal feed. The media have called it a “tree of life” or
“miracle tree” (Radovich, 2013; Orwa et al., 2009). The research carried out by
Bodlund (2013) on M. Oleifera revealed that the coagulation activity is similar to
that of alum. M.

Oleifera contains cationic polyelectrolytes which have proved effective in the

treatment of water as a substitute for aluminum sulphate and the flocculation
activities of M. Oleifera adsorb metal cations according to the electrostatic charge
mechanism (Araújo et al ., 2013). 1.2 Statement of the problem The high birth
rate, together with rural-urban migration, has led to a greater dependence on
water resources in the well, which creates problems with adequate and quality
water supply.

If the water in the well is not treated, the chemicals in the water, especially heavy
metals, can become harmful to living organisms. Therefore, the use of natural
coagulants for water purification has been proposed. 1.3 Aims The main aim of
this study is to determine the effect of Moringa oleifera on heavy metal
concentrations in borehole water samples collected from different areas of Abuja
metropolis. 1.4

Objectives of the study The specific objectives of the study are: · To determine
the concentration of heavy metals namely cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), copper
(Cu), lead (Pb) and Nikel (Ni) in of borehole water samples · To determine the
effect of Moringa oleifera on the concentration of the selected heavy metals in
the borehole water samples. CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1

Occurrence of Groundwater The main sources of borehole or groundwater are

meteoric water (precipitation, sleet, snow and hail), juvenile water and Connage
water (Gleick, 1993). Almost all the rocks at the top of the earth's crust have holes
or pores with water or air (vadoze / unsaturated area). At greater depths, all
empty voids are filled with water, this is the saturated zone and, therefore,
groundwater refers only to the saturated zone below the water table. In
consolidated rocks, the only voids can be fractures or cracks.

The volume of water that will flow by gravity from the initially saturated rock
mass to the total volume of this rock is called the specific yield of this material. All
water that is naturally below the surface of the earth, including saturated and
unsaturated areas, is called groundwater (Chapman, 1996). Groundwater is
associated with geological materials that contain soluble minerals; therefore, its
geochemistry varies according to the lithology of the host and the level of the
aquifer (Bruehl, 2011).

Small aquifers are large, but water safety is compromised by limited and low-
quality surface water, restricted access to the aquifer through borehole and
increased demand (Calow et al. 2011). Groundwater with low NO3- and Cl- values
??has areas characterized by confined aquifer conditions, while areas with higher
seasonally variable OD, NO3- and Cl- are characterized by unconfined aquifer
conditions (Heejun and Kang-Kun, 1997). Limestone soils and rocks release
calcium ions to groundwater.

Materials containing iron sulfide-releasing iron. Granites release fluoride in the

groundwater, while connate and fossil water contributes to the chlorides in the
water. In general, the ion concentration increases with depth with the exception
of nitrates (Foster and Hirata, 1988). 2.2

Water Quality Water quality alludes to the characteristics of water (Diersing,

2009). It gauges the state of water comparative with the necessities of at least
one biotic animal varieties and additionally to any human need or reason
(Johnson et al., 1997).

Water quality is most regularly utilized by reference to a lot of models against

which consistence, by and large accomplished through the treatment of water,
can be surveyed. 2.2.1 Importance of Water Quality Safe water is a precondition
for health and advancement and a fundamental human right, yet it is still
prevented to hundreds from claiming a huge number of individuals all through
the creating scene.

Water-related diseases brought about by lacking safe water supplies combined

with poor sanitation also, hygiene cause 3.4 million passings every year, for the
most part among kids. Regardless of proceeding endeavors by governments,
common social orders and the universal network, over a billion individuals
despite everything don't approach improved water sources (WHO, 2011). The
scale of the issue of water quality is considerably larger.

It is progressively evident that numerous of the current improved sources in

creating nations don't provide water of satisfactory quality for domestic
purposes. A notable case of this is the broad defilement of cylinder wells with
normally happening arsenic in Asia. As genuine as this and different instances of
compound tainting are, the chief reason for concern is microbiological tainting,
particularly from excrement.

While groundwater is for the most part of a lot higher microbiological quality
than surface water, an expanding number of sources what's more, frameworks
utilized by individuals for drinking and cooking water are not enough secured
from faecal pollution. This is because of an assortment of variables, including
populace weight, urbanization and the insufficient development, activity and
support of water systems (WHO, 2011). 2.2.2 Effects of Poor Water Quality An
expected 1.1 billion individuals need access to an improved water source.

More than 3 million individuals, for the most part, beyond words from water-
related diseases. Very nearly 2 million of these deaths are the consequence of
diarrhoeal diseases, which are brought about by the ingestion of water
contaminated by fecal issue, just as by lacking sanitation and hygiene.

Contaminated water assets can likewise add to the spread of diseases brought
about by skin contact or by vectors (West, 2006; Pink, 2006). Notwithstanding
causing direct health impacts, risky drinking water has various unobtrusive or on
the other hand roundabout unfavorable health impacts. Youngsters debilitated
by visit looseness of the bowels scenes are bound to be genuinely influenced by
ailing health and entrepreneurial contaminations, (for example, pneumonia), and
they can be left truly hindered for the remainder of their lives.

Furthermore, interminable utilization of perilous drinking water can prompt

lasting psychological harm. Individuals with traded off invulnerable frameworks,
(for example, individuals living with HIV/AIDS) are less ready to oppose or
recuperate from water-borne diseases. Pathogens which may cause minor side
effects in healthy individuals can be lethal for the invulnerable traded off. 2.2.3

Borehole Site Selection Placing the wells away from any potential source of
contamination prevents contamination of the water. (Akpoveta, 2011). The
assessment of the type and loads of pollutants transported from the landfill to
the adjacent aquifer and the extension of the leachate enclosures in groundwater
are used for the study of the site and the positioning of the boreholes according
geophysical measurements and positioning obtained from the Bayesian expert
system for modeling flow fields (Abbaspour et al., 2000). 2.2.4
Purification of groundwater by soil When water passes through porous, fine-
grained media such as soil and rocks, impurities are removed by filtration Some
substances react with minerals in the soil / rock and others oxidize and
precipitate from solution (Homsby, 1999). Adsorption can also occur in clay or
organic (Adekunle et al., 2007).

According to Vladimir (2003), the ability to retain, adsorb detoxifying and

immobilizing micro-contaminants such as nutrients, organic chemicals and
metals is not constant. Land use can affect the soil's retention potential for micro-
contaminants high organic matter. The content of the soil has a high potential for
retaining micro-contaminants (Vegter, 1995).

The organic matter content leads to a high potential for retention of micro-
contaminants. There is a decrease in organic carbon when the soil becomes
sterile (MacDonald et al., 2005). Movement of pathogens through unconsolidated
strata to deep water supply wells is unlikely (Kinniburg and Edmunds, 1986).

Physical barriers can be used to contain contaminants from groundwater of

underground origin. The design of these barriers normally emphasizes the
achievement of low hydraulic conductivity to reduce the advective transport of
pollutants (Hillel and Rabideau, 2000). 2.2.4

Recommended Distance Between Domestic Water Wells and Sources of Pollution

Pollutants have the ability of moving through soil particles to contaminate
groundwater. Floor Purification processes can be interrupted, making
groundwater very susceptible to contamination. Hence the need to locate wells
and wells at the recommended safe distances from potential contaminants (Table
2.1). Table 2.1: Safe Distance between Boreholes/Wells and Source of
Contaminants Source of Pollution Safe Distance (m) for Borehole/Well Location
Septic tank 15 Latrines 45 Cemetery 250 Sewage farms 30 Infiltration ditches 30
Percolation zone 30 Pipes with watertight joints 3 Other pipes 15 Dry wells 15
Source: Romero (1970) 2.3

Groundwater quality The quality of water is vital for humanity, because it is

directly linked to human well-being. According to Ranjana (2010), the quality of
public health depends to a greater extent on the quality of groundwater.
Although it is believed that the quality of groundwater is quite good compared
to surface water, its quality is the sum of natural: the geology of the environment
and anthropogenic influences: extraction, change of land use and solid waste
disposal (Chapman, 1996).
Water quality parameters reflect the level of contamination of water resources
and show whether the water is fit for human consumption. Contaminated water is
unacceptable due to the health effects, poor taste and aesthetic value for
consumers (Suthra et al., 2009). 2.4 Microbiological contamination Pathogens are
referred to as microorganisms that can cause disease in humans.

They are classified under three categories: bacteria, viruses and parasites. Bacteria
are single-celled organisms, usually 1 to 5 µm (1000 µm = 1 mm). Viruses are
genetic materials covered with proteins that lack many cellular structures and are
much smaller in size than bacteria in most cases from 10 to 300 nm (1000 nm = 1
µm). Parasites are referred to as single-celled organisms that invade the intestinal
lining of their hosts.

The two major types of parasites are helminths and protozoa. Parasites have a
complex life cycle, and most of them at some point possess protective cysts or
eggs (4-100 µm), which can survive outside the host's body. Diseases are
generally classified by class of pathogens in medical texts.

However, for the public it is more useful to follow Bradley's classification (White
et al., 1972) which is depends on the transmission routes in the environment
(Table 2.2). The advantage of this classification system is that it is easy to see
which interventions can reduce the incidence of different water-related diseases.
2.5

Diseases Caused by Water Usage 2.5.1 Water-Borne Diseases Waterborne

diseases are diseases caused by the ingestion of water contaminated by human
or animal faeces or by pathogens that contain urine. Many bacteria, viruses,
protozoa and parasites can cause diseases when ingested.

Most of these pathogens are derived from human or animal feces, and are
transmitted through the fecal-oral route. Although both animal and human
faeces are a threat to health, the latter is generally more dangerous. Fecal
pathogens can be classified as causing waterborne and water-washed diseases,
according to the National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases
(NCEZID, 2011). Table 2.2: Bradley Classification System for Water-Related
Diseases Category Example Intervention Water-borne Diarrhoeal disease,
dysentery, cholera, typhoid, infectious hepatitis Improve drinking-water quality,
prevent casual use of unprotected sources Water-washed Diarrhoeal disease,
cholera, dysentery, trachoma, scabies, skin and eye infections, ARI (acute
respiratory infections) Increase water quantity used Improve hygiene Water-
based Schistosomiasis, guinea worm Reduce need for contact with contaminated
water, reduce surface water contamination Water-related (insect vector) Malaria,
onchocerciasis, dengue fever, Gambian sleeping sickness Improve surface water
management, destroy insect breeding sites, use mosquito netting Sources: Luby
(2003); Cairncross (2003); Rabie and Curtis (2006) 2.5.2

Water-Washed Diseases Water-washed diseases are the diseases brought about

by lacking utilization of water for domestic and individual hygiene. Control of
water-washed diseases relies more upon the amount of water than the quality.
Most diarrhoeal diseases are viewed as water-washed and water-borne. The four
significant sorts of water-washed diseases are soil-transmitted helminths; acute
respiratory infections (ARI); skin and eye diseases and diseases brought about by
bugs, lice, vermin or ticks.

For these, washing and improved individual hygiene assume a significant job in
preventing the transmission of disease (NCEZID, 2011). 2.5.3 Water-Based
Diseases Water-based diseases are contaminations brought about by parasitic
pathogens found in aquatic host organisms (Dziuban et al., 2006). Models
incorporate Schistosomiasis (snail fever or bilharzias) and Guinea-worm. 2.5.4

Water-Related Diseases Water-related diseases are brought about by insect

vectors which either breed in water or live close to water. These diseases are not
directly identified with drinking-water quality. However, thought of vector control
during the plan, development and activity of surface water supplies and
waterways (for drinking water or irrigation purposes) can lessen the danger of
water-related disease transmission. The most well-known vector insects are
mosquitoes and flies (NCEZID, 2011).

Mosquito-borne diseases incorporate intestinal sickness, yellow fever, dengue

fever and filariasis while fly-borne diseases incorporate onchocerciasis,
trypanosomiasis, Leishmaniasis and Loiasis. 2.6 Chemical Contamination Water
quality organizers have traditionally centered around guaranteeing that drinking
water is microbiologically safe for drinking.

This emphasis was, and still is, advocated by the serious health risk presented by
microbiological pollution of drinking water and the fact that numerous people
get access to water that is plainly unsanitary. However, the chemical quality of
drinking water cannot be underestimated. Yet, in many water supply ventures, the
main chemical parameters tried are pH, and maybe iron and chloride, due to the
aesthetic issues these parameters can cause.

It is progressively recognized that chemical pollution of drinking-water resources

can truly harm health. Unlike microbiological contamination, chemical
contamination can lead to health problems primarily through chronic exposure.
WHO (2004), has built up a valuable classification system based on classes of
contaminant sources, as opposed to chemical characteristics.

The significant classes of chemical contaminants are naturally occurring, industrial

sources and human homes just as agricultural activities. 2.6.1 Naturally Occurring
Chemicals WHO (2006) set up guideline values for 9 compounds that can occur
naturally in water. These chemicals are of particular concern since the area of
contamination can be quite large, and because contamination can go unnoticed
in the absence of a testing program. 2.6.1.1

Arsenic (As) Arsenic in drinking water is a worldwide risk to health, possibly

affecting around 140 million individuals in at any rate 70 nations around the
world (Ravenscroft, 2008). It is considered by a few specialists to have more
genuine health repercussions than some other natural contaminant (Smith, 2007).
Arsenic occurs naturally in rocks and soils, with typical concentrations of about 2-
10 mg/kg.

Igneous rocks will in general have low arsenic content, while shales, coals and
volcanic rocks have more significant levels. Arsenic is regularly found close to
deposits of sulfide minerals and metal deposits of metals, for example, tin and
gold. In unconsolidated sediments, arsenic is principally found in fine parts,
related with metal oxides (particularly iron) and to a lesser degree, clay minerals.

Arsenic can occur in drinking water at levels up to a few mg/L, either as the
reduced species Asm (arsenite) or the oxidized structure, AsV (arsenate). Asm is
uncharged (H3AsO3) under natural conditions, and as such is more mobile than
AsV (H2AsO4- or HAsO42). Contamination can occur in surface water, but is more
common in groundwater. 2.6.1.2

Barium (Ba) Barium is found naturally in the rock, with an average of 250 mg / kg
in the continental crust. Barium is positively charged in water (Ba2+) and usually
occurs at less than 0.1 mg / L, although natural concentrations in groundwater
may exceed 1 mg / L. There is no evidence that barium is carcinogenic, but
chronic exposure can cause hypertension in humans, leading to a GV of 0.7 mg /
L.
Short-term exposure to high levels of barium can also cause gastrointestinal
upset and muscle weakness. 2.6.1.3 Boron (B) The concentration of boron in rocks
is on average 10 mg / kg, with up to 100 mg / kg in sedimentary rocks, shales
and coal deposits. Like arsenite (Asm), boron is mainly neutral (H3BO3) in water
but can carry a negative charge (H3BO3-) at high pH (> 9).

Boron levels in natural waters vary widely and depend on local geology and
geochemical conditions, although local industrial inputs may be important.
Ocean water contains relatively high levels of boron (4-5 mg / L), and boron in
surface waters is very variable, although concentrations above 1 mg / L are rare.
Groundwater levels vary more widely <0.3 to more than 100 mg / L.

Aquifers in internal basins may have boron levels due to concentration by

evaporation and in coastal areas, salt water intrusion may cause contamination of
freshwater aquifers. Overall, the average concentration of boron in drinking water
is estimated to be between 0.1 and 0.3 mg / L. In most cases, the main source of
human exposure is from food, with an average daily intake of around 1.2. 2.6.1.4

Chromium (Cr) Chromium is seen as a trace metal that occurs naturally in several
forms in the environment. The most important are the trivalent (CrIII) and
hexavalent (CrVI) species. These two forms have different physical properties and
health impacts, but drinking water standards are typically made for total
chromium.

CrIII is relatively non-toxic, and is an essential trace element for humans. In water,
the main dissolved species are the neutral Cr(OH)3 and Cr(OH)2+, though levels
are quite low due to the low solubility of solid Cr(OH)3. Naturally occurring
chromium is almost always present as CrIII though relatively few data are
available describing speciation of Cr in natural waters.

In contrast, CrVI has very severe health impacts on humans and occurs almost
exclusively from industrial sources such as ferrochrome production,
electroplating, pigment production, and tanning. Coal plants and waste
incinerators can also release CrVI to the environment. In water, CrVI forms
negatively charged species (HCrO4- or CrO42-), which are relatively mobile.
2.6.1.5

Fluoride (F) Fluoride, along with arsenic, is one of the most severe chemical
contaminants that occur naturally in drinking water. Fluoride is a fairly common
element, with an average concentration of 300 mg / kg, found in the earth's crust;
Granite, gneiss and pegmatite. It may contain significant amounts of fluorite
(CaF2). The fluoride can also be concentrated in deposits of coal or evaporite
such as gypsum and fluorite.

Fluoride concentrations have been observed to increase along groundwater

streams, due to rock-water interactions. Alkaline waters (pH> 7.5) and the
presence of other anions (for example, bicarbonate) increase the mobility of
fluoride by displacing fluoride from clay and other mineral surfaces. 2.6.1.6
Manganese (Mn) Manganese is one of the most abundant elements in the earth's
crust.

It occurs in quite a number of forms, with MnII dominating in anaerobic

environments, and MnIV in the presence of oxygen. MnIV forms an insoluble
black precipitate, while MnII is quite soluble as Mn+2. Surface water generally
contains low levels of manganese (< 0.1 mg/L). Anaerobic groundwater can
contain much higher levels, even above 1 mg/L.

Dissolved manganese is often associated with iron, which is also soluble under
anaerobic conditions. 2.6.1.7 Molybdenum (Mo) Molybdenum is an uncommon
element in rocks and soils, with a global abundance of 1 mg/kg. It is an essential
trace nutrient for plants and animals, and is mostly used as an additive in
agriculture.

It can also be used in the manufacture of steels, pigments and lubricants.

Molybdenum is an essential trace element for humans, but there is relatively little
information about possible toxic effects at higher exposures. Molybdenum levels
in drinking water are generally below 0.01 mg/L.

Molybdenum, like arsenic and boron, forms a negatively charged species in water
(MoO42-) and is relatively mobile in groundwater. 2.6.1.8 Selenium (Se) Selenium
is a trace element found in rocks with an average concentration of less than 1
mg/kg. Sedimentary rocks (limestone, shales) may contain up to 100 mg/kg,
while levels up to several thousand mg/kg have been reported in some coal
deposits.

Industrial sources of selenium are minor, though mining operations can release
significant amounts to the environment. Natural levels of selenium in drinking
water are generally below 0.01 mg/L. A garlicky odour can be noted in waters
containing 0.01-0.03 mg/L Se. The dominant species in water are all negatively
charged: SeIV (selenite: HSeO3-, SeO32-) and SeVI (selenate: SeO4-2).

Selenium is thought to be an essential trace nutrient for humans, and a large

number of conditions have been linked to selenium deficiency, including Keshan
disease, a heart condition which affects children. The recommended daily intake
for adults is about 1 µg/kg of body weight, which in most cases is met through
food intake. 2.6.1.9 Uranium (U) Uranium usually occur naturally in rocks and
sediments, with an average concentration in soils and rocks of 3 mg/kg.

Elevated levels are sometimes found in shales and granites. Drinking water
typically contains up to 0.003 mg/L U, though levels of up to 0.78 mg/L have
been reported (UNEP, 2003). Natural uranium occurs as a mixture of three
isotopes: 238U is the dominant fraction, with 235U and 234U contributing 0.72%
and 0.0054% respectively. All three isotopes decay by both alpha and gamma
emissions.

Depleted uranium (DU) contains only about a quarter as much 235U and 234U
and as such is approximately 40% less radioactive than natural uranium. 2.6.2
Chemicals from Industrial Sources and Human Dwellings 2.6.2.1 Cadmium (Cd)
Cadmium is utilized in metal plating, plastics, batteries and pigments. It causes
cancer when inhaled, but there is no evidence that ingestion through drinking
water makes it cancerogenic. 2.6.2.2

Cyanide (CN) Cyanide is widely applied in metal finishing and the production of
plastics such as nylon. Cyanide is acutely toxic, primarily affecting the thyroid and
the nervous system. Cyanide occurs naturally in some foods such as cassava, but
is rarely found in drinking water except due to industrial contamination. 2.6.2.3

Mercury (Hg) Mercury is utilized in the electrolytic production of chlorine; in

electrical appliances such as dry-cell batteries, fluorescent light bulbs and
switches; and in thermometers. Natural contamination rarely occurs in
groundwater. An Ingestion of mercury causes serious damage to the brain,
kidneys, and the nervous system. Organic mercury compounds are more toxic
than inorganic mercury, but almost all mercury in uncontaminated drinking water
is thought to be in the inorganic form.

The guideline value is now given for inorganic mercury, not total mercury. 2.6.2.4
Other Inorganic Compounds Perchlorate (ClO4-), the main explosive substance in
rockets and missiles, is a powerful thyroid toxin, which contaminates groundwater
and soil. World Health Organization does not have a determined reference value
for perchlorate, but USEPA is considering setting a standard of 1 µg / L.

Beryllium, a metal used in the manufacture of metal alloys, can cause lung cancer
when inhaled, but there is little data on its toxicity when ingested. World Health
Organization has not established a reference value for beryllium because it is
unlikely to be found in drinking water. Similarly, World Health Organization
considers another toxic metal, thallium, which is unlikely to occur in drinking
water.

World Health Organization lists the reference values ??for various hydrocarbon
products and solvents used in the home and industry. Chelating agents may also
have indicative values, because the ingestion may lead to unhealthy deficiencies
of trace metals such as zinc. In recent years it has been recognized that
pharmaceutical products and personal care (PPSP) can be released into the
environment, especially by wastewater streams.

Many of these biochemically active compounds are not removed with

conventional water treatment, and can potentially reach drinking water supplies.
In most cases, the concentrations in drinking water are too low to directly
threaten human health. However, these compounds can represent a considerable
environmental threat, in some cases mimicking natural hormones and disrupting
the normal growth of aquatic animals (Daughton and Ternes, 1999). 2.6.3
Chemicals from Agricultural Activities The most common chemicals used in
agriculture are pesticides and fertilizers.

Contamination of drinking water resources may result from land application or

from improper disposal. 2.6.3.1 Nitrate and nitrite (NO3- and NO2-) When
nitrogen fertilizer is applied to crops, nitrate (NO3-) can filter into shallow
aquifers or be washed into surface waters. Disposal of human or animal waste is
also a source of nitrate.

Nitrate can be converted to nitrite (NO2-) by the effect of bacteria in surface

water, groundwater, piped distribution systems or the body system. Both nitrate
and nitrite are very mobile in water; and groundwater typically contains higher
levels than surface water. Since nitrate is used in all fertilizers, contamination of
water resources is relatively common.

Some drinking-water utilities use chloramines rather than free chlorine for
disinfection, to avoid formation of trihalomethanes in distribution systems. In
chloraminated systems, microbial activity in the distribution system may lead to
sporadic nitrification episodes, resulting in elevated levels of nitrite. 2.6.3.2
Pesticides Pesticides are substances that controls pests.

Pesticides may enter surface water or groundwater primarily as runoff following

application to crops, though inappropriate disposal or accidental release can also
cause contamination (Randall, 2014). The potential of a pesticide to contaminate
drinking water is affected by its solubility and biodegradability; the method of
application; and environmental factors such as soil, weather, season and
proximity to water resources. 2.7 Water Treatment According to Suarez (et al.,

2005), water treatment usually comprises of water clarification and disinfection

processes. In traditional water treatment, a series of processes including
coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, filtration and disinfection are often
involved (AWWA, 1990). A combination of several processes is usually needed to
improve the quality of borehole water depending on the type of water quality
problems present, the desired quality of the treated water, the costs of different
treatments and the size of the water system (Kalibbala, 2007). 2.7.1

Coagulation and Flocculation Treatment of water to remove turbidity is essential

for large- and small-scale (e.g. household) production of drinking water. The
removal of turbidity in water treatment process is essential because naturally
suspended particles are transport vehicles for undesirable organic and inorganic
contaminants, taste-, odour- and colour-imparting compounds and pathogenic
organisms (Raghuwanshi et al., 2002).

The turbidity of water often results from the presence of colloidal particles that
have a net negative surface charge. Thus, electrostatic forces prevent them from
agglomerating, making it impossible to remove them by sedimentation without
the aid of coagulants, which carry counter-ions. Hydrolysing metal salts based on
aluminium or iron, also known as primary coagulants, are very widely used in
conventional water treatment processes (Diaz et al.,

1999). The high cationic charge of these two metal salts makes them effective in
destabilizing colloids. They act by neutralizing the negative charges of stable
colloidal particles (coagulation) and are followed by the addition of organic
coagulants which improve the collision of particles and the agglomeration of
neutral particles to form dense flocculations (flocculation) which can install easily.

The destabilization of colloidal particles in water is obtained by adsorption and

neutralization of the charge, adsorption and bridging between particles,
entangled in a precipitate and double layer compression (Gregory and Duan,
2001). In addition to inorganic coagulants (aluminum and iron salts), water-
soluble organic polymers, also called polyelectrolytes, are used in the treatment
of water to remove turbidity. Polyelectrolytes can be natural or synthetic and can
be used as primary coagulants and coagulants (Sanky, 1978; Hashimoto et al.,
1991).

Primary polyelectrolyte coagulants are cationic with high charge density and low
molecular weight, whereas synthetic polyelectrolyte coagulants have relatively
high molecular weights and facilitate flocculation across the bridge between
particles (Gregory and Duan, 2001). Although polyelectrolytes are more expensive
than aluminum and iron salts in terms of material costs, overall operating costs
may be lower due to the less need for pH adjustment, lower sludge volumes,
without increase in total dissolved solids. in treated water and less settling time.
2.7.2

Factors affecting Coagulation and Flocculation Coagulation and flocculation

processes depend on many interdependent factors, which sometimes makes
process optimization tedious. These factors include the characteristics of the
water source, the pH of the raw water, the alkalinity and the temperature, the
type of coagulant and coagulants and their order of addition, the coagulant dose
rates the degree and mixing time expected for chemical dispersion and scale
formation (Kalibbala, 2007).

For water with low alkalinity, the coagulant can consume almost all available
alkalinity, which reduces the pH to a level that prevents effective treatment, while
water with high alkalinity may require additional chemicals to lower the pH to
favorable values for coagulation Although the low temperature affects the
coagulation and flocculation process by altering the solubility of the coagulant,
increasing the viscosity of the water and delaying the kinetics of hydrolysis
reactions and flocculation of particles. Poly-aluminum coagulants are more
effective in cold water than alum because they are prehydrolyzed.

To obtain an effective coagulation, an appropriate mixture is also necessary to

allow the active coagulation species to be transferred to cloudy water particles. A
suitable mixture after adding coagulants to the raw water facilitates the optimal
removal of fine particles from the supernatant. In fact, very fine particles are
transformed into aggregates in good mixing conditions (Kan et al., 2002). 2.7.3

Health Risks associated with Chemical Coagulation and Flocculation Although

water treatment chemicals are effective and used worldwide, scientific evidences
show that exposure to chemicals during coagulation with metal salts could be
associated with adverse health effects (Driscoll and Letterman, 1995). Aluminium,
which is the major component of aluminium sulphate (alum), polyaluminium
chloride (PAC) and polyaluminium silico sulphate (PASS), could induce
Alzheimer's disease and other similar related problems that are associated with
residual aluminium in treated water (AWWA, 1990).

Moreover, monomers of some synthetic organic polymers such as acrylamide

have neurotoxicity and strong carcinogenic properties (Hashimoto et al., 1991).
2.7.4 Traditional Natural Coagulants The use of natural materials for treatment of
drinking water in some parts of the world has been recorded throughout human
history. However, the natural materials have not been recognised or duly
supported due to lack of knowledge on their exact nature and the mechanism by
which they function.

As a consequence, natural materials have been unable to compete effectively

with the commonly used water chemicals (Ndabigengesere and Narasiah, 1998).
In recent years, there has been a resurgence of interest in using naturally
occurring alternatives to currently used coagulants for water treatment in
developing countries (Jahn, 1988).

This is attributed to cost implications that are associated with inorganic

chemicals, synthetic organic polymers and disinfectants (Schultz and Okun, 1984;
Ndabigengesere and Narasiah, 1995). There is also an interest in re-using some
of the by-products from natural coagulants in other enterprises (Kawamura,
1991). Traditionally, treatment of turbid surface water sources is carried out at
household level using local materials of plant or animal origin (Jahn, 2001).

For example, rural people in Sudan and Malawi, who depend on muddy water
from rivers or intermittent streams, natural rain ponds and artificial rain-water
catchments for domestic water supply, treat water fetched from such sources
using Moringa seeds and other plant and soil materials. In India, crushed seeds of
the nirmali tree (Strychnos potatorum) have been used for centuries to clarify
muddy water (Tripathi et al., 1976).

In Peru, villagers clarify turbid water using cactus leaves and 'tuna' (e.g. Opuntia
ficusindica Mill.). Traditional water treatment using crushed or chopped Maerua
pseudopetalosa (kordala) roots is practised in some parts of Sudan. In Northern
Chad and villages around Maiduguri in Northern Nigeria, people use wood ash as
a natural water coagulant (Jahn, 2001).

Knowledge on natural coagulants is widespread in many parts of the developing

world and therefore there is good potential for such knowledge to be used
efficiently provided concerted efforts can be devoted to maximising their
performance through research. 2.7.5 Performance of Natural Coagulants Studies
have been conducted to evaluate coagulation efficiency of many plant materials
including extract of Moringa seeds (Ndabigengesere et al., 1995; Ndabigengesere
and Narasiah, 1998; Babu and Chaudhuri, 2005; Ghebremichael et al., 2005;
Bhuptawat et al.,

2007); okra and nirmali seeds (Al-Samawi and Shokralla, 1996); tamarind seeds
(Bhole,1995); extracts of Prosopis juliflora and Cactus latifaria (Diaz et al., 1999);
and vegetable tannins (Özacar and ?engil, 2003). The coagulation potential of
chitosan, one of the effective natural coagulants extracted from the organic
skeletal substance in the shells of crustacean has been studied (Huang et al.,
2000; Divakaran and Pillai, 2004). The crude extract of M. Oleifera seed is the
most extensively studied natural coagulant. 2.8

Moringa oleifera Moringa oleifera plant is used in different ways as a domestic

cleaning agent (crushed leaves), blue dye (wood), fencing (living trees), fertilizer
(seed-cake) (Emmannuel et al., 2011a and b). The plant is also employed as a
foliar nutrient (juice expressed from the leaves), green manure (from leaves), gum
(from tree trunks), honey- and sugar cane juice-clarifier (powdered seeds), honey
(flower nectar), medicine (all plant parts), ornamental plantings, bio-pesticide (soil
incorporation of leaves to prevent seedling damping off), pulp (wood), rope
(bark), tannin for tanning hides (bark and gum) and water purification (powdered
seeds). M.

oleifera seed oil (yield 30-40% by weight), also known as Ben oil, is a sweet non-
sticky, non-drying oil that resists rancidity. It has been used in salads, for fine
machine lubrication, and in the manufacture of perfume and hair care products
(Tsaknis et al., 1999). 2.9 Uses of M. oleifera 2.9.1 Human Consumption of M.
oleifera M. oleifera leaves are highly nutritious.

The young leaves are edible and are commonly cooked and eaten like spinach or
used to make soups and salads. The leaves can be consumed either in raw,
cooked or dried over a screen for several days and ground into a fine powder
that can be added to almost any food as a nutrient supplement (Makkar and
Becker, 1996), such as pap, cereals and drinks to improve their nutritive value
(Gardener and Ellen, 2002).

The leaves which were boiled resulted in three times more bio-available iron than
the raw leaves. These results were also seen in the powdered Moringa leaves. The
protein quality of Moringa leaves compares very well with that of milk and eggs
(Gardener and Ellen, 2002). On other hand, in 100 g dry matter, they contain 29 g
of protein, 28 mg of iron, 1.924 mg of calcium, 15.62 IU of vitamin A and 773 mg
of vitamin C.

This is at least twice the protein in milk and half the protein in egg, and has more
iron than in beef, more calcium than in milk, equal vitamin A to carrot and more
vitamin C than in orange (Wangcharoen and Gomolmanee, 2013). Moringa is the
sole genus of the flowering plant Moringacea with 13 species out of which are
Moringa oleifera, Moringa stenopetala, Moringa peregrine and Moringa
doughardii.

Moringa leaves contain seven times the vitamin C of oranges, four times the
vitamin A of carrots, four times the calcium of milk, three times the potassium of
bananas and two times the protein in yoghurt (Gopalan et al., 1989). In addition
to these vitamins and minerals, one of the most significant benefits of M. Oleifera
is the ability of this plant to provide as much as 27.1 g of protein (nearly one-
third of the edible portion); containing all of the essential amino acids.

These leaves could be a great booster to people who do not get protein from
animal source such as milk and egg. It also contains arginine and histidine, the
two amino acids especially important for infants (Gopalan et al., 1989). Dried M.
Oleifera leaf powder in capsules has become a popular food supplement for
many in Thailand (Wangcharoen and Gomolmanee, 2011). 2.9.2 Industrial Uses of
M.

Oleifera Oil The oil content of the seed without shell (grain) is approximately 42%.
The oil is bright yellow. It is used as a lubricant for fine machinery as watch parts
because it has little tendency to deteriorate and become rancid and sticky
(Ramachandran et al., 1980). It is also useful as vegetable oil for cooking and
frying.

The oil is known for its ability to absorb and retain volatile substances and,
therefore, is valuable in the perfume industry to stabilize aromas. The content of
free fatty acids varies from 0.5 to 3%. Moringa seed oil contains approximately
13% saturated fatty acids and 82% unsaturated fatty acids. It has a particularly
high level of oleic acid (70%). Other vegetable oils usually contain only about
40% oleic acid. 2.9.3

Water Purification using Moringa oleifera Moringa seeds contain between 30-
42% oil and the pressed cake obtained as a byproduct of the oil extraction
process contains a very high level of protein (Olsen, 1987). Some of these
proteins (approximately 1%) are active cationic polyelectrolytes that have
molecular weights between 7-17 KDa (Olsen, 1987).

Cationic polyelectrolytes neutralize colloids in murky or dirty waters, since most

of these colloids have a negative electrical charge. Therefore, this protein can be
used as a non-toxic natural polypeptide to sediment mineral and organic
particles in the purification of drinking water, to clean vegetable oil or to
sediment fibers in the juice and beer industries.

Therefore, it functions as a primary coagulant since natural bridges continuously

form between colloid particles. In contrast, industrial coagulants such as alumina
can be toxic. Its proper use requires qualified personnel and most
underdeveloped countries do not have the means to produce them.

In addition, these industrial coagulants are expensive and represent a

considerable drainage of the foreign exchange reserves of developing countries.
It has been used with particular efficiency both in Egypt and in Sudan to clean
Nile water specifically for human consumption (Berger et al., 1984). 2.9.4 Moringa
oleifera as Plant Growth Enhancers The extract obtained from Moringa leaves in
80% ethanol contains principles that enhance growth (hormones of the cytokinin
type). The extract can be used as a foliar spray to accelerate the growth of young
plants.

The use of growth hormone spray will also make plants firmer and more resistant
to pests and diseases. The plants treated with this growth hormone spray
produced more and more fruits and, consequently, had a higher yield at the time
of harvest (Makkar and Becker, 1996; Al-Kharusi et al., 2009).

Spraying the leaves of the plants with the Moringa extract prepared in 80%
ethanol and then diluted with water produced some notable effects, such as a
longer and more vigorous shelf life, heavier stems and leaves, larger fruits and
levels Higher sugar The extract produced a general increase in yield of between
20-35% based on data such as stem diameter, number of nodules, number of
pixels, number of flower buds and number of fruits per button (Makkar and
Becker , nineteen ninety six).

CHAPTER THREE MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 Study Area Abuja is the capital
city of Nigeria and is located in the centre of the country within latitude 7 45' and
7 39' in the Federal Capital Territory (FCT). Abuja is a well-planned city and was
declared capital of Nigeria in December 1991 (Figure 3.1).

At the 2006 Population Census, the city of Abuja had a population of 776,298,
making it one of the 10 most populous cities in Nigeria. 3.2 Sampling Locations
and Collection of Samples Borehole water samples were systematically collected
into sterile plastic bottles from 5 different areas of Abuja Metropolis, Nigeria.
These areas are Zuba, Apo, Kugbu, Idu, and Mpape. The samples were collected
during the month of November, 2019.

Each borehole was flushed for 3 minutes to remove any externally induced
contamination. The borehole taps were disinfected with Sodium Hypochlorite
(NaOCl) and neutralized with sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3) to eliminate any
contamination due to anthropogenic activity or any external natural occurrence.
Glass water bottles (250 mls) were sterilized by addition of Sodium thiosulphate
(0.1 ml).

The boreholes were then pumped to fill the sterile water bottles leaving an air
space of 2.5 cm to create space for oxygen; the bottles were marked for
identification using the labels for each borehole. The bottles were then moved to
the laboratory in an insulated box to prevent the effect of external factors like
high temperatures from changing some of the water parameters. Analysis
commenced within 12 hours of sampling. Figure 3.1: Map of Abuja, Nigeria 3.3

Collection and Authentication of Moringa oleifera Seeds Fresh seeds of Moringa

oleifera (MO) were collected from a farm located in Bwari, Abuja in October,
2019. The seeds were appropriately identified and authenticated at the
Herbarium Unit of the Department of Plant Biology, University of Ilorin, Nigeria
and tagged with appropriate voucher number. Specimen samples were thereafter
prepared and deposited accordingly at the University Herbarium. 3.4

Preparation of Moringa oleifera Seed Extract MO seed samples were thoroughly

rinsed under running tap water followed by distilled water to cleanse them
completely of dirt, dust and debris. The seeds were thereafter shade-dried for 7
days to a constant weight and the dried samples were milled to a fine powder
using a blender. For the preparation of extract, 20 g of the powdered sample was
extracted in 200 mL of distilled water for 24 h.

This was followed by 2 h orbital shaking at 200 rpm to allow for maximum
extraction before filtration using Whatman No. 1 filter paper. The filtrate was
dried on a water bath at 45°C and the resulting extract was weighed and
transferred into sample bottles for storage in a refrigerator at 4oC until required
for use as a coagulant. 3.5

Treatment of Water Samples with Moringa oleifera Seed Extract Borehole water
sample (1 L) from each of the 5 study areas (Zuba, Apo, Kugbu, Idu, and Mpape)
was measured separately in a 2 L flask followed by the addition of 0.5 g of MO
seed extract. The set up was monitored for 48 hours to determine the effect of
MO seed extract on the levels of heavy metals in the borehole water samples. 3.6

Preparation of Metal Standard Solution Different concentrations (0 mg/L, 1 mg/L,

2 mg/L and 4 mg/L) of cadmium, copper, lead, nickel and chromium solutions
were prepared for calibration curve. A drop of nitric acid was added to the
solution for preservation (Vikashni et al. 2012). 3.7 Determination of Heavy Metal
Concentration The concentration of heavy metal was done by using Atomic
Absorption Spectrometer (AAnalyst 400, Perkin Elmer).

Calibration curve for each type of metal was obtained from the stock solution
prepared from each standard at different concentrations. The water samples
(before and after treatment) were appropriately digested and filtered using a
vacuum pump through a nylon membrane filter (0.45 ?m) before analysed using
AAS (Ali et al. 2014). Cr was analyzed at a wavelength of 357.9 nm (lamp current
of 20 amp), Cd was also analyzed at a wavelength of 228.8

nm (lamp current of 18 amp), Cu was analyzed at a wavelength of 324.8 nm (lamp

current of 15 amp), Pb was analyzed at a wavelength of 283.3 nm (lamp current
of 23 amp) while Ni was analyzed at a wavelength of 243 nm (lamp current of 30
amp). 3.8 Statistical Analysis The data obtained from the study were analyzed
using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with the help of the software, IBM
Statistical Product and Service Solution (SPSS) version 21.0. Further test for level
of significance was done using Duncan Multiple Range test. The p value of less
than 0.05 (p < 0.05) was considered significant for all the data. CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1

Results The concentration of copper in the borehole water samples before and
after treatment MO aqueous seed extract is presented in Table 4.1. The data
indicated a significant (p<0.05) reduction in copper concentration following
treatment with MO aqueous seed extract. Copper concentration in borehole
water sample from Zuba was found to be significantly higher when compared to
the other samples analyzed. Table 4.1: Copper Concentration in Water Samples
before and after Treatment with MO Aqueous Seed Extract
______________________________________________________________________________ Copper
Concentration (mg/L) ________________________________________________ Borehole
Water Sample Before Treatment After Treatment -
_____________________________________________________________________________ Zuba
0.53 ± 0.02a 0.17 ± 0.02b Apo 0.37 ± 0.03c 0.13 ± 0.01b Kugbu 0.28 ± 0.03c 0.13
± 0.06b Idu 0.31 ± 0.01c 0.05 ± 0.02b Mpape 0.22 ± 0.02d 0.10 ± 0.02b
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Results are expressed in Mean ± SD (n = 5).

Values with different superscripts across rows and columns are significantly
different (p < 0.05). As presented in Table 4.2, the concentration of lead in
borehole water samples was significantly reduced after treatment with MO
aqueous seed extract. However, the concentration of lead in borehole water
samples from Idu and Mpape were found to be significantly higher when
compared to water samples from other locations.

Table 4.2: Lead Concentration in Water Samples before and after Treatment with
MO Aqueous Seed Extract
______________________________________________________________________________ Lead
Concentration (mg/L) ________________________________________________ Borehole
Water Sample Before Treatment After Treatment -
_____________________________________________________________________________ Zuba
0.13 ± 0.02a 0.05 ± 0.01b Apo 0.14 ± 0.01a 0.09 ± 0.01e Kugbu 0.18 ± 0.01c 0.12
± 0.02e Idu 0.26 ± 0.02d 0.09 ± 0.02e Mpape 0.28 ± 0.04d 0.14 ± 0.02e
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Results are expressed in Mean ± SD (n = 5).

Values with different superscripts across rows and columns are significantly
different (p < 0.05). The concentration of chromium in borehole water samples
before and after treatment MO aqueous seed extract is presented in Table 4.3. As
shown in the Table, there was a significant (p<0.05) reduction in chromium
concentration following treatment with MO aqueous seed extract.

Interestingly, there was no significant difference in the level of chromium

detected in borehole water samples from the 5 study locations both before and
after treatment with MO seed extract. Table 4.3: Chromium Concentration in
Water Samples before and after Treatment with MO Aqueous Seed Extract
______________________________________________________________________________
Chromium Concentration (mg/L) ________________________________________________
Borehole Water Sample Before Treatment After Treatment -
_____________________________________________________________________________ Zuba
0.12 ± 0.02a 0.04 ± 0.01b Apo 0.14 ± 0.03a 0.05 ± 0.02b Kugbu 0.18 ± 0.03a 0.03
± 0.01b Idu 0.17 ± 0.03a 0.03 ± 0.01b Mpape 0.17 ± 0.02a 0.02 ± 0.01b
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Results are expressed in Mean ± SD (n = 5).

Values with different superscripts across rows and columns are significantly
different (p < 0.05). As presented in Table 4.4, there was no significant difference
in the concentration of cadmium in borehole water samples before and after
treatment with MO seed extract. This is an indication that the extract had no
effect on cadmium. Table 4.4: Cadmium Concentration in Water Samples before
and after Treatment with MO Aqueous Seed Extract
______________________________________________________________________________
Cadmium Concentration (mg/L) ________________________________________________
Borehole Water Sample Before Treatment After Treatment -
_____________________________________________________________________________ Zuba
0.09 ± 0.02a 0.08 ± 0.01b Apo 0.08 ± 0.03a 0.07 ± 0.02b Kugbu 0.08 ± 0.03a 0.08
± 0.01b Idu 0.07 ± 0.02a 0.06 ± 0.02b Mpape 0.07 ± 0.02a 0.06 ± 0.02b
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Results are expressed in Mean ± SD (n = 5).

Values with different superscripts across rows and columns are significantly
different (p < 0.05). Nickel ion concentration was significantly (p < 0.05) reduced
in water samples collected from all the study locations following treatment with
MO seed extract (Table 4.5). Water samples from Idu and Mpape had higher
nickel concentration when compared with those from other locations. Table 4.5:
Nickel Concentration in Water Samples before and after Treatment with MO
Aqueous Seed Extract
______________________________________________________________________________ Nickel
Concentration (mg/L) ________________________________________________ Borehole
Water Sample Before Treatment After Treatment -
_____________________________________________________________________________ Zuba
0.29 ± 0.04a 0.11 ± 0.01d Apo 0.18 ± 0.02b 0.07 ± 0.02d Kugbu 0.27 ± 0.03a 0.12
± 0.01d Idu 0.36 ± 0.06c 0.16 ± 0.04d Mpape 0.39 ± 0.07c 0.16 ± 0.04d
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Results are expressed in Mean ± SD (n = 5).

Values with different superscripts across rows and columns are significantly
different (p < 0.05). 4.2 Discussion One of the main problems associated with well
water is the high possibility of containing heavy metals. The ingestion of heavy
metals by drinking water does not necessarily lead to absolute mortality, but it
generally has cumulative effects which appear over the years.

The severity or degree of the problems depends on the concentration of heavy

metals in the water. Synthetic chemicals are commonly used to reduce pollution
from heavy metals which, in and of itself, can cause health problems for
consumers. Therefore, this justifies the need to look for natural products that can
play a similar role.

In this study, evidence is presented to show the effect of Moringa oleifera seed
extract on the concentration of heavy metals in well water samples. This study has
shown that MO seed dust is a possible alternative to synthetic metal coagulants
in the treatment of groundwater. From the results obtained, the seeds of MO
effectively reduced the load of heavy metals in the water samples studied.

Observations have also shown that MO seed extract as a natural coagulant

reduces heavy metals; thus eliminating the harmful effects caused by chemical-
based coagulants. The natural coagulant is durable and suitable for an
economical form of water treatment process. Since MO seed can be produced
locally, its use in water purification should be encouraged. This will likely reduce
the high cost of current water treatment systems.

It is environmentally friendly and provides a less expensive method of water

treatment. These seeds can be used in rural areas where there are no facilities
available for water treatment. Generally, most studies on water treatment focused
on the use of MO as a coagulant to reduce turbidity and microbial load (Muyibi
and Evison, 1995; Ng et al.,

2006; Onsare et al., 2013). This study presents uniqueness because attention is
focused on reducing heavy metal concentration in selected borehole water.
CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS This study
was carried out on the reduction of heavy metals in borehole water samples.
Health personnel should monitor human activities near the boreholes and wells
and perform health inspections to maintain hygiene and sanitation around the
well's water resources. A safe distance between the water borehole and possible
sources of groundwater contamination should be considered.

In addition, the Nigerian government should further explore the full potential of
this wonderful plant, a very promising crop when used as a raw material for the
production of biofuels and as an alternative for water purification. Farmers should
be advised to switch into commercial scale of planting M. Oleifera in anticipation
of market expansion.

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