Production and Evaluation of Extruded Weaning Food From Iron-Biofortified Beans, Maize and Sorghum Flour Blends

TITLE PAGE
PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION OF EXTRUDED WEANING FOOD FROM
IRON-BIOFORTIFIED BEANS, MAIZE AND SORGHUM FLOUR BLENDS
A PROJECT DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF SCIENCE DEGREE IN FOOD
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA
BY
MUSANASE, SOLANGE
PG/M.Sc/12/63861
DEPARTMENT OF FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY,

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA,
SUPERVISOR: PROF. T. M. OKONKWO
OCTOBER, 2014
I
CERTIFICATION
MUSANASE, SOLANGE (PG/M.Sc/12/63861), a postgraduate student in the Department of
Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Nigeria, Nsukka has
satisfactory fulfilled the requirements for the degree of Master of Science (M.Sc) in Food
Science and Technology. The work embodied in this project is orginal and has not been
submitted in part or full for any other diploma or degree of this or other university.
………………………… ………………….……
Supervisor Date
Prof. T. M. Okonkwo
………………………... ……………………….
Head of Department Date
Dr. P. O. Uvere
II
DEDICATION
To The Almighty God who gave me gift of life, my entire family and friends who gave me
technical and moral support thoughout my academic endeavours.
To my supervisor for his tireless assistance and contribution throughout the whole research
project from the begining, up to the end.
To the Transdisciplinary Training for Resource Efficiency and Climate Change Adaptation in
Africa (TRECCAfrica) to grant me a scholarship.
Finally to all my sisters and brothers who have always been there for me whenever I needed
them.
III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My sincere thanks go to the Almight God who gave me the gift of life and for showering me
with blessings throughout my academic career. I am also thankful to Jesus Christ my Lord and
Saviour, the author and finisher of my faith, through whom I was given the strength and the
ability to start and finish this project. With a deep sense of appreciation and gratitude I thank the
Transdisciplinary Training for Resource Efficiency and Climate Change Adaptation in Africa
(TRECCAfrica) that granted me a scholarship for the two years. I would like to thank former and
present TRECCAfrica coordinators at University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Prof. M. C. Madukwe and
Prof. (Mrs.) A. I. Achike, for their time, advice and guidance through this learning process.
I deeply appreciate my supervisor, Prof. T. M. Okonkwo, for his tireless supervision and
guidance throughout this research project. I am also grateful to Dr. G. I. Okafor whose
professionalism and experience were generously available for the completion of this work. Many
thanks go to my former and present Heads of Department, C. S. Bahandary and Dr. P. O. Uvere.
I owe gratitude to the Lectures and all academic staff in Department of Food Science and
Technology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, for the training I got from them.
I am highly indebted to my fiance, Mr. A. Gahigi, for being so caring and loving and for his
moral and financial assistance. I appreciate heartily the endurance and encouragement of my
mother, Mukakarangwa Bernadette. My brothers have given me a lot of moral support and have
been great sources of encouragement to me. I give thanks to my friends and classmates for their
constant encouragement, kindness and material support. May God still keeping you in his safe
hands and help you in the continuous and better accomplishment of your task.
Musanase S.
IV
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page I
Certification II
Dedication III
Acknowledgement IV
Table of Contents V
List of Tables XII
List of Figures XIV
Lists of Plates XV
Abstract XVI
Chapter One: Introduction 1
1.1 Problem Statement 3
1.2 Justification of the Study 4
1.3 Objective of the Study 4
1.3.1 Main Objective 4
1.3.2 Specific objectives 5
1.4 Significance of Study 5
Chapter Two: Literature Review 6
2.1 Weaning Foods 6
2.1.1 History of weaning foods 6
2.1.2 Weaning Period 7
V
2.1.3 Type of Weaning Food Product 8
2.1.4 Nutrient Requirement of Infant‟s Complementary Foods 8
2.1.5 Weaning food production 8
2.2 Cereals 10
2.2.1 Sorghum 10
2.2.1.1 Origin and History of Sorghum 10
2.2.1.2 Production of Sorghum 11
2.2.1.3 Consumption of Sorghum 12
2.2.1.4 Nutrient Content of Sorghum 12
2.2.2 Maize 13
2.2.2.1 Origin and History of Maize 13
2.2.2.2 Maize Production 14
2.2.2.3 Uses of Maize 14
2.2.2.4 Maize Consumption 15
2.2.2.5 Nutritional Content of Maize 16
2.3 Legumes 16
2.3.1 Biofortified Beans 16
2.3.1.1 Origin and History of Biofortified Beans 16
2.4 Extrusion 19
2.4.1 Types of extruders 20
2.4.2 Extrusion-cooking process 21
2.4.3 Effects of extrusion-cooking process on the main feed constituents, micronutrients
and antinutrients 22
VI
2.4.3.1 Starch 22
2.4.3.2 Protein 22
2.4.3.3 Lipids 22
2.4.3.4 Dietary fibre 23
2.4.3.5 Vitamins and minerals 23
2.4.3.6 Antinutrients 23
2.5 Characteristics of extruded products 24
2.6 Health and Nutrition 24
2.6.1 Micronutrients 25
2.6.2 Micronutrient deficiencies 26
2.6.3 Vitamin A Deficiency (VAD) 26
2.6.4 Iodine Deficiency (IDD) 26
2.6.5 Zinc Deficiency 27
2.6.6 Iron Deficiency (ID) 27
2.6.7 Prevalence of iron deficiency and iron deficiency anemia 28
2.6.8 Strategies for addressing Micronutrients Deficiencies 28
2.6.9 Biofortification 29
Chapter Three: Materials and Methods 30
3.1 Procurement of Raw Materials 30
3.2 Preparation of Samples 30
3.2.1 Production of beans flour 30
3.2.2 Production of Germinated Maize Flour 32
3.2.3 Production of Malted Sorghum Flour 33
VII
3.3 Blend formulation and processing methods 34
3.3.1 Blend formulation 34
3.4 Preparation of Flour Blends 34
3.3.2 Production of Weaning Food 35
3.4. Chemical Analysis 37
3.4.1. Proximate Analysis 37
3.4.1.1. Determination of Moisture Content 37
3.4.1.2 Determination of Crude Protein 37
3.4.1.3 Determination of Crude Fat 38
3.4.1.4. Determination of Crude Fiber 39
3.4.1.5 Determination of Ash 40
3.4.1.6 Determination of Carbohydrates 40
3.4.1.7 Determination of Calorific Content 41
3.4.2 Micronutrient Analysis 41
3.4.2.1 Determination of Vitamins 41
3.4.2.1.1 Vitamin A 41
3.4.2.1.2 Determination of Vitamin C 42
3.4.2.1.3 Determination of Vitamin E 43
3.4.2.1.4 Determination of Thiamin (Vitamin B1) 43
3.4.2.1.5 Determination of Riboflavin (vitamin B2) 44
3.4.2.2 Determination of Minerals 45
3.4.2.2.1 Determination of Iron, Iodine and Zinc 45
3.4.2.2.2 Determination of Phosphorus 46
VIII
3.4.2.2.3 Determination of Calcium 47
3.4.3 Analysis of Anti-nutritional factors 47
3.4.3.1 Determination of Phytate 47
3.4.3.2 Determination of Tannins 48
3.4.3.3 Determination of Oxalates 48
3.4.3.4 Determination of Saponin 50
3.4.3.5 Determination of Trypsin inhibitor 51
3.4.4 Determination of Functional Properties 52
3.4.4.1 Determination of Bulk Density (BD) 52
3.4.4.2 Determination of Water absorption capacity (WAC) 53
3.4.4.3 Determination of Swelling Capacity (SC) 53
3.4.4.4 Determination of pH 54
3.4.5 Microbial Analysis 54
3.4.5.1 Total Plate Count of Bacteria 54
3.4.5.2 Mould Counts 54
3.4.5.3 Coliform Count 55
3.5 Sensory Evaluation 55
3.6 Experimental Design and Statistical Analysis 55
Chapter Four: Results and Discussion 56
4.1 Proximate Composition of Flour from Bean, Sorghum and QPM 56
4.2 Vitamin Composition of Bean, Sorghum and QPM Flour 61
4.3 Mineral composition of flour from bean, sorghum and QPM 64
4.4 Antinutrient composition of flour from bean, sorghum and QPM 68
IX
4.5 Functional Properties and pH of flour for production of Extruded Weaning Food 70
4.6 Effect of Bean Incorporation and Extrusion on the Chemical Composition of
Extruded Weaning Food made from Bean, QPM and Sorghum Flour blends compared
to commercial Wheat based Weaning Food 73
4.7 Effect of Iron Rich Biofortified Beans Incorporation, Extrusion cooking on some
Vitamin Content of extruded weaning food made from QPM and Sorghum Flour
Blends compared to Vitamin Content of Wheat based Commercial Weaning Food 79
Mineral Content of extruded weaning food made from QPM and Sorghum Flour
Blends compared to Mineral Content of Wheat based Commercial Weaning Food 82
4.9 Effect of Extrusion cooking on some Functional properties and pH of Extruded
Weaning Food made from QPM and Sorghum Flour Blends compared to Functional
properties and pH of Wheat based Commercial Weaning Food 83
4.10 Effect of Extrusion cooking on Antinutrient composition of Extruded
Weaning Food formulated from QPM and Sorghum Flour Blends compared to
the Antinutrients present in Wheat based Commercial Weaning Food 85
4.11 Sensory Characteristics of Extruded Weaning Food from Bean, QPM and
Sorghum Flour Blends 86
4.12 Microbial counts of extruded weaning food made from Beans, QPM and
Sorghum Flour blends 90
Chapter Five: Conclusion and Recommendation 92
5.1 Conclusion 92
5.2 Recommendation 93
X
References 95
XI
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Characteristics of some iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn) micro‐nutrient dense
released bush and climbing bean genotypes in rwanda 19
Table 2: Hemoglobin levels below which anemia is present in a population 28
Table 3: Composite flour blends prepared from beans, maize and sorghum 35
Table 4 : Proximate composition (%) of flour from bean, sorghum and QPM 57
Table 5: Vitamin composition (mg/100g) of flour from bean, sorghum and QPM 61
Table 6: Mineral compositions (mg/100g) of flour from bean, sorghum and QPM 64
Table 7: Antinutrients composition (%) of flour from bean, sorghum and QPM 68
Table 8: Functional properties and pH of flour for production of extruded weaning food 71
Table 9: Proximate composition (%) of extruded weaning food and commercial
weaning food 75
Table 10: Vitamin composition (mg/100g) of extruded weaning food and commercial
weaning food 79
Table 11: Mineral compositions (mg/100g) of extruded weaning foods and commercial
weaning food 82
Table 12: Functional properties and pH of extruded weaning food compared to commercial
weaning food 84
Table 13: Antinutrient compositions (%) of extruded weaning food and commercial
weaning food 85
Table 14: Sensory scores of extruded weaning food from beans, maize and sorghum
flour blends and commercial weaning food 87
XII
Table 15: Sensory scores of milled extruded weaning food from beans, maize and
sorghum flour blends compared to commercial weaning food 88
Table 16: Microbial counts of extruded weaning food 90
XIII
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Production of weaning food 9
Figure 2: Iron biofortified beans samples 17
Figure 3: Flow diagram for the processing of beans flour 31
Figure 4: Flow diagram for the processing of germinated maize flour 32
Figure 5: Flow diagram for the processing of malted sorghum flour 33
Figure 6: Flow diagram for the production of extruded weaning food. 36
XIV
LISTS OF PLATES
Plate 1: Sample A made from iron biofortified beans/ QPM/sorghum blends 73
Plate 2: Sample B made from common beans/ QPM/sorghum blends 74
Plate 3: Milled samples A, B and commercial diet (C) 74
XV
ABSTRACT
Weaning foods which are foods introduced to the infant after six months of age need to be rich in
energy and nutrients in order to complement breast milk. Therefore, this study was carried out
with the aim of producing extruded weaning food products from maize and sorghum composite
flour fortified with iron biofortified bean flour. Iron biofortified beans, common beans maize
(QPM) and sorghum were processed into flours by cleaning, drying, milling and sieving and
designated as Iron Biofortified Bean flour (FBF), Quality Protein Maize flour (QPMF), Sorghum
flour (SF) and Common Bean flour (CBF). The chemical compositions, functional properties and
antinutrient concentrations of the flours were analysed. The material balance method was used
for proportions of flours for mixing with 20 % protein and 60 % carbohydrate as the targets.
QPMF and SF were blended with FBF in the ratios of 23.83:53.18:22.99 and CBF in the ratio of
20.49:58.62:20.89 to produce extruded weaning food A and B, respectively. The extrudates were
evaluated for physicochemical, sensory and microbial quality characteristics. These were
compared with the characteristics of a commercial weaning food (C) analysed alongside. The
results showed that moisture contents of the cereal and legume flours were generally low (9.00 to
9.90 %) and (8.05 to 8.28 %), respectively. The ash contents (3.05 to 3.70 %) were higher in
legumes compared to cereal flours (1.60 to 3.00 %). Protein contents were significantly (p <
0.05) higher in the legume flours (31.51 to 32.68 %) compared to cereal flours (10.40 to 18.99
%). The carbohydrate (59.21 to 71.00 %) and energy (353.30 to 376.90 Kcal/100g) contents
were high in all the samples but the cereals contained more carbohydrate and energy than legume
flours. The vitamin E contents were similar in all samples (1.30 to 1.53 mg/100g) but the legume
flours had higher vitamin C (9.51 to 11.41 mg/100g), B1 (0.65 to 0.71 mg/100g) and B2 (0.19 to
0.21 mg/100g) compared to the cereal samples with FBF having the highest vitamin C (11.41
XVI
mg/100g), B1 (0.71 mg/100g) and B2 (0.21 mg/100g) but lower vitamin A (0.71 mg/100g). FBF
had high iron, zinc, iodine and phosphorus (14.23, 3.27, 2.07 and 487.67 mg/100g), respectively
compared to QPM (3.25, 1.53, 0.89 and 204.00 mg/100g), sorghum (5.34, 1.56, 0.90 and 344.00
mg/100g) and CBF (11.74, 1.82, 1.51 and 485.67 mg/100g). Functional properties of all flour
samples showed significant (p < 0.05) differences. Antinutritional factors were low in all flours.
The ash, protein and fibre contents (2.60 to 2.90, 18.95 to 18.97 and 3.18 to 3.65 %, respectively)
of samples A and B were higher than sample C (2.20, 15.38 and 1.14 %, respectively). Fat
contents were similar for all weaning foods (4.30 to 4.45 %) but carbohydrates and energy
contents (59.60 to 59.95 %), (354.11 to 354.39 Kcal/100g) of sample A and B were lower than
those of sample C (73.37 % and 393.78 Kcal/100g, respectively). The protein and carbohydrate
contents of sample A and B were very close to the targeted 20 % and 60 %. Vitamin contents of
samples A and B were lower compared to sample C. Incorporation of iron biofortified beans
resulted to improved levels of iron, zinc and iodine (7.83, 2.96 and 2.26 mg/100g), respectively
for sample A followed by sample C which had high amounts of calcium and phosphorus (548.00
and 367.77 mg/100g), respectively due to fortification. Extrusion cooking reduced antinutritional
factors by 98 %. The functional properties of sample A and B showed significant (p < 0.05)
differences to sample C. Microbial load was very low for all weaning foods. Bacterial count (1.5
x 10 to 1.0 x 10 cfu/g) and mould count (10 x 10 to 20 x 10 cfu/g), coliform count was no
detected. Sensory results showed that although extruded products (sample A and B) were
acceptable, but were less preferred (p < 0.05) to the commercial weaning diet (C).
XVII
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
The term „to wean‟ means to accustom and it describes the process by which the infant gradually
becomes accustomed to the full adult diet. During the weaning period, the young child‟s diet
changes from milk alone to one based on the regular family meals. Milk should be given as a
supplement to the child for as long as possible. Weaning period is a dangerous time for infants
and young children. Weaning foods are generally introduced between the ages of six months to
three years as breastfeeding is discontinued (Cameron and Hofvander, 1983). Cereals and
legumes, individually or as composites, are the main sources of nutrients for weaning children in
developing countries (Chavan and Kadam, 1989). The traditional weaning foods commonly used
in most African countries are composed largely of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) with a limited
amount of dried-milk powder. However, such mixtures have been shown to be poor in protein
content and quality (Achi, 2005).
Dry beans are recognized as nutrient dense foods rich in protein, dietary fibres, folate and
minerals such as iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn), which are the two essential minerals for human. The
micronutrients that are deficient in world population, especially in developing countries, are zinc
(Zn), iron (Fe), iodine (I), selenium (Se) and cobalt (Co) (Welch, 2008). An estimated 1.5 to 2
billion people worldwide suffer from iron deficiency and 2 billion suffer from Zn deficiency.
Half of all women and children in developing countries have iron deficiency, with or without
anemia (WHO, 2006). Pregnant women, infants and young children are the two most vulnerable
demographic groups. In Rwanda, anemia was estimated at 59 % among infants, 33 % and 29 %
among women aged 15 - 49 years and men, respectively (HarvestPlus Program, 2009), while
1
protein and calorie malnutrition stood at 13 and 24 %, respectively (MINECOFIN, 2008). At 53
and 71 % among women and children respectively, malnutrition is one of the highest in the
region (IFPRI, 2005). Several measures have been proposed to address malnutrition and
micronutrient deficiency challenges globally. Among these measures are food fortification,
dietary diversification, dietary supplementation, nutrition education and public health measures
and biofortification (Haas and Miller, 2006). Biofortification, a new approach to combat
micronutrient deficiencies, is defined as the process of increasing the concentration and/or
bioavailability of essential elements in the edible part of the plant by traditional plant breeding or
genetic engineering (White and Broadley, 2005).
It is a new public health intervention that seeks to improve the micronutrient content of staple
foods consumed by most poor people. Biofortification aims to either increase the density of
nutrients in staple crops and/or increase their bioavailability by conventional plant breeding or by
use of transgenic techniques, or indeed by a combination of the two, while food fortification
aims to enrich food products with protein and micronutrients (White and Broadley, 2005). Food
fortification is a potential strategy for addressing the malnutrition of low income groups. The
fortification strategy seeks to take advantage of consistent daily consumption of large amounts of
food including women and children who are most at risk for micronutrient malnutrition. The
fortification of weaning foods with a variety of inexpensive vegetable proteins from legumes has
received considerable attention from nutritionists and food scientists in several sub-Saharan
African countries (Uzogara et al., 1990).
The common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), is one of the world‟s most important food legumes.
Legumes are known to contain lysine in a quantity that exceeds the requirements for human but
with the low content of sulphur amino acids. Cereals, on the other hand, are high in the sulphur
2
amino acids but deficient in lysine. A mutual complementation of amino acids and consequent
improvement in protein quality is therefore achieved when legumes are blended with cereals in
the right proportions (Schneider, 2002). Extrusion cooking is a modern high-temperature short-
time (HTST) processing technology. It offers several advantages over other types of processing
methods e.g drum drying, canning etc, such as faster processing times and significant reduction
in energy consumed, which consequently results in lower prices for the final products. The
products of extrusion are of major importance in the food and feed industries today. Extruders
can be used for a wide range of traditional (conventional) food products, as well as in the
production of numerous new products (cereal baby food, confectionery, breakfast cereals, snack
foods, bakery products, flavours, pastas, pet food and meat analogs) (Wiedemann and Strobel,
1987).
In Rwanda, there is a need for nutritious weaning foods that are acceptable and affordable to low
income populations. At present, there are no weaning foods manufactured in Rwanda and only a
small sector of the community uses imported baby foods which are expensive. There is,
therefore, an urgent need to conduct studies that help in production of weaning foods based on
locally-available materials and evaluate their composition and properties (Griffith et al., 1998).
This study aims to produce extruded weaning food products from blends of maize and sorghum
flour fortified with iron biofortified bean flour and evaluates their physical, chemical, nutritional,
microbial and sensory qualities.
1.1 Problem Statement
Beans are among the major staple foods in Rwanda. Normal varieties only have low levels of
minerals, but the Harvest Plus programme has supported the Rwanda Agriculture Board to breed
new varieties rich in iron and zinc. Sequel to this, iron biofortified beans varieties such as
3
RWV3006 (3,600 kg/ha), RWV2245 (2,500 kg/ha), RWV2154 (2,000 kg/ha), RWV2361 (3,500
kg/ha), RWV1129 (4,500 kg/ha), Mac44 (4,000 kg/ha) and CAB2 (5,000 kg/ha) are now grown
in Rwanda. The beans are also high yielding and popular with consumers because of their color,
and with high levels of iron that could help in tackling anemia, which affects up to 30 per cent
of women in Rwanda and more than half of the children under five. However, due to the
importance of iron biofortified beans in promoting infants health and its potential in reducing
micronutrient deficiency amongst the populace, it is of great interest to investigate the use of
biofortified beans as a fortificant, in preparation of weaning foods.
1.2 Justification of the Study
Production of extruded weaning food from blends of maize and sorghum flour fortified with iron
biofortified bean flour will help to meet the nutritional requirements of children. These nutrients
dense extruded weaning food will help to reduce protein energy and micronutrient malnutrition.
It will also help to fight against anemia in children. Low income population in Rwanda will
benefit from this extruded weaning food, which is made from low cost and available raw
materials, those who cannot afford commercial infant fomula, which is common food for
children in Rwanda, will be able to get weaning food for their children. In addition commercial
productions of extrudates from locally grain crops will sitimulate agricultural productivity there
by increasing the income of farmers.
1.3 Objective of the Study
1.3.1 Main Objective
The major objective of the study was to produce and evaluate extruded weaning food from
blends of maize and sorghum flour fortified with iron biofortified bean flour.
4
1.3.2 Specific objectives
1. To produce flour from maize, sorghum, common beans and iron biofortified beans and
evaluate their chemical, functional and antinutritional qualities;
2. To produce weaning food from the composite flour blends of maize and sorghum fortified
with iron biofortified beans;
3. To evaluate the chemical, functional, antinutritional, sensory and microbiological qualities of
the weaning foods from maize and sorghum composite flour fortified with iron biofortified
beans.
1.4 Significance of Study
The Agro-processors will get more information about fortifying foods using legumes rich in
micronutrients. The iron biofortified beans will increase the quality of weaning food made from
locally grain crops.
There will be increase in industrial utilization of bio-fortified legumes in formulating different
food products in Rwanda. There will be expected decrease in the death of infants because of
increased use of micronutrient rich beans especially iron rich beans.
5
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Weaning Foods
2.1.1 History of weaning foods
Weaning or complementary foods which are foods introduced to the infant after 6 months of age
need to be rich in energy and nutrients in order to complement breast milk (WHO, 2000).
Weaning is a period of transition for the infant during which the diet changes in terms of
consistency and source. From a liquid milk-based diet, the child is gradually introduced to semi
solid foods (Draper, 1994). This weaning period is a very critical period in the life of a child and
if not well managed, might lead to malnutrition and other health implications (Ozumba et al.,
2002). Guidelines state that an ideal weaning food must be nutrient dense, easily digestible, of
suitable consistency and affordable to the target market (FAO/WHO, 1985).
The report by UNICEF (1998) indicated that breast milk, even from well-nourished mothers,
might be inadequate to meet the nutritional needs of the infant after the first three months of life;
hence the need for a supplementary or weaning food. In many developing countries, children,
especially those in the low-income class, are weaned on cheap, readily available starchy foods
that are very poor in protein and other essential nutrients (Horfvander and Underwood, 1989).
UNICEF (1987) reported that the capacity of a weaning diet to meet the protein and energy
requirements of infants depends on its nutritional quality as well as its dietary bulk. This can be
achieved through legume supplementation of cereal-based weaning foods.
6
It has been reported that protein and thiamin (Negi et al., 2001), mineral bioavailability (Ghanem
and Hussain, 1999) and protein and starch digestibility increased (Preet and Punia, 2000),
whereas phytic acid and tannin decreased during germination of legumes. The use of dry beans
to enhance the protein and energy needs required for weaning periods has been extensively
researched. Generally, digestibility and flatulence-producing components are important factors to
consider when feeding legumes to children.
Preliminary processing techniques include dehulling, fine grinding, roasting, germination,
fermentation and prolonged cooking. These techniques have been found to increase digestibility,
improve protein to energy ratio and reduce flatulence from beans. Further, high viscosity
associated with bean pastes and gruels has been a deterrent to use in weaning foods. Pre-
processing protocols (extractions, enzymatic digestions, fermentation and germination) have
been proposed to reduce starch and oligosaccharide content; these procedures have generally
reduced viscosity and improved digestibility (Uebersax et al., 1991).
2.1.2 Weaning Period
During the weaning period the young child‟s diet changes from milk alone to one based on the
regular family meals. Milk should be given as a supplement to the child for as long as possible. It
is well known that there is higher rate of infection particularly of diarrhoeal diseases during the
weaning than any other period in life. This is because the diet changes from clean breast milk
with certain anti-infective factors to foods which are often prepared, stored and fed in very
unhygienic ways. Malnutrition is more common during this transitional period than in the first
six months of life because families may not be aware of the special needs of the infant, may not
know how to prepare weaning foods from the foods that are available locally or may be too poor
to provide sufficient nutritious foods (Cameron and Hofvander, 1983).
7
2.1.3 Type of Weaning Food Product
Considerable variation exists in the types of weaning food products. The extrusion and milling
systems produce products which will make gruels or porridges. The baking line produces
crackers, biscuits and cookies which are normally consumed as finger food. The Codex Standard
for cereal-based foods for infants and children defines “dry cereal” as “foods based on cereals
and/or legumes (pulses), processed to a low moisture content and so fragmented as to permit
dilution with water, milk or other suitable liquid or, as in the case of preparations such as pasta,
used after cooking in boiling water or other liquids” (WHO, 2000).
2.1.4 Nutrient Requirement of Infant’s Complementary Foods
According to Eschleman (1991) , qualified weaning food should fulfill the following features:
high energy content, low viscosity (i.e. of an acceptable thickness or consistency), balanced
protein (containing all essential amino acids) content, required vitamins and minerals (iron, folic
acid, calcium) content, no (or safe level) anti-nutritional components and pleasant taste
(palatable). It should be precooked if possible so that it can be fed to babies as soft products by
simple stirring in hot or boiling water. The fibre content in the material should be low within
permitted limits (Cameron and Hofvander, 1983).
2.1.5 Weaning food production
The following Figure (Fig. 1) shows the production of weaning food made from Maize, Soybean
and Sesame/Bambara nuts.
8
Maize Soybean Sesame/Bambara nuts
Sorting/Cleaning Sorting/ Cleaning Sorting/Washing
Steeping Boiling Dehulling
Draining/Washing Draining/Dehulling
Drying
Drying Drying Milling
Milling
Grinding Sieving
Sieving
Sieving
Flour Flour
Flour
BLENDING
Weaning food mixture
Packaging
Figure 1: Production of weaning food (Okafor et al., 2008)
9
2.2 Cereals
Cereal foods make up the most important part of diet of most developing countries (Tucker,
2003). These cereal foods contribute significantly to dietary intake of rural people in developing
countries (Genc et al., 2005). Even though cereals offer limited nutritional variety, they serve as
the main source of food (Henry and Kettlewell, 1996). Cereals are stable foods of the tropics,
providing about 75 % of the total calorific intake and 67 % of the protein intake. The grains are
eaten in many ways sometimes as paste, roasts, porridges and pottages or preparations of seeds,
more often milled and further processed into flours, starch, bran or breakfast cereals (Ihekoronye
and Ngoddy, 1985).
The limitation in the use of cereals as food is because their proteins are deficient in the amino
acids, lysine and tryptophan (Enwere, 1998). The most important members forming the cereal
group in tropical Africa are maize, sorghum, rice and millet (Kordylas, 1990). In Africa,
Sorghum is the second most important cereal after maize, accounting for 17 % cereal production
(FAOSTAT, 2004). Worldwide it is the fifth most important cereal after wheat, maize, rice, and
barley. Pearl millet is produced both in Africa and worldwide. Cereals form the major part of
most weaning mixes and contribute to 70 - 80 % of daily energy intake (Mahajan and
Chattopadhay, 2000). However, they are deficient in one or two essential amino acids (Gopalan
et al., 1991).
2.2.1 Sorghum
2.2.1.1 Origin and History of Sorghum
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) is a cultivated tropical cereal grass. It is generally,
although not universally, considered to have first been domesticated in North Africa, possibly in
the Nile or Ethiopian regions. The cultivation of sorghum played a crucial role in the spread of
10
the Bantu (black) group of people across sub-Saharan Africa. Today, sorghum is cultivated
across the world in the warmer climatic areas. It is quantitatively the world‟s fifth largest most
important cereal grain, after wheat, maize, rice and barley (Taylor and Robbins, 2003). Sorghum
is considered to be an important crop in countries where the climatic conditions do not favor
production of other cereals (FAO, 1995).
Sorghum does not only grow favorably in areas that experience dry climatic conditions but it
also thrives in areas that experience erratic but high rainfalls especially in the eastern part of
Africa. Sorghum also remains the staple cereal in other areas prone to drought, where other
cereals fail to grow (Taylor and Robbins, 2003). It is an important crop in the drier African
countries because of its drought resistance traits and its ability to succeed in wet conditions,
therefore making it more favorable than maize in some regions (Novellie, 1993). Most of the
sorghum grown in Africa is grown for home use (Obilana, 2001).
2.2.1.2 Production of Sorghum
World annual sorghum production is over 60 million tons, of which Africa produces about 20
million tones. This makes sorghum, quantitatively the second most important cereal grain in
Africa after maize. Sorghum production takes places across the continent, particularly Nigeria,
Sudan, Ethiopia and Burkina Faso, accounting for nearly 70 % of Africa‟s production. The main
Sorghum producing countries in Africa are Nigeria in the West and Sudan in Northern part of
Africa (FAO and ICRISAT, 1996). In West Africa, sorghum accounts for 50 % of the total crops
produced. In South Africa and Zimbabwe, sorghum is grown mostly for commercial purpose for
use in the malting and brewing of opaque beer (Dicko et al., 2006).
11
2.2.1.3 Consumption of Sorghum
Sorghum consumption in Africa is considered high in semi-arid rural areas when compared to
other parts of the world. Sorghum consumption has been negatively affected by the consumption
of imported cereals such as wheat, maize, barley and rice (Dendy, 1995). Sorghum grains are
consumed in different forms, namely unleavened bread, dumpling (mudde) and boiled rice
(annam/bana) like products (Thorat et al., 1988). Chapati or Roti prepared from a blend of
sorghum green gram are also consumed (Sankarapandian, 2000). The use of malted sorghum
flour in supplemented foods for children has been well established (Gopaldas, 1992).
Food products of importance made from sorghum in the African diet include weaning foods,
porridges, gruels, couscous, baked products, beer and non-alcoholic fermented beverages (Taylor
and Robbins, 2003). The most common form in which sorghum is consumed in Africa include a
stiff porridge variously called sadza or ugali or mabele meal or bogobe made from sorghum flour
(Obilana, 2001). Other products include ting (a fermented porridge), sorghum rice, a stiff
porridge called tô from West Africa, couscous and injera from Ethiopia, nasha and kisara from
Sudan (Dicko et al., 2006). More than 50 % of the sorghum produced in the world is used for
human consumption (ICRISAT, 2008).
2.2.1.4 Nutrient Content of Sorghum
The nutrient composition of sorghum grain indicates that it is a good source of energy, protein,
vitamins and minerals including trace elements. Sorghum has 11.9 % of moisture and about 10.4
% of protein and a lower fat content of 1.9 %. The fibre and mineral content of grain sorghum is
essentially similar and is 1.6 %. It is a good source of energy and provides about 349 Kcal and
gives 72.6 % carbohydrates (Gopalan et al., 1996). Starch is the major carbohydrate of the grain,
the other carbohydrates present are simple sugars, cellulose and hemicellulose. The amylose
12
content of starch varies from 21 - 28 %. Sorghum is also rich in dietary fiber (14.3 %), Calcium,
phosphorous and iron content of sorghum is 25 mg, 222 mg and 4.1 mg (per 100 g of edible
portion), respectively (Hosmani and Chittapur,1997).
Sorghum like other cereals is low in the essential amino acid (Lysine) (Anglani, 1998). Sorghum
also has an effect on the nutritional value of amino acids (Duodu et al., 2003). Similar to other
cereals, Sorghum has bioavailability of zinc and iron and is also a poor source of vitamin A and
vitamin C, which are useful in the absorption of the zinc and iron (Michaelsen and Friis, 1998).
Sorghum is an important source of energy, carbohydrate, protein and fibre in the diet of people in
semi-arid areas (FAO, 1995). Sorghum contains various phenolic and antioxidant compounds
that could have health benefits, which make the grain suitable for developing functional foods
and other applications (Aruna et al., 2009).
2.2.2 Maize
2.2.2.1 Origin and History of Maize
Maize (Zea mays L) is an important cereal crop in Africa serving as a source of food and raw
material for industries such as brewery, confectionary, livestock and flour feeding mills
(Okalojo, 2001). Maize is the world‟s most widely grown cereal, cultivated in the tropics and in
temperate zones, at high and low altitudes, in dry climates and wet ones, on slopes and fields,
and in a range of soil types. Maize ranks third to rice and wheat as the most important cereal
crop, mainly used as staple food and animal feeds in most of the developing countries (Mboya et
al., 2011). Several million people, particularly in the developing countries, derive their protein
and calorie requirements from maize (Mbuya et al., 2011).
Maize is the main staple crop in Africa where about 90 % of it is used as food with the exception
of Southern Africa where 50 % of it is used as animal feed. In Eastern Africa, it provides 30 % of
13
the calories with about 100 kg of per capita consumption per year. In Central Africa the per
capita consumption is 23 kg per year and provides about 13 % of the calories (Pandey, 1999).
Maize is the most widely grown and productive cereal. The poor nutritive value of maize grains
is due to low contents of lysine and tryptophan in the maize protein component (Obi, 1980).
Nevertheless, identification of Opaque-2 mutant gene by Bjaramson and Vesal (1992) as the
most amenable genotype for use in breeding programme for quality protein maize (QPM) had
changed the opinion of people about nutritive quality of maize. The resulting maize is therefore
known as quality protein maize (QPM) which has twice the Lysine and Tryptophan of normal
maize. QPM is of tremendous advantage over normal maize. It is a common phenomenon that
many African babies are being fed with maize-base diets as weaning foods. This probably
suggests the need to replace normal maize with QPM especially for the benefit of the babies and
nursing mothers (Bressani, 1992).
2.2.2.2 Maize Production
Presently world produces around 638.04 million tons of maize and is grown in an area of about
140 million hectares. Over 43 million hectare of maize is grown in Asia, producing 166 million
tons with an average yield of 3.8 t/ha. India ranks eighth in terms of production and shares about
1.85 % of the total maize production of the world. Other major maize producing countries are
China, Brazil, Mexico, France, Argentina, Romania, Italy and Canada (Anon, 2004).
2.2.2.3 Uses of Maize
Maize is used in more ways than any other cereal. It is used as human food, as feed for livestock
and for several industrial purposes. In developed countries, maize is mainly used as animal feed
and in the manufacture of food and non-food products whereas in the developing world, it is
14
used as both food and feed. However, in the Sub-Sahara region, and much more in East-Africa,
maize is essentially used as human food. In East Africa, only Uganda uses a significant
proportion of maize for purposes other than direct human food (Watson, 1988).
Quality protein maize (QPM) can also be used as an ingredient in the preparation of composite
flours to supplement wheat flour for bread and biscuit preparation. Composite flours (10 %
maize flour) are used commercially in sub-Saharan countries such as Zambia, Zimbabwe and
Ghana. Brazil also uses composite wheat flours utilizing cassava and maize flours. Several
potential commercial channels for QPM utilization in Ghana have also been identified, including
infant and institutional child-feeding programmes, poultry and piggery (Prasanna et al., 2001).
2.2.2.4 Maize Consumption
In developed countries, maize is consumed mainly as second-cycle produce, in the form of meat,
eggs and dairy products. In developing countries, maize is consumed directly and serves as staple
diet for some 200 million people, most people regard maize as a breakfast cereal (Du Plessis,
2003). Maize is consumed under various forms such as “tortillas” in Mexico and Central
America. In the USA, maize as human food occurs under more than a thousand different items
including maize flours, syrups, sweeteners, breakfast cereals, cooking oil, beer and whisky. In
Eastern and Southern Africa, the kernels are ground and mainly cooked with water and eaten in a
paste or cake form (ugali) with other accompaniments (Dowswell et al., 1996).
QPM may be an efficient supplement to those people who use legumes (such as common bean
rich in lysine) because the amount of legumes taken daily is usually small and their proteins have
lower digestibility whereas QPM has about 90 % of the biological value of milk (Prasanna et al.,
2001). More importantly, QPM is likely to have special impact in weaning foods, catch-up
15
growth and birth weights (Ahenkora et al., 1999), trials on pigs and chickens (Subsuban et al.,
1990) have demonstrated the capacity of QPM as a source of quality protein.
2.2.2.5 Nutritional Content of Maize
The nutritional benefits of QPM for people, who depend on maize for their energy and protein
intake and for other nutrients are, indeed, quite significant. Quality protein maize (QPM) has
twice the Lysine and Tryptophan of normal maize. The other nutritional benefits of QPM include
higher niacin availability due to a higher tryptophan and lower leucine content, higher calcium
and carbohydrate and carotene utilization. Further, high quality protein maize can be transformed
into edible products without deterioration of its quality or acceptability and can be used in
conventional and new food products (Graham et al., 2001). Graham et al. (2001) stated that „To
anyone familiar with the nutritional problems of weaned infants and small children in the
developing countries of the world, and with the fact that millions of them depend on maize for
most of their dietary energy, nitrogen and essential amino acids, the potential advantages of
quality protein maize are enormous.
2.3 Legumes
2.3.1 Biofortified Beans
2.3.1.1 Origin and History of Biofortified Beans
The common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is the most important grain legume for direct human
consumption, being especially important in Eastern Africa and Latin America. It is known as
haricot bean, navy, French bean, kidney bean and green bean (Oliveres et al., 2001). Haricot
beans are pea-sized beans that are creamy white in color. They are mild flavored, dense and
creamy and are the type usually used to make baked beans. It is of ancient world origin,
cultivated in many parts of the world. It was originated and domesticated in Latin America
16
(Gugsa and Yohannes, 1987). The crop was introduced to Africa from Brazil in the past
Colombian era and its establishment as food crop is said to have been started in pre colonial era.
“Beans are the „meat‟ and even the „bread‟ of the Rwandan countryside. A meal without beans in
Rwanda is like a meal without food”. The followed Figure (Fig. 2) shows iron biofortified beans
samples.
Figure 2: Iron biofortified beans samples (Wikipedia, 2013)
Common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) have the potential to alleviate malnutrition and hunger
related problems as they are rich in quality globulin protein (20 ‐ 28 %), energy (32 %), fibre (56
%) and micronutrients especially iron (70 mg/kg) and zinc (33 mg/kg) and vitamin A (Tryphone
and Nichumbi‐Msolla, 2010). Common bean is an important legume grown worldwide for its
high nutritional and economic value (Sarikamis et al., 2009).
It is cultivated in the tropical, subtropical and temperate zones. Among the legume species,
common bean is the most widely distributed species in the different production areas throughout
the world. In fact, it occupies more than 90 % of production areas sown with Phaseolus species
(Baudoin et al., 2001). In most production areas, common beans are considered to be a very
important food as they are nutrient dense with high contents of protein, micronutrients, vitamins,
17
dietary fibers and also have a low glycemic index (Scarmeas et al., 2006). The crop is also an
important source of income throughout sub-Saharan Africa, especially for women who grow it
both for subsistence and sale to urban populations (CIAT, 1995). Utilization of biofortified
nutrient dense beans which is popular in the diets of many vulnerable groups offer potential and
sustainable solution to malnutrition and hunger related deficiencies. At 40 - 60 kg per capita
(compared with 17 kg for Africa) bean consumption in Eastern and Central Africa is one of the
highest in the world. Bean proteins have high digestibility with significant nutritional and health
advantages for consumers. As a legume, bean consumption is highly correlated with low
incidence of coronary heart diseases and death (Demardi‐Blacberry et al., 2004), and has been
reported to be important in controlling non‐communicable diseases such as diabetes and obesity.
Beans are thus called the vegetarians meat for the rich (Schneider, 2002) and meat for the poor
(MINAGRI, 1988). Thus, consumption of beans is very essential among all classes of
consumers; the wealthy and the poor, infants, teens, pregnant and nursing women, as a unique
remedy to prevalent micronutrient malnutrition and the associated physical and mental
development impairments. Utilization of biofortified crops such as common beans, in daily diets
of the rural and urban populations offer potential solution to combat malnutrition and hunger
with the related deficiencies and deaths more effectively and sustainably (Kimani et al., 2006).
They are consumed by over 50 million persons of all social and wealth categories in diverse
recipes as green or fresh leaves, pods, grain and as dry grain in daily diets by as many as 99 % of
the population in some of the countries such as Burundi and Rwanda (MINAGRI, 1988). The
following Table (Table 1) shows characteristics of some iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn) micro‐nutrient
dense released bush and climbing bean genotypes in Rwanda.
18
Table 1: Characteristics of some iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn) micro‐nutrient dense released bush
and climbing bean genotypes in Rwanda
Genotype Growth Type Fe mg/kg Zn mg/kg Seed type Yield Kg/ha
RWR 2245 Bush 75 37 Large red mottled 2,500

RWR 2154 Bush 75 34 Large sugar 2,000
RWV 1129 Climber 81 34 Large kaki 4,500
Mac 44 Climber 78 31 Large red mottled 4,000
CAB 2 Climber 85 37 Large white 5,000
RWV 2361 Climber 79 29 Large red mottled 3,500
RWV 3006 Climber 76 36 Large white 3,600
Source: (Ugen et al., 2010).
2.4 Extrusion
Extrusion cooking is a modern high-temperature short-time (HTST) processing technology. It
offers several advantages over other types of cooking processes, such as faster processing times
and significant reduction in energy consumed, which consequently results in lower prices for the
final products. The products of extrusion are of major importance in the food and feed industries
today. Extruders can be used for a wide range of traditional (conventional) food products, as well
as in the production of numerous new products (cereal baby food, confectionery, breakfast
cereals, snack foods, bakery products, flavours, pastas, pet food and meat products) (Wiedemann
and Strobel, 1987).
An extruder represents a very complex bioreactor in which various types of food raw materials
with different moisture contents and viscosities are treated, under high temperatures, short
residence times, high pressures and very strong shear forces. During any extrusion process, the
19
treatment of the material consists of mixing, mass kneading, heating and shearing and finally
extrusion through a die appropriately designed to form and dry the product under expansion and
rapid fall in pressure. In warm extrusion, cooking temperatures lie within 120 - 180 oC, and
pressures are between 12 and 25 MPa. The barrel and dies are cooled or heated as required to
maintain the desired temperature (Akdogan, 1999).
According to Harper (1979), a food extruder consists of a flighted Archimedes screw which
rotates in a tightly fitting cylindrical barrel. Raw ingredients are preground and blended before
being placed in the feeding system of the extrusion screw. The action of the flights on the screw
push the food products forward and mix the constituents into a viscous dough-like mass. As the
material moves through the extruder, the pressure within the barrel increases due to a restriction
at the discharge of the barrel. High temperature short time (HTST) extrusion cooking also causes
an increase in the microbiological safety and shelf-life of the food through destruction of
pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms (Likimani et al., 1990). Extrusion cooking modifies the
digestible characteristics and functional properties, such as paste viscosity, water absorption and
water solubility indexes, expansion index and bulk density of protein and starch molecules
(Hernandez-Diaz et al., 2007).
2.4.1 Types of extruders
Basically, there are two different kinds of extruders namely single-screw extruder and twin-
screw extruder (co-rotating and counter rotating). Twin-screw extruders have the advantage of
processing highly viscous or sticky materials due to high fat or water content. Also, due to their
more positive conveying mechanism, they offer several advantages over the single-screw
counterparts, including better control, faster product changeover (including stop and start) and
20
less dependence on rheological properties permitting more variation in formula and process
conditions (Hauck, 1990).
2.4.2 Extrusion-cooking process
The extrusion-cooking process combines the effect of heat with the act of extrusion. Heat is
added to the feed dough as it passes through the screw by one or more of three mechanisms;
viscous dissipation of mechanical energy being added to the shaft of the screw, heat transfer
from steam or electrical heaters surrounding the barrel and direct injection of steam which is
mixed with the dough in the screw. The temperatures reached by the feed during cooking can be
quite high (200 oC) but the residence time at this elevated temperatures is very short (5 to 10 S).
For this reason, extrusion-cooking processes are often called HTST (High temperature/Short
time). These kinds of processes tend to maximize the beneficial effects of heating feeds while
minimizing the detrimental effects (Harper, 1979).
Extrusion-cooking process can be classified as wet or dry, depending on the use or not of water
and steam to prepare the product before being extruded. Wet extrusion-cooking often implies the
use of a conditioner and always implies the use of a dryer. There are several different parameters,
which are often interrelated, that must be controlled before and during the extrusion-cooking
process: particle size of raw ingredient mix, rate of ingredient mix flow in the extruder, amount
of steam moisture added during the preconditioning, retention time of the preconditioning,
retention time and moisture added in the extruder barrel, temperature of the mix and the barrel
during the extrusion, geometric configuration of screw segments and interval ribbing of the
extruder barrel, size and shape of the die orifice and retention time, temperature and air velocity
in the dryer (Harper, 1979).
21
2.4.3 Effects of extrusion-cooking process on the main feed constituents, micronutrients
and antinutrients
2.4.3.1 Starch
Starch granules undergo gelatinization and melting by the action of heat and moisture on
hydrogen binding among tightly packed polysaccharide chains in the granule structure. Under
conditions of excess water, hydrogen bindings in the less ordered amorphous regions of the
granule are disrupted first, allowing water to associate with free hydroxyl-groups. Swelling is the
result and further opening of the granule structure to the action occurs. Melting of the crystalline
fraction results in complete disappearance of refringence, which is irreversible complete starch
gelatinization is generally achieved at temperatures of 212 oC, moisture of 20 - 30 % or even at
lower moisture levels (10 - 20 %), provided high shear and temperatures are reached during
extrusion (Cheftel, 1986).
2.4.3.2 Protein
Most protein undergoes structural unfolding and/or aggregation when subjected to moist heat or
shear. This often leads to insolubilization and to inactivation (when the nature molecules posses
a biological activity). Extensive lysine loss can take place when legume or cereal legume blends
are extruded under severe conditions of temperature (≥ 180 oC) or shear forces (> l00 rpm) at
low moisture (< 15 %), especially in the presence of reducing sugars (3 % glucose, fructose,
maltose, lactose). This damage depends on the Maillard condensation between -NH2 groups of
lysine residues and C=O groups of reducing sugars (Björck and Asp, 1983).
2.4.3.3 Lipids
The nutritional value of lipids could be affected during extrusion as a result of oxidation,
hydrogenation, isomerization or polymerization (Camire et al., 1990). The autoxidation of
22
essential fatty acids (linoleic, linolenic, arachidonic) renders them unable to prevent the
dermatitis and poor growth associated with low intakes of these nutrients. Isomerization of the
double bonds from the cis to the trans form also destroys the essential activity of these
polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA). However, the amount of hydrogenation and cis-trans
isomerization of fatty acids that takes place during extrusion is too small to be nutritionally
significant (Camire et al., 1990).
2.4.3.4 Dietary fibre
Modifications in particle size, solubility and chemical structure of the various fibre components
could occur during extrusion-cooking and cause changes in bacterial degradation in the intestine
and in physiological properties (Björck et al., 1984).
2.4.3.5 Vitamins and minerals
According to Fellows (2000) vitamin losses in extruded foods vary according to the type of food,
the moisture content, the temperature of processing and the holding time. Generally, losses are
minimal in cold extrusion. The HTST conditions in extrusion cooking, and the rapid cooling as
the product emerges from the die, cause relatively small losses of most vitamins and essential
amino acids. For example at an extruder temperature of 154 ºC there is 95 % retention of thiamin
and little loss of riboflavin, pyridoxine, niacin or folic acid in cereals. However, losses of
ascorbic acid and β-carotene are up to 50 %, depending on the time that the food is held at the
elevated temperatures (Harper, 1979).
2.4.3.6 Antinutrients
Extrusion cooking also improves the nutritional quality of foods by destroying many natural
toxins and antinutrients. Enzyme inhibitors, hormone like compounds, saponins and other
23
compounds could impair growth and development in children, but these same compounds may
offer protection against chronic diseases in adults. Allergens and mycotoxins are very resistant to
thermal processing, but extrusion in combination with chemical treatment via reactive extrusion
may effectively reduce these compounds to safe levels (Camire, 2002).
2.5 Characteristics of extruded products
Before attempting to obtain the desirable target product using extrusion process, special attention
should be paid to know about the effect of extrusion condition on the product quality and to
acquire the operation technique of extruder. Product quality can vary considerably depending on
the extruder type, screw configuration, feed moisture, temperature profile in the barrel, screw
speed, feed rate and die profile. Including with raw material formulations such as incorporating
high levels of fiber in extruded product has often resulted in a compact, tough, noncrisp
extrudates, as a result of reduced expansion (Mercier and Fiellet, 1989).
Expansion promotes dehydration and the development of a desirable crispy texture on the final
extrudate (Patil et al., 2007). Therefore, expansion related parameters are important to determine
the quality of the extruded product. An insight into the expansion characteristics of different
starch crops is therefore required for new products development/formulation in developing
countries.
2.6 Health and Nutrition
Malnutrition is one of the major causes of high infant mortality in developing countries of the
world, especially sub-Saharan Africa (Philomena and Cecile, 1981). Globally, over 50 % of
childhood mortality is directly or indirectly attributable to malnutrition (SCN News, 2003). The
problem of malnutrition is complex with multiple causes which include social, economic,
24
environmental and cultural factors. However, inappropriate foods and feeding practices play a
major role in the etiology of malnutrition, particularly in developing countries (Walker, 1990).
Although sub-Saharan Africa is well endowed with rich agricultural produce that could be
harnessed through processing to produce adequate infant foods, early childhood malnutrition is
still rampant (ACC/SCN, 2002).
In Rwanda, complementary foods do not provide sufficient iron, zinc and vitamin B6 as these
minerals and vitamins are found primarily in animal foods, particularly in the form that can be
absorbed and utilized by the human body. Even in more affluent countries such as the United
State, iron and zinc were identified as problem nutrients in the first year of life, despite the
availability of iron-fortified products, due to the small amounts consumed (Griffin et al., 2001).
Certain other micronutrients are in short supply in many populations, due to the low nutrient
density of local complementary foods. These include riboflavin, niacin, thiamin, folate, calcium,
vitamin A and vitamin C. Dairy products are a good source of some nutrients, such as calcium,
but do not provide sufficient iron unless they are fortified (Griffin et al., 2001).
2.6.1 Micronutrients
Micronutrients are vitamins and mineral, which are needed in minute quantities for the normal
and physiological functioning of the body. They are normal chemical components of foods in
their active forms or as precursors of the active forms. They form components of enzymes or co-
factors needed for metabolic reactions in the body (Aworh et al., 2011). Inadequate levels of
micronutrients in the body results in micronutrient malnutrition or deficiencies.
25
2.6.2 Micronutrient deficiencies
Deficiencies of micronutrients are a major global health problem. According to Tontisirin et al.
(2002), more than one-third of the world‟s population suffers from micronutrient malnutrition,
which exists as a form of hidden hunger, the effects of which are often overlooked. It is
estimated that more than 2 billion people in the world today are deficient in key vitamins and
minerals, particularly vitamin A, iodine, iron and zinc. Most of these people live in low income
countries and are typically deficient in more than one micronutrient. Deficiencies occur when
people do not have access to micronutrient-rich foods such as fruits, vegetables, animal products
and fortified foods, usually because they are too expensive to buy or are locally unavailable.
2.6.3 Vitamin A Deficiency (VAD)
Clinical vitamin A deficiency (VAD) is less common, but the sub-clinical form, defined by
serum retinol < 0.7 µmol/l, is present in many populations. It can be caused by low dietary intake
of available vitamin A from animal sources such as liver, eggs, milk, or plant sources such as
green leafy vegetables and orange fleshed fruits. In children, vitamin A status may be aggravated
due to infectious diseases. The effects of vitamin A deficiency, both clinical and sub-clinical,
range from blindness to decreased resistance to infections and increased mortality and morbidity.
In sub-Saharan Africa, 36 million preschool children are affected by VAD (Mason et al., 2001).
Of these, 17.4 million (48 %) are in Western and Central Africa.
2.6.4 Iodine Deficiency (IDD)
Iodine deficiency (IDD) constitutes the single greatest cause of preventable brain damage in the
fetus and infant, and of retarded psychomotor development in young children. IDD remains a
major threat to the health and development of populations worldwide, but particularly among
preschool children and pregnant woman. It results in goiter, stillbirth and miscarriages, but the
26
most devastating involves mental retardation, deaf-mutism and impaired educability. About 20-
40 % of the people in the Sub-Saharan Africa are at risk for iodine deficiency disorders (IDD).
Although the coverage of iodized salt has increased over the years (in Sub-Saharan Africa
approximately 65 % of households consume iodized salt), the numbers of newborns unprotected
from IDD continue to be large (Maziya-Dixon et al., 2004).
2.6.5 Zinc Deficiency
Zinc is now recognized as an essential micronutrient (trace element) critical in human nutrition.
The clinical syndrome associated with zinc deficiency includes growth retardation, male
hypogonadism, skin changes, mental lethargy, hepatosplenomegaly, iron deficiency anemia and
geophagia. Apart from low zinc levels occasioned by rapid growth, pregnancy and lactation can
also lead to zinc deficiency if these increased needs are not met (Maziya-Dixon et al., 2004).
Zinc content of beans is one of the highest among vegetable sources and is nearly equal to dairy
products but is far lesser than in meats. Evaluation of the bean core collection revealed a range of
21 to 54 ppm in Zn content, with an average value of 35 ppm (Beebe et al., 2000).
2.6.6 Iron Deficiency (ID)
Iron deficiency is widely prevalent in Sub-Saharan Africa. During childhood and adolescence, it
lowers resistance to disease and impairs learning capacity. It reduces the ability of adults for
physical labor. Severe anemia increases the risk of women dying in childbirth. In Rwanda,
anemia, which is used as an indicator of iron deficiency, afflicts almost one out of five non-
pregnant women and 40 % of children under five years. Anemia, one of the consequences of iron
deficiency (IDA), is not only a risk for mortality (especially maternal), but has extensive effects
on cognitive development, learning ability and work capacity (Maziya-Dixon et al., 2004). The
risk of iron deficiency increases during periods of rapid growth, notably in infancy, adolescence
27
and pregnancy. Iron deficiency results when ingestion or absorption of dietary iron is inadequate
to meet iron losses or iron requirements imposed by growth or pregnancy. In most individuals,
the concentrations of serum reflect a deficient, excessive and normal iron status (Maziya-Dixon
et al., 2004).
2.6.7 Prevalence of iron deficiency and iron deficiency anemia
Globally, nearly two billion people are affected by anemia (McLean et al., 2008). The majority
of those affected live in developing countries where the problem is exacerbated by limited access
to inadequate resources and appropriate treatment (Baltussen et al., 2004). IDA is unique in that
it is the only nutrient deficiency which is significantly prevalent in virtually all industrialized
nations as well. Approximately 50 % of all cases of anemia are caused by iron deficiency
(McLean et al., 2008). The Table (Table 2) below shows hemoglobin levels below which anemia
is present in a population.
Iron Deficiency Anemia: A Public Health Problem of Global Proportions
Table 2: Hemoglobin levels below which anemia is present in a population
Age or gender group Hemoglobin(g/L)

6 – 59 months 110
5 – 11 years 115
12 – 14 years 120
Non-pregnant women (>15 years) 120
Pregnant women 110
Males (>15 years) 130
Source: (McLean et al., 2008)
2.6.8 Strategies for addressing Micronutrients Deficiencies
Micronutrient deficiencies can be prevented and even eliminated if small quantities of the
micronutrients (Vitamin A, I, Fe and Zinc) are consumed by populations on a continuous and
28
ongoing basis. Integrated approaches are recommended to reduce and ideally eliminate
micronutrient deficiencies (Begin and Greig, 2002). The solution to the micronutrient
deficiencies is readily available and affordable. As enumerated by WHO/WFP/UNICEF, (2006)
they include supplementation, iron supplementation, food based strategy for addressing
micronutrient deficiencies, biofortification and plant breeding strategy.
2.6.9 Biofortification
Biofortification was identified by the 2008 Copenhagen Consensus as a viable solution, once
defined the obstacles to the wide use of dietary supplements and food fortification to fight
malnutrition. Biofortification was ranked fifth among priority solutions to malnutrition, preceded
by micronutrient supplements for children and micronutrient fortification (iron and salt
iodization). The availability of micronutrient-rich food staples could be increased through
selection and breeding or genetic engineering for micronutrient-dense staples. Biofortification
represents a potentially powerful tool to increase the concentrations of nutrients of public health
concern in staple foods (Johns and Eyzaguirre, 2007).
29
CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Procurement of Raw Materials
Maize (Zea mays L.) and Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) were purchased from
Rwanda Agricultural Board (RAB) stations, while iron rich biofortified beans (Phaseolus
vulgaris L.) and common beans were obtained from Harvest plus farm at Rubona in Rwanda.
3.2 Preparation of Samples
The raw materials were processed into flours as stated below.
3.2.1 Production of beans flour
Bean seeds were processed into flour according to the method of Eneche (2006). Two kilograms
of the seeds were cleaned manually by sorting and winnowing. The cleaned seeds were soaked in
tap water containing 0.1 % Sodium metabisulphite (NaHSO3). The soaked bean seeds were
dehulled using traditional method and the weight of dehulled seeds were noted. The dehulled
bean seed were boiled at 100 oC for 20 min and dried at 60 oC for 10 hours in an oven (Fulton,
Model NYC-101 oven). The seeds were reduced to powder using a hammer mill (Driver model:
De-Demark Super) and sieved through 500 µm mesh. The flow diagram for the preparation of
bean flour is shown in Figure 3.
30
Beans (iron rich beans, common beans) seeds
Weighing /Sorting and Cleaning
Soaking in tap water containing
0.1 % Sodium metabisulphite (NaHSO3)
Dehulling
Boiling (100 oC, 20 min)
Drying in the tray dryer (60 oC, 10 h)
Milling
Sieving with 500 µm mesh
Weighing
Package Beans Flour in Polyethylene Bags
Figure 3: Flow diagram for the processing of beans flour (Eneche, 2006).
31
3.2.2 Production of Germinated Maize Flour
Germinated maize was processed into flour according to the method described by Kulkarni et al.
(1991). The flow diagram for the preparation of germinated maize flour is shown in Figure 4
Maize
Soaking in tap water (18 h, 25 - 30 oC)
Germination (48 h)
Drying in the tray dryer (60 oC, 10 h)
Milling
Weighing
Packaging Maize Flour in Polyethylene Bags
Figure 4: Flow diagram for the processing of germinated maize flour (Kulkarni et al., 1991)
32
3.2.3 Production of Malted Sorghum Flour
Malted sorghum grains were processed into flour according to the method described by Lalude
and Fashakin (2006). The flow diagram for the preparation of malted sorghum flour is shown in
Figure 5.
Sorghum
Soaking in tap water for 8 hours
Germination at room temperature for 72 hours
Drying (60 oC, 2 h), hot air oven method
Milling
Weighing
Packaging of Sorghum Flour in Polyethylene Bags
Figure 5: Flow diagram for the processing of malted sorghum flour (Lalude and Fashakin,
2006).
33
3.3 Blend formulation and processing methods
3.3.1 Blend formulation
In order to formulate weaning diet, the material balance method requires the use of proximate
values of the raw materials and employs three basic categories; materials in, materials out and
materials stored (Amankwah et al., 2009). Therefore, the primary criteria is to select the
components rich in providing protein and energy requirements, the next target is to know the
proximate values of the raw materials that are going to be blended. They are required as an input
for material balance. Of these compositions commonly used for formulation are proteins,
carbohydrates and fat that provide body with energy. The output components which were used in
the material balance are from FAO or WHO standards based on the targeted age. Therefore, the
material balance method was used to target 20 % protein, 60 % carbohydrates (Amankwah et al.,
2009) and minimum energy value of 380 KCal. per 100 g dry matter according to WHP
requirement specifications in the weaning blend formulation for particularly the age group of 6
to18 months.
3.4 Preparation of Flour Blends
Iron bean flour (FBF), Quality Protein Maize flour (QPMF), sorghum flour (SF) were blended in
the ratio of 22.99:23.83:53.18 to produce extruded weaning food A. Common bean flour (CBF),
Quality Protein Maize flour (QPMF), sorghum flour (SF) were blended in the ratio of
20.89:20.49:58.62 to produce extruded weaning food B. The following Table (Table 3) shows
the ratio of formulation of dietary blends.
34
Table 3: Composite flour blends prepared from beans, maize and sorghum
Diets Sorghum Maize Iron biofortified Bean Common Bean
A 53.18 23.83 22.99 -

B 58.62 20.49 - 20.89
3.3.2 Production of Weaning Food
The weaning foods were prepared using the method described by Okafor et al. (2008) with slight
modifications. The flour (1000 g), sugar (100 g), baking fat (10 g), beaten egg (100 ml),
skimmed milk (200 g) and salt (10 g) were mixed together manually for 5 minutes to get a
creamy dough. Cinnamon (10 g) was then added. The measured amount of deionized water (250
ml) was gradually added using continuous mixing until good textured, slightly firm dough was
obtained. After mixing, the dough was extruded using a locally fabricated FST 001 single screw
extruder available at the Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Nigeria,
Nsukka. The dough was fed from the hopper mounted vertically above the feed end of extruder.
The extruder barrel was externally heated by three heating elements. The barrel temperature was
controlled by adjusting the control panel knobs. Samples were extruded at 80, 100 and150 oC for
entry, centre and end barrel temperatures, respectively and at the screw speed of 250 rpm. The
extrudates were dried for 30 minutes in an oven (Fulton, Model NYC-10 oven) at temperature of
60 oC, cooled to room temperature, packaged in polyethylene bags and stored for further
analysis. The flow diagram for the production of extruded weaning foods is shown in Figure 6.
35
Weighing of ingredients
Mixing (flour, sugar, salt, baking fat and skimmed milk)
Addition of other ingredients (cinnamon)
Dough mixing
Extrusion cooking
Drying for 30 minutes at 60 oC
Cooling
Packaging
Figure 6: Flow diagram for the production of extruded weaning food.
36
3.4. Chemical Analysis
3.4.1. Proximate Analysis
3.4.1.1. Determination of Moisture Content
Moisture content was determined according to the standard methods of Association of Official
Analytical Chemists (AOAC, 2010). Stainless steel oven dishes were cleaned and dried in the
oven at 100 oC for 1 hour to achieve a constant weight. They were cooled in a disiccator and then
weighed (W1). Two-gram sample was placed in each dish (W2) and dried in the oven at 100 oC
until constant weight was achieved. The dishes together with the samples were cooled in a
disiccator and weighed (W3).
Where,
W1 = weight of dish
W2 = weight of dish + sample before drying
W3 = weight of dish + sample after drying
3.4.1.2 Determination of Crude Protein
Crude Protein was determined by using the Kjedahl method (AOAC, 2010). Two - gram sample
was placed in the Kjedahl flask. Anyhdrous sodium sulphate (5 g of Kjeldahl catalyst) was added
to the flask. Concentrated H2SO4 (25 ml) was added. The flask was heated in the fume chamber
until the sample solution became clear. The sample solution was allowed to cool to room
37
temperature and then was transferred into a 250 ml volumetric flask and made up to volume with
distilled water.
The distillation unit was cleaned and the apparatus set up. Five milliliters (5 ml) of 2 % boric
acid solution with few drops of methyl red indicator introduced into a distillate collector (100 ml
conical flask). The conical flask was placed under the condenser. Then the sample digest (5 ml)
was pipetted into the apparatus, and washed down with distilled water. Five milliliters (5 ml) of
60 % sodium hydroxide solution was added to the digest. The sample was heated until 100 ml of
distillate was collected in the receiving flask. The content of the receiving flask was titrated with
0.049 M H2SO4 to a pink colored end point. A blank with filter paper was subjected to the same
procedure.
Nitrogen factor = 6.25
Crude protein = % total N 6.25
3.4.1.3 Determination of Crude Fat
The fat content was determined according to AOAC (2010) Soxhlet extraction method. A 500 ml
capacity round bottom flask was filled with 300 ml petroleum ether and fixed to the Soxhlet
extractor. Two - gram sample was placed in a labeled thimble. The extractor thimble was sealed
with cotton wool. Heat was applied to reflux the apparatus for six hours. The Thimble was
removed with care. The petroleum ether was recovered for reuse. When the flask was free of
ether it was removed and dried at 105 oC for 1 hour in an oven. The flask was cooled in a
desiccator and weighed.
38
3.4.1.4. Determination of Crude Fiber
Crude fiber content was determined using the method in AOAC (2010). The sample (3 g) was
weighed into a 50 ml beaker and fat was extracted with petroleum ether by stirring, settling and
decanting three times. The extracted sample was air dried and transferred to a 600 ml dried
beaker. Then 200 ml of 1.25 % sulphuric acid and few drops of anti-foaming agent were added
to the beaker. The beaker was placed on digestion apparatus with pre-adjusted hot plate and
boiled for 30 minutes, rotating beaker periodically to keep solid from adhering on the side of the
beaker. At the end of 30 minutes period, the mixture was allowed to stand for one minute and
then filtered through a Buchner funnel. Without breaking suction, the insoluble matter was
washed with boiling water until it was free of the acid. The residue was washed back into the
original flask by means of a wash bottle containing 200 ml of 1.25 % sodium hydroxide solution.
It was again boiled briskly for 30 minutes with similar precautions as before. After boiling for 30
minutes, it was allowed to stand for one minute and then filtered immediately under suction. The
residue was washed with boiling water, followed by 1 % hydrochloric acid and finally with
boiling water until it was free of acid. It was washed twice with alcohol and then with ether for
three times. The residue was transferred into ash dish and dried at 100 oC to a constant weight.
Incineration to ash was done at 600 oC for 30 minutes, cooled in a disiccator and weighed. The
difference in weight between oven dry weight and weight after incineration was taken as the
fibre content of the sample. This was expressed as a percentage weight of the original sample
taken for analysis.
39
3.4.1.5 Determination of Ash
Ash content was carried out according to AOAC (2010) procedure. Two - gram sample was
placed in silica dish which had been ignited, cooled and weighed (W1). The dish and sample
(W2) were ignited first gently and then dried at 550 oC in a muffle furnace for 3 hours, until a
white or grey ash was obtained. The dish and content were cooled in a dissicator and weighed
(W3).
Where,
W1 = weight of dish
W2 = weight of dish + sample before ashing
W3 = weight of dish + sample after ashing
3.4.1.6 Determination of Carbohydrates
Using the standard method of AOAC (2010), Carbohydrate was determined by difference as
follows:
40
3.4.1.7 Determination of Calorific Content
The value obtained for protein, fat and carbohydrate were used to calculate the calorific content
value of the samples according to the method of Mahgoub (1999) by using the formula as shown
in the following equation:
Protein content (%) = P
Fat content (%) = F
Carbohydrate content (%) = C
3.4.2 Micronutrient Analysis
3.4.2.1 Determination of Vitamins
3.4.2.1.1 Vitamin A
The AOAC (2010) method using the calorimeter was adopted. This measures the unstable colour
at the absorbance of 620 nm that result from reaction between vitamin A and SbL3. Pyrogallol
(antioxidant) was added to two gram sample prior to saponification with 200 ml alcoholic KOH.
The saponification took place in water bath for 30 minutes. The solution was transferred to a
separating funnel where water was added. The solution was extracted with 1 - 2.5 ml of hexane.
The extraction was washed with equal volume of water. The extract was filtered through filter
paper containing five - gram anhydrous NaSO4 into volumetric flask. The filter paper was rinsed
with hexane and made up to volume. The hexane was evaporated from the solution and blank.
Then 1ml chloroform and SbL3 solution were added to the extract and blank. The reading of the
solution and blank was taken from the colorimeter adjusted to zero absorbance or 100 %.
41
Where,
A620 nm = absorbance at 620 nm
SL = slop of standard curve (Vit. A conc) + A620 reading
V = final volume in colorimeter tube
Wt = weight of sample
3.4.2.1.2 Determination of Vitamin C
The AOAC (2010) method of using 2, 6 dichlorophenol titrimetric method was used. Two - gram
(2 g) sample was extracted by homogenizing sample in acetic acid solution.
Procedure
The standard solution was prepared by dissolving 50 mg standard ascorbic acid tablet in 100 ml
in a volumetric flask with water. The solution was filtered to get clear solution. The filtrate (10
ml) was added into a flask in which 2.5 ml acetone was added. This was titrated with
indophenols solution (dye 2.6, dichlorophenol indophenols) to a faint pink colour which persists
for 115 seconds. The standard was treated identically.
Where,
C = Mg ascorbic acid 1ml dye
V = volume of dye used for titrate of diluted sample
42
DF = dilution factor
WT = weight of sample in g
3.4.2.1.3 Determination of Vitamin E
Vitamin E was determined by using the method described by Kirk and Sawyer (1998). One gram
of the sample was weighed into a 100 ml flask; 10 ml of absolute alcohol and 20 ml of M
alcoholic tetraoxosulphate VI acid (H2SO4) were added. Ten milliliter of the clear solution was
pipetted into a test tube and heated in a water bath at 90 oC for 30 mins. This was allowed to
cool. The absorbance was read in a spectrophotometer at 470 nm wavelength.
Where,
a = absorbance of test sample
b = absorbance of the blank
c = concentration of standard in mg/100g
s = absorbance of the standard solution
w = weight of the sample used
3.4.2.1.4 Determination of Thiamin (Vitamin B1)
Thiamin content was determined by using the scalar analyzer method of AOAC (2010). Each
five - gram (5 g) (W) sample was homogenized in 5 ml normal ethanoic sodium hydroxide
solution. The homogenate was filtered and made up to 100 ml with the extract solution. A ten -
milliliter aliquot to the extract was dispensed into a flask and 10 ml of potassium dichromate
43
solution added. The resultant solution was incubated for 15 mins at room temperature (25 ± 1
o
C). The absorption was read from the spectrophotometer at 360 nm using a reagent blank to
standardize the instrument at zero. The thiamin content was calculated as follows:
Where
W = weight of sample analysed
au = absorbance of the sample solution
as = absorbance of standard solution
c = concentration of standard solution
d = dilution factor
3.4.2.1.5 Determination of Riboflavin (vitamin B2)
Riboflavin was determined according to AOAC (2010) method. Two - gram (2 g) sample (W)
was placed in a conical flask and 50 ml of 0.2 N HCL was added to the sample, boiled for 1
hour, and then cooled. The pH was adjusted to 6.0 by using sodium hydroxide 1N HCL was
added to the sample solution to lower the pH to 4.5. The solution was filtered into 100 ml
measuring flask and made to volume with water.
In order to remove interference, two tubes were taken, labeled 1 and 2. Ten milliliter of filtrate
and 1ml of riboflavin standard were added to test tube 2. About 1 ml of glacial acetic acid was
added to each tube and mixed, and then 0.5 ml of 3 % KMnO4 solution was added to each tube.
44
They were allowed to stand for 2 minutes, after which 0.5 ml of 3 % H2SO4 was added and
mixed well.
The flourimeter was adjusted to excitation wavelength of 470 nm and emission wavelength of
525 nm. The flourimeter was adjusted to zero deflection against 0.1 N H2SO4 and100 against
tube 2 (standard). The fluorescence of tube one (1) was read. Two milliliter of sodium hydrogen
sulphate was added to both tubes and fluorescence measured within 10 seconds. This was
recorded as blank reading.
Where,
W = weight of sample
X = reading of sample - blank reading
Y = reading of sample + standard tube (2) - reading of sample + standard blank
3.4.2.2 Determination of Minerals
3.4.2.2.1 Determination of Iron, Iodine and Zinc
Iron, iodine and zinc were determined by the method described by Onwuka (2005). Three - gram
(3 g) sample was placed in a crucible and put in a muffle furnace at 550 oC for 6 h, after which it
was allowed to cool for 1hour in the furnace before being transferred to the dessicator. One
gramme (1 g) of ashed sample was weighed into a digestion flask and 20 ml of the acid mixture
(650 ml Conc. HNO3, 8 ml PCA and 20 ml Conc. H2SO4) was added. The digestion flask was
heated until a clear digest is obtained. The digest was diluted with distilled water to 500 ml mark.
45
Ten milliliter (10 ml) of the diluted digest was injected into the atomic absorption
spectrophotometer and the absorbance was read at the maximum wavelength (λmax) of absorption
of respective element. Standard curves were plotted, from which the concentration of each
mineral (Iodine, Iron and Zinc) was extrapolated.
Preparation of standard curves for minerals
The absorbance of the solution in atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Buck Scientific 205
atomic absorption spectrophotometer, East Norwalk) was read at different wavelength for each
mineral (Zn at 540 nm, Fe at 510 nm and I at 539.5 nm) from their respective hollow cathode
lamp. The absorbance/concentrations obtained were used to plot a standard graph. The respective
mineral concentration was obtained by extrapolation on the standard curve.
3.4.2.2.2 Determination of Phosphorus
Phosphorus in the samples was determined according to Onwuka (2005) by the molybdate
method using hydroquinone as a reducing agent. Five milliliters (5 ml) of the test sodium was
pipetted into 50 ml graduated flask. Then 10 ml of molybdate mixture was added and diluted to
mark with water. It was allowed to stand for 30 minutes for colour development. The absorbance
was measured at 660 nm against a blank. A curve relating absorbance to milligram (mg)
phosphorus present was constructed. Using the phosphorus standard solution, and following the
same procedure for the test sample, a standard curve was plotted to determine the concentration
of phophorus in the sample.
46
3.4.2.2.3 Determination of Calcium
Calcium was determined by using the method described by Kirk and Sawyer (1998). Twenty-
five milliliter (25 ml) of the digested sample was pipette into 250 ml conical flask and a pinch of
Eriochrome Black-T- Indicator (EBT) was added. Thereafter, 2 ml of 0.1 N NaOH solution was
added and the mixture titrated with standard ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) (0.01 M
EDTA) solution.
Where,
T = titre value
M = morality of EDTA
E = equivalent weight of calcium
3.4.3 Analysis of Anti-nutritional factors
3.4.3.1 Determination of Phytate
Phytate content was determined by the method of Latta and Eskin (1980). Five - gram (5 g)
sample was weighed into a 500 ml flat bottom flask. Phytate was extracted with 100 ml of 2.45
M HCl. After extraction, it was allowed to stand for 1 hour at room temperature then centrifuged.
The supernatant (2.4 g) was decanted and diluted with 1 ml of distilled water. The diluted sample
(10 ml) was passed through an amberlite resin. Inorganic phosphorus was eluted with 0.7 M
NaCl. Into a 15 ml centrifuge tube, 3 ml of the 0.7 M eluant was pipetted, mixed on a vortex for
5 sec and centrifuged. The absorbance of the supernatant was read at 500 nm. Water was used to
zero the spectrophotometer. Standard curve was prepared from sodium phytate dilutions ranging
47
from 5 - 40 µg in distilled water and plotted against concentration of phytates. Three milliliters
(3 ml) of the solution was pipetted into 15 ml conical centrifuge tubes, 1 ml of Wade reagent
(0.03 % FeCl2. 6H2O and 0.3 % Sulphosalicicylic acid) was added to it. This was homogenized in
a vortex for 5 seconds and centrifuged for 10 minutes. Absorbance of supernatant was read at
500 nm. Phytate content was estimated from the standard.
3.4.3.2 Determination of Tannins
Tannin content was determined by the Folis-Denis colorimetric method described by Kirk and
Sawyer (1998). Five gram (5 g) sample was dispersed in 50 ml of distilled water and shaken.
The mixture was allowed to stand for 30 minutes at 28 oC before it was filtered through
Whatman No 42 grade of filter paper. The extract (2 ml) was dispersed into a 50 ml volumetric
flask. Similarly, 2 ml standard tannin solution (tannic acid) and 2 ml of distilled water were put
in separate volumetric flasks to serve as standard and reagent was added to each of the flask and
then 2.5 ml of saturated NaCO3 solution was added. The content of each flask was made up to 50
ml with distilled water and allowed to incubate at 28 oC for 90 minutes. Their respective
absorbance was measured in a spectrophotometer at 260 nm using the reagent blank to calibrate
the instrument at zero.
3.4.3.3 Determination of Oxalates
Oxalate was determined by the method described by Onwuka (2005). This determination
involves three major steps; digestion, oxalate precipitation and permanganate titration.
48
Digestion
Two - gram sample was suspended in 190 ml distilled water in a 250 ml volumetric flask. To it
was added 10 ml of 6 M HCl and digested at 100 oC for 1 hour. The digested sample was cooled
and made up to 250 ml mark before filtration.
Oxalate Precipitation
Triplicate portions of 125 ml of the filtrate were measured into beakers and tree drops of methyl
red indicator were added. This was followed by the addition of conc. NH4OH solution
(dropwise) until the test solution changed from salmon pink colour to a faint yellow colour. Each
of portions was heated again to 90 oC and 5 % CaCl2 solution (10 ml) was added while being
stirred continuously. After heating, it was cooled and left overnight at 5 oC. The solution was
centrifuged at 2500 rpm for 5 minutes. The supernatant was decanted and the precipitate
completely dissolved in 10 ml of 20 % (v/v) H2SO4 solution.
Permanganate Titration
The filtrate resulting from precipitation was made up to 300 ml. Aliquots of 125 ml of filtrate
were heated until near boiling point and then titrated against 0.05 M standardized KMNO4
solution to faint pink colour which persists for 30 seconds. Oxalate content was calculated using
the formula,
Where,
T = titre value
49
Vme = volume-mass equivalent (i.e. 1 cm3 of 0.05 M is equivalent to 0.00225 g anhydrous
oxalic acid)
Df = dilution factor
ME = molar equivalent of KMNO4 in oxalate (KMNO4 redox reaction)
Mf = mass of sample
3.4.3.4 Determination of Saponin
The saponin contents of samples were determined following the AOAC (2010) method. Saponin
extraction was done using acetone and menthol. Crude lipid content of sample was extracted
with acetone while methanol was used to extract saponin. Sample (2.0 g in triplicate) (C) was
folded in a filter paper and put in a thimble and extracted by refluxing in a Soxhlet extractor.
Extraction was done with acetone in a 250 ml capacity round bottomed flask for 3 hours after
which the apparatus was dismantled and another 150 ml capacity flask containing 100 ml
methanol was fitted to the extractor and extraction sustained for another 3 hours.Weight of flask
(B) before and after the second extraction was taken to note the change in weight. Methanol was
recovered by distillation after the second extraction and the flasks oven-dried, allowed to cool at
room temperature and weighed (A). Saponin content was calculated from the formula:
Where,
A = mass of flask and extract
B = mass of empty flask
50
C = mass of sample
3.4.3.5 Determination of Trypsin inhibitor
The method of Arntfield et al. (1985) was used in extraction of sample. The test sample (10 ml)
was dispersed in 50 ml of 0.5 M NaCl solution. The mixture was stirred for 30 minutes at room
temperature and centrifuged. The supernatants were filtered through whatman No 41 filter paper.
The filtrate (extract) was used for the essay.
Procedure
The standard trypsin solution (2 ml) was added to 10 ml of the substrate.
The blank (10 ml) of the same substrate (trypsin) was prepared with no extract (test sample)
added.
The content of the test tubes was allowed to stand for at least 5 min and it was then measured
with the spectrophotometer at 420 nm absorbance.
Where,
b = absorbance of test sample solution
a = absorbance of the blank
f = experimental factor given by,
w = weight of sample
51
VF = total volume of extract
Va = volume of extract used in the assay
D = dilution factor (if any)
3.4.4 Determination of Functional Properties
3.4.4.1 Determination of Bulk Density (BD)
The Bulk density of the sample was determined by the method of Okaka and Potter (1979). A
previously weighed (W1) measuring cylinder was filled to the 10 ml mark with the sample. The
bottom of cylinder was tapped gently but repeatedly on a laboratory bench until there was no
futher reduction of the sample level at the 10 ml (V) mark. The cylinder with the sample was
weighed (W2). The BD of the sample was determined by:
Where,
BD = bulk density in (g/cm3)
W1= weight of empty cylinder (g)
W2= weight of cylinder + sample (g)
V = volume of cylinder occupied by the sample (cm3)
52
3.4.4.2 Determination of Water absorption capacity (WAC)
Water absorption capacity was determined by the modified method of Ghandi and Srivastava
(2007). One-gram (1 g) sample (W0) was dispensed into a weighed centrifuge tube (W1) with 10
ml distilled water and mixed thoroughly. The mixture was allowed to stand for 1 hour before
being centrifuged at 3500 rpm for 30 minutes. The supernatant was discarded and the tube
weighed (W2). The weight of water absorbed was determined by difference. The water
absorption capacity was calculated as:
Where,
W2 = weight of the tube plus sediment (g)
W1 = weight of the tube plus dry sample (g)
W0 = weight of dry sample (g)
3.4.4.3 Determination of Swelling Capacity (SC)
The method described by Ukpabi and Ndimele (1990) was used. Ten - gram sample was
measured into a 300 ml measuring cylinder. Then distilled water (150 ml) was added to the
sample and allowed to stand for four hours. The final volume after swelling was recorded. The
percentage of swelling was calculated as:
53
3.4.4.4 Determination of pH
The pH of the samples was measured in a 10 % (w/v) dispersion of the samples in distilled
water. Each suspension was mixed thoroughly and a standard pH meter (Hanna meter model
H96107) was used for pH determination. The pH electrode was dipped into the solution and after
a few minutes of equilibration, the pH reading of the sample was taken.
3.4.5 Microbial Analysis
3.4.5.1 Total Plate Count of Bacteria
Pour plate method as described by Harrigan and McCance (1976) was used. One gram (1 g) of
the sample was macerated into 9 ml of Ringers solution and mixed thoroughly by shaking. This
was further diluted to obtain 10-2 and 10-3 concentration. Then 0.1 ml dilution was transferred
from each dilution bottle into corresponding plate and 15 ml of sterile nutrient agar medium was
poured and mixed thoroughly with the inoculums by rocking the plates. The plates were
incubated at 38 oC for 24 hours after which the colonies formed were counted and expressed as
colony forming units per gram (cfu/g).
3.4.5.2 Mould Counts
The pour plate as described by Harrigan and McCance (1976) was also used. The sample dilution
weighing 0.1 ml was transferred from each dilution into corresponding plates and 15 ml of sterile
Sabourand Dextrose Agar (SDA) medium was poured and mixed thoroughly with the inoculums
by rocking the plates. The plates were incubated at ambient temperature for three days after
which colonies formed were counted and expressed as colony forming units per gram (cfu/g).
54
3.4.5.3 Coliform Count
The pour plate method of Harrigan and McCance (1976) was used. Nine milliliters (9 ml) of
sterilized violet red bile agar was put into each plate containing 1ml of inoculums from 10-3
dilution. The plate was shaken gently to mix the content properly and then it was allowed to set
and subsequently incubated at 37 oC for 72 hours. After incubation the number of colonies which
appeared with dark red or pink centres was counted. This was expressed as colony forming units
per gram (cfu/g).
3.5 Sensory Evaluation
Sensory evaluation of extruded weaning food made from sorghum, QPM and beans flour blends
compared to commercial weaning food was conducted using ten female panel members. A nine -
point Hedonic scale as described by Ihekoronye and Ngoddy (1985) was used. The scale ranged
from like extremely (9) to dislike extremely (1). Each of the samples was rated for appearance,
mouth feel, flavor, texture, taste, after taste, consistency and overall acceptability (Iwe, 2002).
3.6 Experimental Design and Statistical Analysis
The experiment was laid out in Completely Randomized Design (CRD). Data were subjected to
one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) using statistical package for Social Sciences (SPSS)
version 20.0. Least Significant Difference (LSD) was used to compare the treatment means.
Satistical significance was accepted at p ˂ 0.05 (Steel and Torrie, 1980).
55
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Proximate Composition of Flour from Bean, Sorghum and QPM
The proximate compositions of flour obtained from processing beans, sorghum and QPM are
shown in (Table 4). The ash contents of flour samples ranged from 1.60 to 3.70 % indicating
increase in the mineral contents in the samples this increase was significant (p ˂ 0.05). The ash
values for the two legume flour samples ranged from 3.05 to 3.70 %. Significant (p ˂ 0.05)
differences were observed among the two legume flour samples. The highest ash value of 3.70 %
was observed in iron rich biofortified bean flour, which was very close to the values of 3 to 4 %
reported by Sai-Ut et al. (2009) in white beans. The lowest ash value of 3.05 % observed in
common bean sample flour was comparable to some reported studies on legumes that showed
ash content to range from 3.0 to 5.8 % in wild jack bean (Vadivel and Janardhanan, 2001). Ash
content of the two cereal samples ranged from 1.60 to 3.00 %. Significant (p ˂ 0.05) differences
were observed among the two cereal flour samples. The ash value of 3.00 % observed in
sorghum flour was high and comparable to the results of Hamad (2007) who reported that
sorghum ash content ranged from 1.51 to 2.06 %. The chemical composition of sorghum grain is
more variable than that of many other cereal crops (Rooney and Waniska, 2000). The lowest
value of ash 1.60 % was observed in QPM. The value, however, was very close to the range of
ash contents (1.64, 2.00 and 1.78 %) among the three types of maize normal, soft endosperm
opaque-2 and hard endosperm opaque-2, respectively reported by Angel et al. (1982).
56
Table 4 : Proximate Composition (%) of Flour from Bean, Sorghum and QPM
Sample Ash Moisture Protein Fat Fiber Carbohydrate Energy

(Kcal/100g)
Fe-Bean 3.70a ± 0.03 8.05c ± 0.01 31.51b ± 0.02 1.04c ± 0.06 4.21b ± 0.03 51.49c ± 0.03 341.36d ± 0.50
Sorghum 3.00b ± 0.01 9.50a ± 0.40 18.99c ± 0.00 4.50b ± 0.01 4.80a ± 0.09 59.21b ± 0.27 353.30b ± 1.35
QPM 1.60c ± 0.03 9.00b ± 0.00 10.40d ± 0.04 5.70a ± 0.05 2.30d ± 0.01 71.00a ± 0.13 376.90a ± 0.81
C-Bean 3.05b ± 0.36 8.28c ± 0.01 32.68a ± 0.03 1.04c ± 0.10 4.11c ± 0.01 50.84d ± 0.34 343.44c ± 1.36
Values are means of triplicate determinations ± standard deviation. Samples with different superscripts within the same column were
significantly different (p ˂ 0.05). Samples were: Fe-Bean = Iron biofortified beans, Sorghum, QPM = Quality Protein Maize and C-
bean = Common Bean.
57
The moisture contents of flour samples ranged from 8.05 to 9.50 %. Significant (p ˂ 0.05)
differences were observed among flour samples. The moisture content values for the two bean
flour samples ranged from 8.05 to 8.28 %. There were no significant (p ˃ 0.05) differences
among the bean flour samples because these were from the same species of leguminous seeds,
and flour processing procedures were the same. The lowest moisture content value of 8.05 %
was observed in iron biofortified beans flour which was close to the range of 8.52 to 11.07 %
moisture content in white beans as reported by Kahlon et al. (2005). The highest value 8.28 %
moisture was observed in common beans. The moisture contents of cereal flour samples ranged
from 9.00 to 9.50 %. Significant (p ˂ 0.05) differences were observed among the two cereal flour
samples. The values were higher than the range of 6.8 - 7.8 % reported by El-Hidai (1978). The
highest moisture content value of 9.50 % was observed in sorghum flour. This value was within
the range of 5.7 to 10.4 % found in Sudanese sorghum (Yousif and Magboul, 1972). The lowest
value was observed in QPM (9.00 %). This value was close to the results reported by Sharma et
al. (2002) that the moisture content in QPM ranged from 8.21 to 8.85 %.
The protein contents of the two legume samples ranged from 31.51 to 32.68 %. There were
significant (p ˂ 0.05) differences among the two legume flour samples. The values were within
the range of other selected legumes such as wild jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis) (28.9 - 35.0
%) (Vadivel and Janardhanan, 2001). The lowest crude protein was observed in iron biofortified
beans (31.51 %) and was higher compared to the crude protein value of white beans (16.36 to
25.30 %) reported by Sai-Ut et al. (2009). The highest crude protein value of 32.68 % was
observed in common bean flour. The result compared well with selected legumes such as African
locust bean (Parkia biglobosa) (31.0 %) (Omafuvbe et al., 2004), red kidney bean (28.5 %)
(Olaofe et al., 2010). The protein contents of cereals ranged from 10.40 to 18.99 %. There were
58
significant (p ˂ 0.05) differences among the two cereal flour samples. The highest crude protein
value was observed in sorghum (18.99 %). The protein content was close to the range of values
of Chung et al. (2011) who reported that sorghum protein content varied from 9.06 to 18.58 %,
8.32 to 11.82 % and 11.23 to 13.42 %, respectively. The protein content of sorghum is affected
by both genetic and environmental factors. The protein content of sorghum is known to vary
along the changes in its amino acid composition (Waggle and Deyoe, 1966). The lowest crude
protein value of 10.40 % observed in QPM and was within the range of 9.11 to 11.3 % reported
by Graham et al. (1990).
Fat content of the flour samples were generally low, ranging from 1.04 to 5.70 %. Significant (p
˂ 0.05) differences were observed among them. There were no significant (p ˃ 0.05) differences
between the two legume flour samples. The fat content of iron biofortified beans and common
beans was 1.04 % .The values were within the range obtained by Shimelis et al. (2006) who
reported that crude fat ranged from 1.52 to 3.05 % in bean flour (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). Most
legumes such as pigeon pea, common beans, lentils and kidney beans contain less than 3 % fat
(Ihekoronye and Ngoddy, 1985). The fat content of the two cereal samples ranged from 4.50 to
5.70 %. There were significant (p ˂ 0.05) differences between the two samples. The fat value
was lowest in sorghum flour (4.50 %), which value was compared to the values reported by
Yousif and Magboul (1972) who analyzed fifteen different varieties of sorghum grown in the
Sudan and they gave fat range of 3.0 to 4.1 %. Elsayed (1999) found fat content of the two
Sudanese sorghum cultivars, Tabat and Feterita, to be 3.37 and 4.68 %, respectively. The highest
fat value 5.70 % was observed in QPM, which value was close to the range of 2.92 to 5.53 % in
QPM and other varieties reported by Ahenkora et al. (1995). The Crude fibre content of the flour
samples ranged from 2.30 to 4.80 %. There were significant (p ˂ 0.05) differences among all
59
samples. The crude fibre content of the two legume flour samples ranged from 4.11 to 4.21 %,
the values were less than 5.1 % reported by Khalil et al. (1986) and 6.0 % by Bressani and
Blanco (1991). The values were within the range of 4 to 8 % reported by Sai-Ut et al. (2009) and
4.63 to 5.53 % by Tharanathan and Mahadevamma (2003). The crude fibre content of the two
cereal flour samples ranged from 2.30 to 4.21 %. The highest crude fibre content of 4.21 % was
observed in sorghum, the value being close to the range of 0.90 to 4.20 % reported by Moharram
and Youssef (1995) but higher than the range of 1.2 to1.9 % reported by El-Tinay et al. (1979).
The lowest crude fibre content of 2.30 % observed in QPM was within the range of 2.6 to 3.5 %
reported by Osei et al. (1999).
There were significant (p ˂ 0.05) differences in the carbohydrate contents of the flour samples.
Digestible carbohydrate contents of flour samples ranged from 50.84 to 71 %. Carbohydrate
contents of the two legume flour samples ranged from 50.84 to 51.49 %. Significant (p ˂ 0.05)
differences were observed among the two legume flour samples. The values were less than the
range of 54 to 59 % reported by Sai-Ut et al. (2009). The lowest carbohydrate values of the two
legume flour samples can be attributed to the nature of carbohydrate of raw materials which were
affected by processing. The results were very close to that reported by Bressani and Blanco
(1991) who reported carbohydrate value of 52.4 % in common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.).
Carbohydrate contents of cereal flour samples ranged from 59.21 to 71.00 %. The highest
carbohydrate value of 71.00 % was observed in QPM. This value was very similar to the value of
71.37 to 75.4 % reported by Osei et al. (1999). The lowest carbohydrate content (59.21 %) was
observed in malted sorghum flour, the value was within the range 53.50 - 66.40 % observed by
Chima et al. (2012). There were significant (p ˂ 0.05) differences in the energy values of the
flour samples. Energy values in legume flour samples ranged from 341.36 to 343.44 Kcal/100g.
60
Energy values in the two cereal flour samples ranged from 353.30 to 376.90 Kcal/100g.
Kouakou et al. (2008) showed the energy level of maize grains as 387.7 kcal/100g. Ejigui et al.
(2005) found the energy value of 447 kcal/100g for yellow maize. The difference in the energy
level is due to differences in the proximate composition of the varieties. The results of the
present study show that this maize variety is a rich source of energy.
4.2 Vitamin Composition of Bean, Sorghum and QPM Flour
The results of the vitamin contents of flour obtained from Bean, Sorghum and QPM are shown in
Tables 5. Vitamin C values ranged from 2.00 to 11.41 mg/100g for the flour samples. There were
significant (p ˂ 0.05) differences among flour samples. Vitamin C values of the two legume flour
samples ranged from 9.51 to11.41 mg/100g.
Table 5: Vitamin Composition (mg/100g) of Flour from Bean, Sorghum and QPM
Samples Vitamin C Vitamin A Vitamin E Vitamin B1 Vitamin B2
Fe-Bean 11.41a ± 0.03 0.17c ± 0.01 1.50a ± 0.15 0.71a ± 0.00 0.21a ± 0.00
Sorghum 2.00d ± 0.00 0.43b ± 0.02 1.53a ± 0.23 0.29c ± 0.11 0.20a ± 0.01
QPM 3.56c ± 0.51 0.45a ± 0.03 1.44a ± 0.07 0.44b ± 0.02 0.16b ± 0.04
C-Bean 9.51b ± 0.02 0.14d ± 0.00 1.30a ± 0.11 0.65a ± 0.10 0.19ab ± 0.02
Values are means of triplicate determinations ± standard deviation. Samples with different
superscripts within the same column were significantly different (p ˂ 0.05). Samples are: Fe-
Bean = Iron biofortified beans, Sorghum, QPM = Quality Protein Maize and C- bean: Common
Bean.
Vitamin C values of the two cereal flour samples ranged from 2.00 to 3.56 mg/100g. Sorghum,
as it is generally consumed, is not a source of vitamin C. On germination, some amount of
vitamin C is synthesized in the grain and on fermentation there is a further rise in the vitamin
61
content (Taur et al., 1984). USDA (2012) reported that Vitamin C ranged from 4.5 to 6.3
mg/100g in different varieties of beans such as Pinto Bean, Navy Bean, Black Bean, and Red
Kidney Bean. The Vitamin C contents in the current study were higher than USDA (2012)
report. Variety used may be attributed to the high content observed in beans flour samples.
Vitamin A values ranged from 0.14 to 0.45 mg/100g for the flour samples. There were
significant (p ˂ 0.05) differences among all samples. Vitamin A values of the two legume flour
samples ranged from 0.14 to 0.17 mg/100g. Significant (p ˂ 0.05) differences were observed
among the legume flour samples. The values obtained were within the values of 0 to 1.02
mg/100g reported by USDA (2012) among Pinto Bean, Navy Bean, Black Bean, and Red
Kidney Bean. Variety used can be responsible for vitamin A content observed in beans flour
samples. Vitamin A values of the two cereal flour samples ranged from 0.43 to 0.45 mg/100g.
Significant (p ˂ 0.05) differences were observed among the two cereal flour samples. Vitamin A
(0.43 mg/100g) was observed in sorghum, the values were lower compared to 2.9 mg/100g
reported by Serna-Salvidar et al. (1993). Flour production process can be responsible for the low
value of vitamin A obtained in sorghum. But normaly soghum is lower in vitamin A. The highest
vitamin A value of 0.45 mg/100g was observed in QPM.
Vitamin E values ranged from 1.30 to 1.53 mg/100g for the flour samples. There were no
significant (p ˃ 0.05) differences among all samples. Vitamin E values of the two legume flour
samples, which ranged from 1.30 to 1.50 mg/100g and were higher than the values reported by
USDA (2012) which showed that vitamin E ranged from 0.02 to 0.21 mg/100g in different
varieties of beans such as Pinto Bean, Navy Bean, Black Bean, and Red Kidney Bean. Variety
used may be responsible for the high content of vitamin E observed in beans flour samples.
Vitamin E values of the two cereal flour samples ranged from 1.44 to 1.53 mg/100g. The value
62
of 1.44 mg/100g observed in QPM was higher than the value of 0.49 mg /100g reported by Loren
(1999). The variety used was improved by genetic engineering to improve nutrient component
and this could be responsible for high value of vitamin E obtained. The highest value of 1.53
mg/100g was observed in sorghum flour and was higher than the value of 1.2 mg/100g reported
by Rooney and Waniska (2000). Varietal differences and different processing methods used
could be responsible for the high value of vitamin E observed in sorghum flour. One cup of
beans provides 11 % Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) of Vitamin E. Vitamin E is a potent
antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agent with the isomers α-tocopherol and ɤ-tocopherol being
the most abundant forms in dry beans (Singh et al., 2005).
Thiamin (vitamin B1) values ranged from 0.29 to 0.71 mg/100g for the flour samples. There
were significant (p ˂ 0.05) differences among samples. Thiamin values ranged from 0.65 to 0.71
mg/100g for the two legume flour samples. There was no significant (p ˃ 0.05) difference among
the two legume flour samples. The values of 0.65 and 0.71 mg/100 observed in bean flour were
close to the range of thiamin values of 0.71 to 0.90 mg/100g reported by USDA (2012) in
different varieties of beans such as Pinto Bean, Navy Bean, Black Bean, and Red Kidney Bean.
The thiamin value of 0.44 mg/100 observed in QPM was higher than the value of 0.38 mg/100g
reported by USDA (1975) in whole maize flour. The value of 0.29 mg/100g observed in
sorghum was higher than 0.24 mg/100g reported by USDA (2012). Varietal differences and
different methods of processing, such as germination, used in flour production can contribute to
the increased thiamin in sorghum. Sorghum is a rich source of B-complex vitamins. Riboflavin
(vitamin B2) values of flour samples ranged from 0.16 to 0.21 mg/100g. There were no
significant (p ˃ 0.05) differences between iron biofortified bean, common bean and sorghum
flour samples. There were no significant (p ˃ 0.05) differences among common bean and QPM.
63
Riboflavin values of the legume flour samples ranged from 0.19 to 0.21 mg/100g. Riboflavin in
the beans was within the range of 0.16 to 0.21 mg/100g reported by USDA (2012) in different
varieties of beans such as Pinto Bean, Navy Bean, Black Bean, and Red Kidney Bean. Riboflavin
values of the two cereal flour samples ranged from 0.16 to 0.20 mg/100g. The highest value of
0.20 mg/100g was observed in sorghum, the value being the same as the value of 0.20 mg/100g
reported by USDA (2012). The value of 0.20 mg/100g observed in sorghum was higher than
0.13 mg/100g reported by Gopalan et al. (2004). The lowest value of 0.16 mg/100g observed in
QPM was within the range of 0.15 - 0.20 mg/100g reported by FAO (1995).
4.3 Mineral composition of flour from bean, sorghum and QPM
The results of mineral contents of flour obtained from bean, sorghum and QPM are shown in
Table 6. Iron values ranged from 3.25 to 14.23 mg/100g for flour samples. There were
significant (p ˂ 0.05) differences among all samples. Iron values of the two legume flour samples
ranged from 11.74 to 14.23 mg/100g. There were significant (p ˂ 0.05) differences among the
two legume flour samples.
Table 6: Mineral compositions (mg/100g) of flour from bean, sorghum and QPM
Sample Iron Zinc Iodine Calcium Phosphorus
Fe-Bean 14.23a ± 0.73 3.27a ± 0.55 2.07a ± 0.03 148.98c ± 0.86 487.67a ± 10.50
Sorghum 5.34c ± 0.44 1.56b ± 0.47 0.90c ± 0.00 164.88b ± 0.21 344.00b ± 8.00
QPM 3.25d ± 0.10 1.53b ± 0.58 0.89c ± 0.10 176.91a ± 2.24 204.00c ± 6.00
C-Bean 11.74b ± 0.13 1.82b ± 0.03 1.51b ± 0.05 74.16d ± 0.20 485.67a ± 8.50
superscripts within the same column were significantly different (p ˂ 0.05). Samples were: Fe-
Bean = Iron biofortified beans, Sorghum, QPM = Quality Protein Maize and C- bean: Common
Bean.
64
The lowest iron value of 11.74 mg/100g obtained in common beans sample was close to the
value of 11.5 mg/100g reported by Audu and Aremu (2011) in the seed of red kidney beans. The
highest iron value of 14.23 mg/100g obtained in iron biofortified bean sample was higher than
the value of 8.2 mg/100g of dry beans reported by USDA (2012). The breeding of beans to
enhance iron content in beans contributed to the high value of iron obtained.
Iron values of cereal flour samples ranged from 3.25 to 5.34 mg/100g. There were significant (p
˂ 0.05) differences among the two cereal flour samples. The lowest value observed in maize
flour was higher than the value of 2.38 mg/100g reported by USDA (2012). The highest value
obtained in sorghum (5.34 mg/100g) was within the range obtained by Jambunathan (1980), who
reported that iron content ranged from 2.60 to 9.60 mg/100g in samples of about 100 varieties of
sorghum, and Kayodé (2006), who reported that iron concentration of the sorghum grains ranged
from 3.00 to 11.30 mg/100g. Hamad (2007) found that raw sorghum contains 3.43 to 4.58
mg/100g iron. The FAO (1995) reported iron content in sorghum to be 4.2 mg/100g on dry basis.
The mineral composition of sorghum grains is highly variable. Sorghum is similar in iron content
to wheat but higher in iron content compared to corn and rice FAOSTAT (2007). The iron value
of QPM was within the range of 1.90 to 5.77 mg/100g reported by Pillay et al. (2011). Dry beans
contain iron and calcium at levels that respectively fulfill 11 and 2 - 6 % (100 g serving) of the
daily reference intake (DRI) (Lisa, 2012).
Zinc values ranged from 1.53 to 3.27 mg/100g for the flour samples. There were significant (p ˂
0.05) differences between iron rich biofortified beans and all other samples. There were no
significant (p ˃ 0.05) differences among sorghum, QPM and common bean. Zinc values of the
two legume flour samples ranged from 1.82 to 3.27 mg/100g. There were significant (p ˂ 0.05)
differences among the two legume flour samples. The highest zinc contents observed in iron
65
biofortified beans flour sample was within the range of 2.28 to 3.65 mg/100g reported by USDA
(2012). The breeding of beans to enhance zinc content probably contributed to the high value of
zinc obtained. The lowest zinc content (1.82 mg/100g) observed in common bean flour sample
was lower than zinc content of 2.7 mg/100g in red kidney beans reported by Audu and Aremu
(2011). Flour processing procedures can cause the low zinc content obtained in common bean.
Zinc values of the two cereal flour samples ranged from 1.53 to 1.56 mg/100g. There were no
significant (p ˃ 0.05) differences among the two cereal flour samples. The highest value of 1.56
mg/100g obtained in sorghum was within the range of values in sorghum reported by Kayodé
(2006) that ranged from 1.10 to 4.40 mg/100g. Hamad (2007) found that raw sorghum contains
l.48 to 2.78 mg/100g zinc. The lowest zinc content of 1.53 mg/100g obtained in QPM was lower
than 2.21 mg/100g reported by Loren (1999). Variety and processing methods can cause the
lowest zinc value obtained in QPM, although this was close to the range of 1.75 to 2.90 mg/100g
reported by Pillay et al. (2011). Zinc contents of maize were within the range of 1.5 to 4.7
mg/100g reported by Johnson (2000). Iodine is one of the essential micronutrients required for
normal growth and development of the human brain and body. Iodine values ranged from 0.89 to
2.07 mg/100g for the flour samples. There were significant (p ˂ 0.05) differences among
samples. Iodine values of the two legume flour samples ranged from 1.51 to 2.07 mg/100g.
Iodine values of the two cereal flour samples ranged from 0.89 to 0.90 mg/100g. The iodine
value of 1.51 to 2.07 mg/100g of beans flour samples was higher than that of soybean (0.12 to
0.13 mg/100g) (Loren, 1999). Calcium values ranged from 74.16 to176.91 mg/100g for the flour
samples. Calcium values of the two legume flour samples ranged from 74.16 to 148.98 mg/100
g. There were significant (p ˂ 0.05) differences among the two legume flour samples. The
highest calcium content of 148.98 mg/100g observed in iron biofortified beans flour sample was
66
close to the calcium content 147 mg/100g in navy bean reported by USDA (2012). The lowest
calcium content of 74.16 mg/100g observed in common bean is lower than the calcium content
of 113 mg/100g reported by USDA (2012) in pinto bean. Calcium content of the two cereal flour
samples ranged from 164.88 to 176.91 mg/100g. There were significant (p ˂ 0.05) differences
among the two cereal flour samples. The highest calcium content of 176.91 mg/100g was
observed in QPM. Phosphorus values ranged from 204.00 to 487.67 mg/100g for the flour
samples. There were significant (p ˂ 0.05) differences among samples except iron rich
biofortified and common bean flour samples. Phosphorus values of the two legume flour samples
ranged from 485.67 to 487.67 mg/100g. There were no significant (p ˃ 0.05) differences among
the two legume flour samples. The Phosphorus contents obtained among legume flour samples
were high compared to the value 352, 407, 411 mg/100g in black navy and pinto bean
respectively reported by USDA (2012). The high phosphorus values obtained in legume flour
samples was the results of mineral improved beans used. Phosphorus values of the two cereal
flour samples ranged from 204.00 to 344.00 mg/100g. There were significant (p ˂ 0.05)
differences among the two cereal flour samples. The value obtained in sorghum flour sample was
within the range of Ragaee et al. (2006) who found that sorghum contains 278.0 - 349.9 mg/100g
for phosphorus. The phosphorus level in the maize (204 mg/100g) was lower than the values
(296.44 to 409.57 mg/100g) reported by Pillay et al. (2011). Phosphorus is the most abundant
mineral in maize (FAO, 1992).
67
4.4 Antinutrient composition of flour from bean, sorghum and QPM
The results of antinutrient contents of flour obtained from bean, sorghum and QPM are shown in
Table 7. Tannin levels in the two legume flour samples ranged from 0.11 to 0.32 %. These two
samples differed significantly (p ˂ 0.05). Tannin values obtained in these legume samples (0.11
to 0.32 %) were lower than range reported in various studies on raw kidney bean variety found to
be 2 - 4.56 % (Boateng et al., 2008).
Table 7: Antinutrients composition (%) of flour from bean, sorghum and QPM
Samples Tannin Phytate Oxalate Saponin Trypsin

Inhibitor
(TIU/mg)
Fe-Bean 0.32a ± 0.03 0. 65b ± 0.02 0.28b ± 0.02 0.32c ± 0.01 13.93b ± 0.15
Sorghum 0.15b ± 0.01 0.16c ± 0.01 0.65a ± 0.02 0.32c ± 0.03 7.13c ± 0.25
QPM 0.16b ± 0.02 0.18c ± 0.02 0.64a ± 0.01 0.48a ± 0.02 6.17d ± 0.35
C-Bean 0.11c ± 0.01 0.71a ± 0.02 0.25c ± 0.01 0.39b ± 0.02 17.10a ± 2.00
Bean = Iron biofortified beans, Sorghum, QPM = Quality Protein Maize and C- bean = Common
Bean.
Value obtained in common bean flour sample was comparable with chickpea (0.147 %) (Nasar-
Abbas et al., 2007). Low value of tannin contents obtained may be due to the physical removal
of seed coat of beans because most of the tannins are located in the testa of seeds (Reddy et al.,
1994). Dehulling proved to be most effective processing method for reducing the tannin content
in kidney beans. Rehman and Shah (2005) stated that tannin content of black grams, red kidney
beans and white kidney beans were significantly reduced after soaking and other processing
68
treatments. Tannin levels in the two cereal flour samples ranged from 0.15 % and 0.16 %. There
were no significant (p ˃ 0.05) differences in tannin contents among cereal flour samples. The
level of tannin content in sorghum flour sample (0.15 %) was within the range of 0.07 to 0.81 %
found in three sorghum varieties samples Baidha, Hamra and Shahla reported by Ahmed (1985).
Phytate content in all treated samples ranged from 0.16 and 0.71 %. There were significant (p ˂
0.05) differences among legume flour samples, which ranged from 0.65 to 0.71 %. The phytic
acid content (0.65 - 0.71 %) of beans were lower than the normal range of phytic acid (1 to 2.2
%) established for soybean (Schlemmer et al., 2009). QPM phytate value (0.18 %) and sorghum
phytate value (0.16 %) are higher than the value of 0.10 % reported by Adebayo et al. (2013) in
maize. There were no significant (p ˃ 0.05) differences among cereal flour samples. The
variations in phytate content may be attributed to the differences in milling, genotype and
environmental effects (Sharma et al., 2004).
Oxalate content in all treated samples ranged from 0.25 to 0.65 %. There were no significant (p ˃
0.05) differences among the two cereal flour samples. There were significant (p ˂ 0.05)
differences among the two legume flour samples. The values obtained for sorghum (0.65 %) and
QPM (0.64 %) were lower than the value of 3.71 % reported by Adebayo et al. (2013) for yellow
maize. The values were higher than the oxalate content of oat bran (0.37 %) as reported by
Boontaganon et al. (2009). The oxalate content was found to be higher in the whole grain than in
refined grain cereals. This suggests that oxalic acid is primarily located in the outer layers of
cereal grains (Sativa et al., 2011). Saponin values for the two legume flour samples were
respectively 0.32 and 0.48 %. There were significant (p < 0.05) differences among the two
legume flour samples. The values were within the range (0.17 to 6.16 %) reported by Lin and
Wang (2004) in soybean. Saponin values for the two cereal flour samples ranged from 0.32 to
69
0.48 %. There were significant (p < 0.05) differences among the two cereal flour samples.
Several studies reported that saponin concentrations are affected by plant species and plant
variety (Shiraiwa et al., 1991), degree of maturity, growing environment, agronomic factors such
as climate and soil, cultivation year, location of grown and season (Oleszek, 1996). The trypsin
inhibitor values ranged from 6.17 to 13.93 TIU/mg. There were significant (P < 0.05) differences
between all samples. Trypsin inhibitor values of cereal flour samples ranged from 6.17 - 7.13
TIU/mg. Trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA) observed for beans ranged from 13.93 to 17.10
TIU/mg. The value obtained in iron rich biofortified beans was within the range of 13.7 - 14.2
TIU/mg reported by Siddhuraju and Becker (2001) in mucuna beans and lower than 15.4
TIU/mg reported for pigeon pea (Oloyo, 2004).
4.5 Functional Properties and pH of flour for production of Extruded Weaning Food
Functional properties suggest the potential application and use of materials for various food
products (Ayernor, 1976). The results of selected functional properties and pH of flour for the
production of extruded weaning food are shown in Table 8. Water absorption capacity (WAC)
indicates the volume of water needed to form a diet with a suitable thickness for child feeding.
Results of WAC ranged from 0.82 to 2.40 ml/g. There were significant (p ˂ 0.05) differences
among samples.
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Table 8: Functional properties and pH of flour for production of extruded weaning food
Samples WAC BD SC pH
(ml/g) (g/cm3) (%)
Fe-bean 1.89bc ± 0.03 0.55c ± 0.01 193.67cd ± 0.58 6.51a ± 0.07

Sorghum 1.14d ± 0.09 0.65b ± 0.04 169.00e ± 1.00 5.47c ± 0.27
QPM 0.82e ± 0.02 0.64b ± 0.04 139.00d ± 2.00 5.67b ± 0.10
C-bean 1.74c ± 0.01 0.53c ± 0.06 191.00c ± 2.65 6.51a ± 0.07
FB/S/QPM 2.00b ± 0.20 0.76a ± 0.01 239.91b ± 0.04 6.34a ± 0.04
CB/S/QPM 2.40a ± 0.20 0.78a ± 0.01 284.28a ± 0.10 6.57a ± 0.01
Bean = Iron biofortified beans, Sorghum, QPM = Quality Protein Maize, C- bean = Common
Bean, FB/S/QPM = Iron biofortified beans/Sorghum/QPM blend and CB/S/QPM = Common
Bean/Sorghum/QPM blend. WAC = Water Absorption Capacity, BD = Bulk Density, SC =
Swelling Capacity.
The difference in WAC observed may have been due to the nature of the sample. The WAC is
very important in determining the amount of water needed for a specific extent of gelatinization
and dough thickness. Generally, sorghum flour has a higher water binding capacity than flours of
higher protein materials such as raw fluted pumpkin seed (Giami and Bekebain, 1992). It is
noted that the WAC is directly proportional to swelling power, when the WAC increases, the
swelling power also increases. WAC variations among the flour samples may be related to the
nature and type of proteins present in different samples. The Bulk density (BD) is a measure of
heaviness of flour (Oladele and Aina, 2007). The results showed no significant difference (p ˃
0.05) between the iron rich biofortified bean flour (0.55 g/cm³) and the common bean flour (0.53
g/cm³) in this property. The BD values obtained in the legume samples were generally higher
71
(0.55 and 0.53 g/cm³) than that obtained by Edema et al. (2005) for flour from commercially sold
soybean (0.38 g/cm³). Values obtained from this study for the two legume flour samples were
lower than the value reported by Okaka and Potter (1977) for cowpea (0.60 g/cm³). There were
no significant (p ˃ 0.05) differences between sorghum (0.65 g/cm³) and QPM (0.64 g/cm³) flour
samples, presumably because both are cereals and therefore have similar values. Also no
significant (p ˃ 0.05) difference was observed between blends of flour samples of 0.76 g/cm³
iron biofortified bean/QPM/sorghum and 0.78 g/cm³ common bean/QPM/sorghum but were
significantly (p ˂ 0.05) different from all single flours. The increase in the BD of the blends
could be due to the cooking treatment adopted during the processing of bean seed flour
(Arkroyed and Doughty, 1982). The high BD of flour suggests their suitability for use in food
preparations. In contrast, low BD would be an advantage in the formulation of complementary
foods (Akpata and Akubor, 1999). The BD is very important in preparation of food for special
people such as manual workers and infants. Fermentation has been reported as a very useful
traditional method for the preparation of low-bulk weaning foods (Desikachar, 1980). The
similarity in low BD values between the two blend samples indicates the possibility of using the
new flour product for the preparation of weaning food. The swelling capacity (SC) of the blends
ranged from 139.00 to 284.28 %. The result showed that there was significant (p ˂ 0.05)
difference in the SC between the flour blends and single flours. The increase in the SC of the
samples could be due to their high protein contents (Chang and Satter, 1981). The high SC of the
blends will make them useful in the preparation of extruded weaning food. However, the
bean/QPM/sorghum blended flour could be used as protein supplement and as functional
ingredients in the formulation of a number of food products. Results of pH in this study ranged
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from 5.47 to 6.57. There were no significant (p ˃ 0.05) differences between blends and single
flour samples except sorghum and maize flour samples.
4.6 Effect of Bean Incorporation and Extrusion on the Chemical Composition of Extruded
Weaning Food made from Bean, QPM and Sorghum Flour blends compared to
commercial Wheat based Weaning Food
The nutritional compositions and calorific values of extruded weaning foods made from
Bean/QPM/Sorghum blends and commercial weaning food are summarized in Table 9. The
values varied as follows; moisture content from 3.60 to 10.75 %, protein from 15.38 to 18.97 %
and fat from 4.30 to 4.45 %, while others including fiber, ash and carbohydrates varied from 1.14
to 3.65 %, 2.20 to 2.90 % and 59.60 to 73.37 %, respectively. The energy values varied from
354.11 to 393.78 Kcal/100g. Protein is one of the most important nutrients required in weaning
foods. The crude protein values of the samples ranged from 18.95 to 18.97 %. There was no
significant (p ˃ 0.05) difference among samples. The following plates show extruded weaning
foods.
Plate 1: Sample A made from iron biofortified beans/ QPM/Sorghum blends
73
B
Plate 2: Sample B made from common beans/ QPM/Sorghum blends
B A
Plate 3: Milled samples A, B and Commercial diet (C)
74
Table 9: Proximate composition (%) of extruded weaning food and commercial weaning food
Samples Ash Moisture Protein Fat Fibre Carbohydrate Energy

(Kcal/100g)
A 2.90a ± 0.10 10.70b ± 0.05 18.97a ± 0.02 4.30a ± 0.10 3.18a ± 0.18 59.95b ± 0.04 354.39b ± 0.91
B 2.60b ± 0.00 10.75a ± 0.61 18.95a ± 0.04 4.45a ± 0.10 3.65a ± 0.56 59.60c ± 0.17 354.11b ± 0.41
C 2.20c ± 0.01 3.60c ± 0.01 15.38b ± 0.03 4.31a ± 0.02 1.14c ± 0.01 73.37a ± 0.03 393.78a ± 0.22
Values are means of triplicate determinations ± standard deviation. Samples with different superscripts within the same column were
significantly different (p ˂ 0.05). Extruded weaning food samples were: A = Extruded weaning food from iron biofortified
beans/sorghum/QPM blend, B = Extruded weaning food from common beans/sorghum/QPM blend and C = Commercial weaning
food
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The protein values obtained were compared favorably with the value recommended by FAO
(1996) that a protein content of 20 % is designated for any weaning food. Comparing the protein
values of the formulated diets with commercial weaning food, a popular weaning formula in
Rwanda, having a protein content of 15.38 %, shows the formulated diets to be better. The high
level of protein is attributed to the beans incorporation in cereals. The incorporation of legumes
into cereals can contribute to the increase of protein in formulated diet compared to the control
made from Wheat/Milk/Honey. This finding confirms earlier reports on the beneficial effect of
legume protein supplementation (Agbede and Aletor, 2003). The prepared weaning food had a
protein content of 18.95 to 18.97 % which were higher than the minimum amount (14.52 %)
specified in Codex Ali-mentarius standards. According to FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius
Standards for follow-up / weaning foods, the protein content should range from 14.52 to 37.70
g/100g (FAO/WHO, 1994). Consumption of 100 g of extruded weaning foods A, B and C will
provide about 172.45 %, 172.28 % and 139.82 %, respectively of Recommended Dietary
allowance (RDA) for protein, which is 11 g/day for 0.5 - 1 year (See appendix C).
The moisture levels ranged from 3.60 to 10.75 %. Moisture contents (10.70 - 10.75 %) of
formulated diets were higher than the moisture content of commercial diet (3.60 %). The
obtained values were lower than the range of 11 - 12.4 % obtained by Olapade and Aworh
(2012) in extruded complementary foods. The high moisture content value obtained from
formulated diets could be due to the addition of water into flour during dough formulation. The
fact that the products came out from extrusion with high moisture content caused further drying
to be applied to reduce the moisture content at that level. There were significant differences
among the samples at p ˂ 0.05.
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There were no significant (p ˃ 0.05) differences for the fat contents. The prepared weaning foods
fat contents ranged from 4.30 to 4.45 %, which was close to that of the commercial weaning food
(4.31 %) but lower than that specified amount in the Codex Alimentarius Standards (range 14.52
to 41.13 %). The lower fat content had contributed to lower energy value of the prepared
weaning foods. The lower fat content may also have contributed to the increase in the shelf-life
of the formulation by decreasing the chances of rancidity (Onuorach and Akijede, 2004).
Consumption of 100 g of extruded weaning foods A, B and C will provide about 14.33 %, 14.83
% and 14.36 % respectively of Recommended Dietary allowance (RDA) for fat, which is 30
g/day for 0.5 - 1 year (See appendix C).
The higher ash content indicates high levels of minerals in the diet. The ash content (2.60 - 2.90
%) were higher when compared with commercial weaning diet (2.20 %), which implies that
infants feeding on weaning food formulation will not be mineral deficient. Ash contents obtained
are acceptable by the Protein Advisory Group (1972) standard which recommended that the ash
content should not exceed 5 %. There were significant (p ˂ 0.05) differences in the fibre
contents, which ranged from 1.14 to 3.65 %. When commercial infant formula crude fibre (1.14
%) was compared to crude fibre in formulated weaning foods (3.18 - 3.65 %) high crude fibre
content were observed in formulated diets. Incorporation of legumes, which have high fibre
content, into cereals could cause the high fibre content observed in formulated diet. Fibre helps
in increasing roughage and bulk as well as contributes to a healthy condition of the intestines
(Potter and Hotchkiss, 2004). Fiber is an important dietary component in preventing overweight,
constipation, cardiovascular disease, diabetes and colon cancer (Mosha et al., 2000). The
carbohydrate content ranged from a mean value of 59.60 to 73.37 %. There were significant
differences among the samples (p ˂ 0.05). The carbohydrate of formulated diets was very close
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to the target of 60 % carbohydrate which was intended during blends formulation. The high
carbohydrate yield of these weaning food blends makes them ideal for babies since they require
energy for their rapid growth. There were no significant (p ˃ 0.05) differences in energy values
of all samples except the commercial diet. The values ranged from 354.11 to 393.78 kcal/100g.
However, the total energy content of the extruded weaning food were lower than the values
(383.4 - 400.0 Kcal) recorded for extruded Bambara-Acha containing graded levels of carrot
(Okafor, 2009). The carbohydrate levels of the prepared weaning foods and commercial weaning
food were higher than the lower limit (41.13 to 73.79 g/100g) of the Codex Alimentarius
Standards (FAO/WHO, 1994).
The energy content (354.11 - 354.39 kcal/100g) was lower compared to that of commercial
infant formula (393.78 kcal/100g). It is probably that addition of many ingredients during
production of commercial weaning food can cause higher energy content. For all the weaning
foods prepared, the energy density per 100 g of the dry food was lower than the minimum energy
(483.9 kcal/100g) recommended in the Codex Alimentarius Standards for weaning/follow up
foods (FAO/ WHO, 1994). Consumption of 100 g of extruded weaning foods A, B and C will
provide about 63.11 %, 62.74 % and 77.23 %, respectively of Recommended Dietary allowance
(RDA) for carbohydrate, which is 95 g/day for 0.5 - 1 year (See appendix C). The increase in the
nutritional quality of food (in terms of protein) that was fortified with legumes proteins has been
reported by Edem et al. (2001). Consumption of 100 g of extruded diet may provide adequate
energy per day based on the recommended dietary allowance for children (7.6 MJ) and adults
(10.8 MJ) (Okaka et al., 1992). Calories in a diet are provided by protein, fat and carbohydrates
(Wikramanayake, 1996). Consumption of 100 g of extruded weaning foods A, B and C will
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provide about 47.70 %, 47.66 % and 53.00 %, respectively of Recommended Dietary allowance
(RDA) for energy, which is 743 g/day for 0.5 - 1 year (See appendix C).
Vitamin Content of extruded weaning food made from QPM and Sorghum Flour Blends
compared to Vitamin Content of Wheat based Commercial Weaning Food
The values obtained for some vitamin contents of extruded weaning foods and commercial
weaning food are shown in Table 10. Vitamin A values ranged from 0.37 to 0.44 mg/100g. There
were significant (p ˂ 0.05) differences among samples. There were no significant (p ˃ 0.05)
differences between extruded diets. Vitamin A values (0.44 mg/100g) of control sample
significantly differed from those of formulated weaning foods.
Table 10: Vitamin composition (mg/100g) of extruded weaning food and commercial
weaning food
Samples Vitamin A Vitamin C VitaminB1 VitaminB2 Vitamin E
A 0.37b ± 0.01 8.76b ± 0.02 0.32a ± 0.01 0.27a ± 0.01 1.29a ± 0.26
B 0.38b ± 0.02 8.63c ± 0.03 0.27b ± 0.02 0.27a ± 0.01 1.25a ± 0.25
C 0.44a ± 0.03 49.58a ± 0.01 0.23c ± 0.00 0.51b ± 0.02 1.29a ± 0.24
superscripts within the same column were significantly different (p ˂ 0.05). Extruded weaning
food samples were: A = Extruded weaning food from iron biofortified beans/sorghum/QPM
blend, B = Extruded weaning food from common beans/sorghum/QPM blend and C =
Commercial weaning food).
The values obtained were higher than 0.15 mg/100g obtained by Hashim and Pongjata (2000)
in formulated weaning food. The low values of vitamin A in formulated diets could be due to the
extrusion cooking because the stability of vitamin A is affected by heat.
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Extruded corn/soy/groundnut blends lost more than double the amount of vitamin A compared
with a similar blend that was boiled for 2 min (De Muelenaere and Buzzard, 1969). The source
of vitamin A activity may have a greater influence on the stability of the vitamin in the final
product than the extrusion conditions. Since vitamin A deficiency frequently accompanies
protein-energy malnutrition, the addition of vitamin A or its precursors to extruded foods in less-
developed nations may be advantageous.
Vitamin C values ranged from 8.63 to 49.58 mg/100g for treated samples. There were
significant (p ˂ 0.05) differences among samples. Vitamin C value (49.58 mg/100g) of control
sample was significantly different from the formulated diets. The high value of vitamin C in
control sample could be attributed to the addition of vitamin mix during production of
commercial weaning food. The fact that the raw materials used were not good sources of vitamin
C could have contributed to the low value of vitamin C obtained. Also the low value of vitamin
C in formulated diets could be partly due to the extrusion cooking because the stability of
vitamin C is affected by heat. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is widely used in food processing for its
reducing, antioxidant, and nutritional properties, but this vitamin is easily destroyed. After 2 min
of boiling, 78.6 % of the ascorbic acid in a corn/soy/groundnut blend was lost. A similar mixture
had a 33.4 % reduction after extrusion cooking (De Muelenaere and Buzzard, 1969).
Thiamin (Vitamin B1) values ranged from 0.23 to 0.32 mg/100g for treated samples. There were
significant (p ˂ 0.05) differences among samples. Recovery of thiamin in samples extruded at a
40 °F higher temperature was 21 % lower, and an additional 15 % thiamin was lost when screw
speed was increased by 25 rpm (Beetner et al., 1974). Since thiamin is heat-sensitive, the losses
due to faster screw rpm may be caused by additional heat produced within the barrel by shear or
other mechanisms. The same researchers found that riboflavin retention post-extrusion was 92
80
%. While not affected by temperature increases, the riboflavin content was decreased by 15 %
with a 25 rpm increase in screw speed, and also lowered by 21 % when moisture was 1.5 %
higher. Studies with corn/soy blends (Harper, 1988) showed that when extrusion temperature
was increased, thiamin recovery decreased, but riboflavin retention was higher. Maga and Sizer
(1978) also found small losses of thiamin from extruded potato flakes with high moisture
contents, possibly because the material moved more rapidly through the extruder, thus
minimizing exposure to heat. In extruded legume products, Pham and Del Rosario (1984)
observed thiamin losses with increases in process temperature, pH and screw speed.
Riboflavin (Vitamin B2) values ranged from 0.27 to 0.51 mg/100g for treated samples. There
were significant (p ˂ 0.05) differences between formulated diets and control but there were no
significant (p ˃ 0.05) differences among formulated diets. Stability of vitamin B 2 was slightly
affected by heat. Vitamin E values ranged from 1.25 to 1.29 mg/100g for treated samples. There
were no significant (p ˃ 0.05) differences among all samples. Mustakas et al. (1970) noted
minimal tocopherol destruction in extruded full-fat soy flour. When the extruder retention time
was increased to 2 min, up to a 15 % loss was observed. The tocopherols may also be added
preextrusion to protect sensitive materials from oxidation during extrusion. Since these vitamins
may be lost in cooking water, the low water requirements of extrusion cooking offer an
advantage over some conventional processes. Harper (1988) suggested that vitamin losses should
be small because heat-labile materials are able to withstand the HTST conditions of extrusion.
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Mineral Content of extruded weaning food made from QPM and Sorghum Flour Blends
compared to Mineral Content of Wheat based Commercial Weaning Food
The results of evaluation of extruded weaning food and commercial weaning food for some
minerals are shown in Table 11. The results of the mineral compositions of extruded weaning
foods made from Bean/QPM/Sorghum and control sample varied as follows: calcium: 142.50 -
548.00 mg/100g; zinc: 1.63 - 2.96 mg/100g; iron: 6.10 - 7.83 mg/100g; phosphorous: 155.86-
367.77 mg/100g and Iodine: 1.83 - 2.10 mg/100g. There were significant (p ˂ 0.05) differences
in samples for all minerals except iodine.
Table 11: Mineral compositions (mg/100g) of extruded weaning foods and commercial
weaning food
Samples Iron Zinc Iodine Calcium Phosphorus
A 7.83a ± 0.83 2.96a ± 1.18 2.26a ± 0.41 147.50b ± 39.50 161.26b ± 9.68
B 6.10b ± 0.82 1.63c ± 2.60 1.83a ± 0.48 142.50b ± 40.50 155.86b ± 1.13
C 7.40ab ± 0.10 2.40b ± 0.30 2.10a ± 0.60 548.00a ± 52.00 367.77a ± 3.23
Commercial weaning food.
The higher mineral content of the sample A was due to its enrichment with those minerals.
Sample A was fortified with iron rich biofortified bean which is high in minerals such as iron,
zinc, and iodine. Calcium and phosphorus were significantly (p ˂ 0.05) higher in control than
formulated diet. The higher calcium and phosphorus content of the control food sample was due
to its enrichment with those minerals, which sample was wheat/milk/honey that were rich in
those minerals. Extrusion cooking generally affects macromolecules. The effect of extrusion on
82
minerals and their bioavailability have been examined only recently. In cooked beans, 75 % to
90 % of iron and 85 % to 90 % of zinc is retained depending on the boiling time and whether
water is drained or not (USDA, 2003). Iron concentrations in the extruded weaning foods were
6.10 and 7.83 mg/100g while in commercial weaning food it was 7.40 mg/100g. The extruded
weaning foods and commercial weaning food had the iron concentrations above the minimum
amount (4.8 mg/100g) specified in the Codex Alimentarius Standards (FAO/WHO, 1994).
Consumption of 100 g of extruded weaning foods A, B and C will provide about 71.18 %, 55.45
% and 67.27 %, respectively of Recommended Dietary allowance (RDA) for iron, which is 11
mg/day for 0.5 - 1 year as shown in appendix B.
4.9 Effect of Extrusion cooking on some Functional properties and pH of Extruded

Weaning Food made from QPM and Sorghum Flour Blends compared to Functional
properties and pH of Wheat based Commercial Weaning Food
The results of some functional properties of extruded weaning food compared to wheat based
commercial weaning food are shown in Table 12. The Water Absorption Capacity (WAC) of the
two formulated diets (1.50-1.65 ml/g) was low compared to that of commercial weaning food
(2.10 ml/g). The WAC for the diets A, B and C were significantly different (p ˂ 0.05). Bulk
density (BD) ranged from 0.52 to 0.79 g/cm3 for the diets A, B and C. Diet A had a BD of 0.79
g/cm3, which was significantly different (p ˂ 0.05) to that of diet B (0.63 g/cm3) and diet C (0.52
g/cm3).
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Table 12: Functional properties and pH of extruded weaning food Compared to
Commercial Weaning Food
Samples WAC BD SC pH
(ml/g) (g/cm3) (%)
A 1.65b ± 0.05 0.79a ± 0.01 142.69b ± 5.06 7.06a ± 0.07

B 1.50c ± 0.00 0.73b ± 0.02 151.46b ± 6.55 7.11a ± 0.04
C 2.10a ± 0.10 0.52c ± 0.00 190.58a ± 1.52 7.45a ± 0.06
Commercial weaning food. WAC: Water Absorption Capacity, BD: Bulk Density, SC: Swelling
Capacity.
Increase in BD is desirable in that it offers greater packaging advantage as greater quantity may
be packed within constant volume (Molina et al., 1983). However, low BD is desirable in
preparation of infant and weaning foods. Stojceska et al. (2009) reported that BD is highly
correlated to the moisture content of the product during extrusion. The Swelling Capacity (SC)
for the diets A, B were not significantly (p ˃ 0.05) different from one another, whereas SC of
commercial weaning food was significantly (p ˂ 0.05) different from all the formulations. The
pH ranged from 7.06 to 7.45 and there were no significant (p ˃ 0.05) differences among all
samples in terms of pH. During extrusion cooking, pH of samples is often adjusted; lower pH
range increases chewiness in the final product, whereas a higher pH (8.5) produces a tender
product and more rapid rehydration (Fellows, 2000).
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4.10 Effect of Extrusion cooking on Antinutrient composition of Extruded Weaning Food
formulated from QPM and Sorghum Flour Blends compared to the Antinutrients present
in Wheat based Commercial Weaning Food
The results of antinutrient contents of extruded weaning food compared to those present in wheat
based commercial weaning food are shown in Table 13. The values ranged as follows: tannin
0.10 - 0.27 %, phytate 0.01 - 0.04 %, oxalate 0.08 - 0.11 %, saponin 0.001 - 0.004 %, trypsin
inhibitor 0.09 - 0.12 TIU/mg. The levels of the antinutritional factors obtained in this study were
relatively low when compared with the raw values and they were within the tolerable range for
consumption. The weaning formulations had tannin activity of 0.10 - 0.27 %. These values are
found to fall within the range 0.99 - 1.16 % reported by Tuleun and Igba (2008). The phytate
content ranges from 0.01 to 0.05 %. The diet had higher phytate content in contrast to
commercial infant formula which had 0.01 % phytate content (p ˂ 0.05) but the values are
generally lower than the values 0.02 - 0.07 % reported by Odom et al. (2013) in weaning foods.
Table 13: Antinutrient compositions (%) of extruded weaning food and commercial
weaning food
Samples Tannin Phytate Oxalate Saponin Trypsin Inhibitor

(TIU/mg)
A 0.27a ± 0.01 0.05a ± 0.01 0.13a ± 0.00 0.004b ± 0.01 0.12b ± 0.01
B 0.24a ± 0.02 0.05a ± 0.02 0.11ab ± 0.01 0.006a ± 0.00 0.14a ± 0.02
C 0.10b ± 0.00 0.01b ± 0.00 0.08b ± 0.02 0.001c ± 0.00 0.09c ± 0.00
Commercial weaning food.
85
A reduction in phytate after extrusion has been reported in rice-legume blends (Chauhan et al.,
1988). The oxalate activity ranged from 0.11 to 0.13 % with commercial diet showing a lower
content of 0.08 %. There was significant difference in the oxalate content (p ˂ 0.05) between
sample A and C. Obtained values were lower than the range 0.21 - 0.24 % reported by Odom et
al. (2013) in weaning foods. High oxalate content in a diet can precipitate calcium and make it
unavailable for nutritional purposes (Potter and Hotchkiss, 2004). The values of saponin ranged
from 0.001 - 0.006 %. There was significant (p ˂ 0.05) difference in saponin content for all
samples. The values of trypsin inhibitor also ranged from 0.09 to 0.14 TUI /100 mg.
4.11 Sensory Characteristics of Extruded Weaning Food from Bean, QPM and Sorghum
Flour Blends
Table 14 shows sensory scores of extruded weaning food from beans, maize and sorghum flour
blends and commercial weaning food. The results indicated that all samples had appreciable
rating for appearance, flavor, taste, texture and overall acceptability. There were no significance
(p ˃ 0.05) differences among sample A and B in terms of sensory qualities. But there were
significant (p ˂ 0.05) differences between extruded weaning foods and commercial weaning food
(C). The Table 15 shows Sensory scores of milled extruded weaning food from beans, maize and
sorghum flour blend compared to commercial weaning food.
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Table 14: Sensory scores of extruded weaning food from beans, maize and sorghum flour blends and commercial weaning
food
Samples Taste Aftertaste Mouth feel Aroma Texture Appearance Overall

Acceptability
A 6.70b ± 0.67 6.40b ± 1.07 6.60b ± 0.84 6.90b ± 1.10 6.90a ± 1.37 6.20b ± 0.92 6.90b ± 1.00
B 6.40b ± 1.17 6.40b ± 1.17 6.40b ± 0.70 6.80b ± 1.40 7.00a ± 1.41 6.30b ± 1.06 6.90b ± 1.00
C 8.70a ± 0.31 8.83a ± 0.40 8.75a ± 0.50 8.20a ± 1.05 7.73a ± 1.12 8.23a ± 1.05 8.25a ± 1.03
Values are mean ± SD of 10 panelists. Samples with different superscript within the same column were significantly (p ˂ 0.05)
different. Samples were: A = Extruded weaning food from iron biofortified beans/sorghum/QPM blend, B = Extruded weaning food
from common beans/sorghum/QPM blend and C = Commercial weaning food.
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Table 15: Sensory scores of milled extruded weaning food from beans, maize and sorghum flour blends compared to
commercial weaning food
Samples Taste Aftertaste Mouth feel Aroma Texture Appearance Overall

Acceptability
A 7.70b ± 0.48 7.30b ± 0.82 7.30b ± 1.25 6.90a ± 1.00 7.30ab ± 0.82 7.60a ± 1.07 7.50ab±1.07
B 6.30c ± 1.16 6.60b ± 1.07 6.30c ± 1.16 6.50a ± 1.07 6.60b ± 1.65 7.00a ± 1.15 7.00b ± 1.04
C 8.90a ± 0.32 8.80a ± 0.42 8.60a ± 0.70 7.70a ± 2.04 8.00a ± 1.25 8.00a ± 1.05 8.20a ± 1.03
Values are mean ± SD of 10 panelists. Samples with different superscript within the same column were significantly (p ˂ 0.05)
different. Samples were: A= Fe-Bean+ QPM+ Sorghum; B= C- Bean + QPM+ Sorghum and C= Commercial weaning food.
88
The results indicated that all samples had appreciable rating for appearance, flavor, taste, texture
and overall acceptability. However, the control sample, which was commercial weaning food,
had higher ratings in all the attributes than other extruded samples. There were no significance (p
˃ 0.05) differences among samples in terms of aroma and appearance. The control sample, which
was wheat-based weaning food had significantly (p ˂ 0.05) different rating with sample B in
overall acceptability, but there were no significant (p ˃ 0.05) difference between sample A and B
or sample A and sample C.
It was observed that there was a significant (p ˂ 0.05) difference between the commercial
weaning food sample and formulated diet in terms of taste, aftertaste, mouth feel, texture and
overall acceptability. There was no significant (p ˃ 0.05) difference between the commercial
weaning food (control) sample and formulated diet in terms of aroma and appearance. The
control food sample was rated higher than the formulated diet made from beans/QPM/Sorghum.
This could be attributed to the fact that consumers have been used to the control sample, which
consists of wheat, milk and honey. Diet A formulated from iron rich biofortified
beans/QPM/sorghum was rated next to the control food sample, but there was no significant
difference between that sample and diet made from common beans/QPM/sorghum
supplementation in aftertaste, texture, aroma, appearance and overall acceptability. This suggests
that the supplementation with iron rich biofortified beans causes only minimal alteration in the
sensory value of bean/QPM/sorghum. It is, therefore, suggested that iron rich biofortified
supplementation could be used for QPM/sorghum weaning diet formulation.
89
4.12 Microbial counts of extruded weaning food made from Beans, QPM and Sorghum
Flour blends
The heat produced during extrusion should be expected to destroy at least some of the
microorganisms present in the raw materials. For safety and storage considerations, however,
nearly complete destruction of bacteria and fungi must be assured, and post-extrusion
contamination must be prevented. Extrusion was found by De Muelenaere and Buzzard (1969) to
be very effective in reducing the total plate count and especially the number of Escherichia coli
per 100 grams. The following Table (Table 16) shows the bacterial count, mould count and
coliform count of extruded weaning food.
Table 16: Microbial counts of extruded weaning food
Samples Bacteria count (cfu/g) Mould count (cfu/g) Coliform count (cfu/g)
A 1.0 x 102 2 x 10 NG
B 1.5 x 10 1 x 10 NG
Extruded weaning food samples were: A = Fe-Bean+ QPM+ Sorghum, B = C- Bean + QPM+
Sorghum. NG = No growth
The sample had very low level of bacteria and mould growth. Coliforms were not detected in the
two products. The bacteria count ranged from 1.5X10 to 1.0X102 (cfu/g). The mould count
ranged from 10 to 20 (cfu/g). The presence of microorganisms in these samples, however, was
within acceptable limits (Fawole and Oso, 1988). A food product for consumption should have
microbial count below 1x105 cfu/ml. The International Microbiological Standard recommended
limit of bacteria contaminants for food of less than 106 cfu/g (Anon, 1974). Low bacteria counts
were obtained as a result of high standard of personal hygiene and quality maintenance of good
manufacturing practices observed during the food formulation process. The very low levels of
90
viable micro-organisms in the extruded weaning food immediately after extrusion cooking were
expected, with the few survivors being most probably heat resistant bacteria (Ariahu et al.,
1999). Therefore the food formulations were considered safe for human consumption.
91
CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Conclusion
This work has shown that the nutritional status of QPM/sorghum can be improved through iron
rich biofortified beans flour supplementation. The developed bean/QPM/sorghum diets were
nutritious and can easily be prepared from locally available raw food materials by using simple
processing techniques such as fabricated single extruder. The extruded weaning foods were with
improved protein, carbohydrate and mineral quality, i.e. improved mineral profile with regard to
the infant nutritional requirements, by iron biofortified beans incorporation. The extruded
weaning food produced contained both high protein related to the legumes (beans) incorporation,
and high carbohydrate, related to the use of cereals (QPM and sorghum). The developed weaning
diet can be incorporated into the diets for children to prevent protein energy and micronutrient
malnutrition in the community. Diet A and Diet B compared favorably and economically to that
of a standard baby food. The weaning food was considered safe as the anti-nutrients were
destroyed during processing and values are within recommendation by FAO and WHO. Actually
mineral content such as iron increased in formulated diet made from iron rich biofortied beans
compared to the commercial weaning food.
92
5.2 Recommendation
This study revealed that ready-to-eat complementary food products formulated from locally
available food commodities can meet the nutritional needs. Further work can be done on the
fortification of the weaning food with vitamins and minerals so that the recommended intakes of
these nutrients will be fully covered. Extrusion cooking should be a practical technique which
can be used to produce weaning foods with acceptable physicochemical, nutritional and storage
characteristics to produce weaning foods in a large scale but at a low cost. Further research
should be done on how fibre contents can be reduced in legume - cereal based weaning food in
order to meet required fibre contents for children and also how fat content can be increased in
order to meet energy requirement. Storage studies should be carried out on these products to
determine their shelf stability. Digestibility and bio availability of the macronutrients in these
local diets need further investigation. Feeding study will be done in the next step in order to find
the bioavailability of the iron from the extruded weaning food.
Contribution to knowledge as it relates to:
The consumer
From this work parents will get knowledge on iron rich biofortified beans, their nutritional
composition and they will get information, that legumes can be blended with cereals in order to
improve the nutritional composition of cereal based weaning foods like gruel from sorghum or
maize alone which is common weaning food in Rwanda. Children will get required nutrients for
their growth such as protein, carbohydrate and mineral especially iron content as fiindings show
that consumption of 100 g of extruded weaning food will provide about 172.45 % of
Recommended Dietary allowance (RDA) for protein, which is 11 g/day for 0.5 - 1 year, about
93
63.11 % of RDA for carbohydrate, which is 95 g/day for 0.5-1 year, 71.18 % RDA for iron,
which is 11 mg/day for 0.5 - 1 year. According to iron content, which has been improved in this
weaning food, there will be decrease rate of anemia in children under five years old in Rwanda.
The food processor /industry
From this work agro-processors will get more information on production of cereal based
weaning food by fortifying them with iron rich biofortified beans. Extrusion cooking process can
be adopted by industries in Rwanda for production of weaning foods.
Policy makers
This work will help policy makers to plan how use of low cost and available legumes such as
beans can be implimented to produce weaning food, which is high in protein and iron in order to
reduce malnutrition in low income population.
Academic community
Academic community will get knowledge from this work by knowing that iron rich biofortified
beans are available in Rwanda and are good source of minerals and protein. Academic
community will use this work for further reseaches.
94
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APPENDIX
Material Balance Method
SAMPLE A
Total balance
FB+M+S=100……………………………………………………………………………. (1)
Where,
FB = Iron Biofortified Bean, M = Quality Protein Maize) and S = Sorghum
Component balance on protein
0.3151*FB+0.1040*M+0.1899*S=20…………………………………………………… (2)
Component balance on carbohydrate
0.5149*FB+0.7100*M+0.5921*S=60………………………………………………..…… (3)
Equation (1) × 0.1899
0.1899*FB+0.1899*M+0.1899*S=18.99…………………………………….…………….(4)
Equation (1) × 0.5921
0.5921*FB+0.5921*M+0.5921*S=59.21…………………...……………………………. (5)
Equation (2) – Equation (4)
0.1252*FB–0.0859*M=1.01……………………………………………………………… (6)
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-0.0772*FB+0.1179*M=0.79…………………………………………………………….. (7)
Equation (6) × 0.1179
0.01476108*FB-0.01012761*M=0.119079……………………………………………… (8)
Equation (7) × 0.0859
-0.00663148*FB+0.01012761*M= 0.067861……………………………...…………….. (9)
Equation (8) + Equation (9)
0.0081296*FB= 0.18694
Therefore FB = 22.99 %
Put FB = 22.99 into Equation (6)
0.1252*FB – 0.0859*M = 1.01
Therefore M = 23.84 %
Put FB = 22.99 and M = 23.84 into Equation (1)
22.99+23.84+ S = 100
Therefore S = 53.17 %
SAMPLE B
CB+M+S=100 ……………………………………………………………………………. (1)
Where,
CB = Common Bean, M = Quality Protein Maize) and S = Sorghum
Component balance on protein
0.3268*CB+0.1040*M+0.1899*S=20…………………………………………….............. (2)
123
Component balance on carbohydrate
0.5084*CB+0.7100*M+0.5921*S= 60……………………………………………………...(3)
Equation (1) × 0.1899
0.1899*CB+0.1899*M+0.1899*S =18.99………………………………………………… (4)
Equation (1) × 0.5921
0.5921*CB+0.5921*M+0.5921*S=59.21……………………………..……………………(5)
0.1369*CB–0.0859*M=1.01 ……………………………………………….………………(6)
-0.0837*CB+0.1179*M=0.79 ……………………………….…………………………… (7)
Equation (6) × 0.1179
0.01614051*CB-0.01012761*M= 0.119079……………………………………………… (8)
Equation (7) × 0.0859
-0.00718983*CB+0.01012761*M=0.067861 …………………………………………….. (9)
Equation (8) +Equation
0.00895068*CB= 0.18694
Therefore CB = 20.89 %
Put M = 35.02 into Equation (6)
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0.1369*CB – 0.0859*M = 1.01
Therefore, M = 20.49 %
Put CB = 20.89 and M = 20.49 into Equation (1)
20.89 + 20.49+ S = 100
Therefore S = 58.62 %
125
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR SENSORY EVALUATION TEST
NINE POINT HEDONIC SCALE
Date……………………………………………….
Dear respondent,
This questionnaire is normally designed to evaluate the acceptability of Extruded weaning food.
Please read it carefully, and write the score which correspond to the below score card as your
attitude reflects better to the corresponding term:
Like extremely……………………………………………………...9
Like very much……………………………………………………..8
Like moderately…………………………………………………….7
Like…………………………………………………………………6
Neither like nor dislike……………………………………………..5
Dislike………………………………………………………………4
Dislike moderately………………………………………………….3
Dislike very much…………………………………………………..2
Dislike extremely…………………………………………………...1
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ATTRIBUTES A B C
Taste
Aftertaste
Mouth feel
Texture
Aroma
Appearance
Overall acceptability
127
A. Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) and Adquate Intakes (AI) for Vitamins
128
B. Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) and Adquate Intakes (AI) for Minerals
129
C. Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) and Adquate Intakes (AI) for Proximate
Compostion Values
130

Production and Evaluation of Extruded Weaning Food From Iron-Biofortified Beans, Maize and Sorghum Flour Blends

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Production and Evaluation of Extruded Weaning Food From Iron-Biofortified Beans, Maize and Sorghum Flour Blends

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PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION OF EXTRUDED WEANING FOOD FROM

IRON-BIOFORTIFIED BEANS, MAIZE AND SORGHUM FLOUR BLENDS

A PROJECT DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE

DEPARTMENT OF FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY,

SUPERVISOR: PROF. T. M. OKONKWO

MUSANASE, SOLANGE (PG/M.Sc/12/63861), a postgraduate student in the Department of

technical and moral support thoughout my academic endeavours.

project from the begining, up to the end.

Africa (TRECCAfrica) to grant me a scholarship.

present TRECCAfrica coordinators at University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Prof. M. C. Madukwe and

List of Tables XII

List of Figures XIV

Chapter One: Introduction 1

1.1 Problem Statement 3

1.2 Justification of the Study 4

1.3 Objective of the Study 4

1.3.1 Main Objective 4

1.3.2 Specific objectives 5

1.4 Significance of Study 5

Chapter Two: Literature Review 6

2.1 Weaning Foods 6

2.1.1 History of weaning foods 6

2.1.2 Weaning Period 7

2.1.4 Nutrient Requirement of Infant‟s Complementary Foods 8

2.1.5 Weaning food production 8

2.2.1.1 Origin and History of Sorghum 10

2.2.1.2 Production of Sorghum 11

2.2.1.3 Consumption of Sorghum 12

2.2.1.4 Nutrient Content of Sorghum 12

2.2.2.1 Origin and History of Maize 13

2.2.2.2 Maize Production 14

2.2.2.3 Uses of Maize 14

2.2.2.4 Maize Consumption 15

2.2.2.5 Nutritional Content of Maize 16

2.3.1 Biofortified Beans 16

2.3.1.1 Origin and History of Biofortified Beans 16

2.4.1 Types of extruders 20

2.4.2 Extrusion-cooking process 21

2.4.3 Effects of extrusion-cooking process on the main feed constituents, micronutrients

2.4.3.4 Dietary fibre 23

2.4.3.5 Vitamins and minerals 23

2.5 Characteristics of extruded products 24

2.6 Health and Nutrition 24

2.6.2 Micronutrient deficiencies 26

2.6.3 Vitamin A Deficiency (VAD) 26

2.6.4 Iodine Deficiency (IDD) 26

2.6.5 Zinc Deficiency 27

2.6.6 Iron Deficiency (ID) 27

2.6.7 Prevalence of iron deficiency and iron deficiency anemia 28

2.6.8 Strategies for addressing Micronutrients Deficiencies 28

Chapter Three: Materials and Methods 30

3.1 Procurement of Raw Materials 30

3.2 Preparation of Samples 30

3.2.1 Production of beans flour 30

3.2.2 Production of Germinated Maize Flour 32

3.2.3 Production of Malted Sorghum Flour 33

3.3.1 Blend formulation 34

3.4 Preparation of Flour Blends 34

3.3.2 Production of Weaning Food 35

3.4. Chemical Analysis 37

3.4.1. Proximate Analysis 37

3.4.1.1. Determination of Moisture Content 37