MINI PROJECT: CHEMISTRY INVOLVED IN THE

PROCESSING OF SOFT TOFU

CLASS : L01
SUBJECT : CFB 20703 FOOD CHEMISTRY
LECTURER : KHAIRUL FAIZAL BIN PA'EE
STUDENTS’ NAME : 1. NURIN NASHUHA BINTI ALFANSU (55218119176)
2. NUR RAIHAN BINTI HAZAH@HAMZAH (55218119158)
3. NUR SAKINAH BINTI BAHRIN (55218118071)
4. NUR SYAZWANI BINTI ZAKUAN (55218119069)
5. NURAIN QISTINA BINTI AHMAD SABRI (55218118096)
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background Study 1
1.2 How Tofu is Made 2
1.3 Types of Tofu 2
1.4 Health Benefits of Consuming Tofu 3
1.5 The Difference of Soft Tofu and Silken Tofu 4
INGREDIENTS
2.1 Ingredient Including Addictive Used and Its Function 5
2.2 Chemical composition 6
PROCESSING OF SOFT TOFU
3.1 Introduction 8
3.2 Chemical Process Involved During Its Production 8
3.2.1 Soaking of Soybean Seeds 8
3.2.2 Separating The Soy Milk 9
3.2.3 Coagulating The Soy Milk 9
3.2.4 Pasteurizing The Tofu 11
CONCLUSION
4.1 Conclusion 12

REFERENCES 13
 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background Study

Tofu, also Tōfu (Japanese Romaji spelling), Doufu (Chinese Pinyin spelling often used in Chinese
recipes) or Bean Curd (literally translated) is a food of Chinese origin, made by coagulating soy
milk, and then pressing the resulting curds into blocks. There are several different tofu varieties,
including fresh tofu, tofu that is processed or stored in several ways, and tofu by-products such
as tofu skins and soy pulp (Japanese: okara). Tofu has very little taste or smell on its own, so it
can be used either in savory or sweet dishes and is often seasoned or marinated to suit the dishes
(Guo & Ono, 2006). Tofu is an important protein source in Chinese, Japanese, Korean and
Southeast Asian cuisines. It is believed exists from the Han dynasty (The Editors of
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2019).Tofu originated in China, like many foods made from soya.

According to Lewin (2019), legend has it that a Chinese cook, who accidentally curdled
soy milk when he added nigari seaweed, discovered it some 2000 years ago. Tofu was initially
named 'okabe' when it was introduced into Japan in the eighth century. Its modern name was not
used until 1400. Interest in healthy eating by the 1960’s brought tofu to Western nations. After
then, countless work has shown the many benefits soya and tofu can offer. Other than that, Tara
McHugh (2016) stated that tofu had its origins in China. Liu An, a prince of the Han dynasty who
lived during the second century B.C., is believed to have grown first.

The Japanese Food Research Institute proposed the modernization and standardization
of tofu production throughout Japan during the 1960s. This effort has brought significant progress
in the processing of tofu. Although tofu has been made in the United States since the beginning
of the 20th century, its consumption didn’t increase rapidly until around 1970. Today, the United
States is one of the largest producers of soya beans in the world. Yet tofu consumption in the
United States is relatively low compared to other countries. Tofu sales in the United States during
2014 amounted to $274 million, according to the North America Soy Foods Association (Tara
McHugh, 2016).

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 Tofu has long been the world's most widely used soy food. In East Asia, the importance
of meat, milk, and cheese to people in Western countries is much the same. The tofu industry is
very large worldwide. It consisted of an estimated 245,000 producers in 1982 including 30,000 in
Japan, 200,000 in the People's Republic of China, 11,000 in Indonesia, 2,500 in Korea, 1,500 in
Taiwan, and 225 in the Western world. Located in Japan, the world's largest factories make more
than 50 tons (metric tons) of tofu per day (15,000 tons per year). Tofu is a Japanese word; the
earliest known appearance was in 1182. During the 1400s, tofu developed a number of
nicknames in Japan, such as Shiro kabe or Shira kabe , and later okabe (Shurtleff, W; Aoyagi,
2004).

1.2 How Tofu Is Made

Tofu is made from dried soybeans that are soaked, crushed, and boiled in water. The mixture is
divided into solid pulp (okara) and soy "milk." To distinguish the curds from the whey, salt
coagulants such as calcium and magnesium chlorides and sulphates are applied to the soy milk.
In some cases, coagulants of acid such as citric acid or delta-lactone gluconium may be used.
Soya milk is poured into moulds to allow the carbohydrate-charged whey to drain away. The
resulting soft cakes are cut into squares and stored under water until available, in bulk, or in water-
filled individual tubs. Depending on the production method, tofu may be made extra soft, soft
(silken), firm, or extra firm. Dried tofu is also sold which does not require cooling (The Editors of
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2019).

1.3 Types of Tofu

Tofu is widely used as an ethnic food or as a high protein, vegetarian alternative to meat and
cheese. Tofu can also be used in other foods such as hot dogs, burgers, ice cream, sauces,
cookies, and shakes. Numerous types of tofu are available, including extra firm, firm, soft, and
silken tofu. Both extra firm and firm tofu have similar texture to cooked meat and raw meat,
respectively. Their stiffness makes them use for stir-fry dishes, grilling, and soups. Soft, silky tofu
is fragile and has soft, silky texture. Soft and silk tofu can be mixed in sauces or used as desserts
or beverages. Other types of tofu include fermented tofu, flavoured tofu, fried tofu, and frozen
tofu. Tofu is nutritionally free from cholesterol, low in saturated fat and high in protein. Tofu

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contains around 50 per cent protein and 27 per cent fat on a moisture-free basis, the bulk of which
are polyunsaturated fatty acids. Tofu also constitutes a good source of calcium. A soy health claim
was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in 1999, and tofu has been shown to
have multiple health benefits (Tara McHugh, 2016).

1.4 Health Benefits of Consuming Tofu

Tofu is a good protein source containing all nine essential amino acids. It is also a valuable iron
and calcium plant source, and the manganese and phosphorous minerals. This also contains
magnesium, copper, zinc, and vitamin B1. An excellent food from a dietary and health viewpoint,
tofu is thought to provide many of the same benefits as soya beans. One 3.5-ounce (100-gram)
serving of tofu is offered (U.S. Department of Agriculture, n.d.):

Table 1.1 Nutrients and composition in soft tofu.

NUTRIENTS COMPOSITION
Proteins 8 grams
Carbohydrates 2 grams
Fibre 1 gram
Fat 4 grams
Manganese 31% of Reference Daily Intake
Calcium 20% of Reference Daily Intake
Selenium 14% of Reference Daily Intake
Phosphorus 12% of Reference Daily Intake
Copper 11% of Reference Daily Intake
Magnesium 9% of Reference Daily Intake
Iron 9% of Reference Daily Intake
Zinc 6% of Reference Daily Intake

It comes with only 70 total calories, making tofu a highly nutrient dense food. However,
tofu's micronutrient content can differ depending on the coagulant used. Nigari adds more
magnesium while precipitated calcium increases the calcium content. Tofu is low in calories but
high in protein and fat. It also contains many important vitamins and minerals (Petre, 2018).

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 Lewin (2019) notes that soft tofu is believed that soya protein (whose tofu is derived from)
helps lower levels of bad cholesterol (LDL). Tofu contains phytoestrogens called isoflavones, a
group of chemicals found in plant foods. They have a similar structure to the female oestrogen
hormone and thus mimic the body's oestrogen action. They naturally bind to oestrogen receptor
sites in human cells including breast cells – potentially reducing the risk of breast cancer. Because
of the soybean's phytoestrogen content, many women tend to include soy-rich foods such as tofu
in their diet when they reach menopause. The natural production of oestrogen by the body
significantly decreases during the menopause, and symptoms may arise. As phytoestrogens act
as weak oestrogens, they may help to relieve symptoms by slightly increasing levels, reducing
hot flushes in some women. Genetics, your intestinal microbiota and environmental factors play
a major role in how our bodies react to certain foods, so as yet we can't tell whether a diet rich in
phytoestrogen foods is beneficial or not. If you are a vegetarian or vegan, foods like tofu based
on soya can be an invaluable part of your diet.

1.5 The Difference of Soft Tofu and Silken Tofu

Soft tofu is a traditional block of tofu that you usually find in a plastic container in the refrigerated
section of your grocery store. Block tofu comes in different degrees of firmness. Chinese-style
softest type of tofu is called "soft tofu." This soft tofu is a version of silken tofu in the Chinese-
style, regular block tofu. It is as soft as silken tofu, and not pressed. Though soft tofu has similar
consistency and texture to silken tofu, soft tofu’s texture is rougher than silken tofu. Figure 1
shows the difference of texture between soft block tofu and firm silken tofu. As we can observed,
the pores in the soft tofu are bigger than silken tofu in this side by side comparison of silken tofu
and soft tofu. Soft tofu and silk tofu can be used interchangeably. Both soft tofu and silk tofu work
well in desserts such as dou hua, soups such as egg drop soup, or in vegan desserts and
smoothies. Silken tofu has a smoother, more silky texture (Rider, 2020).

Figure 1.1 The difference of texture between soft block tofu and firm silken tofu.

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 INGREDIENTS

2.1 Ingredients Including Additives Used and Its Function

The two salt coagulants which are most commonly used are calcium sulfate (gypsum) and
magnesium chloride combined with calcium chloride (Nigari salts). Calcium sulfate is the most
traditional tofu coagulant which is widely used. It is used as a coagulant mainly because it does
not disguise the soybeans taste, enabling quality tofu producers to conserve and showcase the
flavors and fragrances of beans that are valued in Asia. Magnesium chloride and calcium chloride
salts are more soluble and produce smoother tofu than calcium sulfate. Meanwhile for Nigari,
which mainly consists of magnesium chloride, is produced from seawater. Sodium chloride is
removed, and water is evaporated to produce white Nigari powder. Depending on how they are
produced, Nigari can often produce small quantities of magnesium sulfate, potassium chloride
and calcium chloride. Nigari's variable composition can pose a challenge for large-scale tofu
production (Nishinari et al., 2018).

Table 2.1 The ingredients needed in making of soft tofu.

Ingredients in Soft tofu

Calcium Sulfate (Gypsum)

Soybean

Magnesium Chloride

Calcium Chloride (Nigari Salts)

Edible Acid (Glucono Delta-Lactone (GDL))

Enzyme - Papain and Proteases (Alkaline and

Neutral)

Tofu may also be coagulated with edible acids. The most frequently used acid is glucono
delta-lactone (GDL). GDL is specifically used for silken or soft tofu because it coagulates rapidly,
allowing silken tofu to be produced inside the container without an air gap which prevents the

5
silken tofu from breaking during transport. Tofu manufacturers could not reliably transport soft
tofu due to the development of GDL and its usage in silken or soft tofu. GDL is commonly used
in soy milk with high levels of solids (10 % – 13 % in regular tofu instead of % – 10 %). Soft and
silken tofu filled containers are heated for 40 to 60 min in a water bath at 80°C–90°C to allow the
GDL to be transformed into gluconic acid, which causes the protein to coagulate as a
homogeneous gel, without separation from the whey. GDL leaves the final product with a mildly
acidic flavor. Combined with calcium sulfate it can be used to produce a soft and smooth textured
tofu. Many acids like acetic and citric acid may also be used, but they also leave unpleasant
aromas (Nishinari et al., 2018).

Enzymes may also be used as coagulants too. Possible coagulants are papain and
proteases (alkaline and neutral). These enzymes catalyze the interlinking in the proteins between
amino acids. Making tofu affects the coagulation process by several other factors. One of these
is the addition, in combination with the coagulant, of natural oils using a high shear mixer to
produce an emulsion or suspension containing the natural oil before coagulation. Coagulation is
often caused by the protein subunits found in soya beans. Tofu made from soybeans with high
11S/7S subunit ratios has a rough texture at lower concentrations of coagulants than tofu
produced from soybeans with low 11S/7S proportions. For optimum toughness these require
more coagulant (Nishinari et al., 2018)

Tofu is a protein that is 6–8 per cent high in calcium, potassium and iron. The tofu
manufacturing by-products Okara and soy whey are also eaten. The skin which forms as it stands
on top of the soy milk is removed and dried in sheets for use in vegetarian dishes. Tofu may be
flavored, such as with ginger or onion, or spices may be seasoned. It can be grilled, deep-fried,
cooked, stir-fried, steamed, or freshly eaten and served with toppings like tapioca or sweet syrups.
Fermented bean curd is popular in China. Usually Chinese tofu has a much firmer feel and a more
prominent flavor than Japan’s choice (Nishinari et al., 2018).

2.2 Chemical Composition

Chemical composition is defined as the arrangement, type, and ratio of atoms in molecules of
chemical substances. Chemical composition vary when a chemical is added or subtracted from
the substance, when the ratio of the substance changes, or when chemical change occurs in the

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chemical (Chemical Composition - Chemistry LibreTexts). Specifically, the chemical composition
of food includes information on the nutritionally imperative components of food and offers high
value for energy and nutrients with protein, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, and minerals.

Tofu is a plant-based protein made from soybean curds. It is naturally gluten-free and low
in calories. It contains no cholesterol and is an excellent source of iron and calcium. Nutritionally,
soft tofu contains proteins, low saturated-fat, carbohydrate, calories, ash, calcium, magnesium,
iron, and zinc. It also provides a small amount of thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B-6, choline,
manganese, and selenium. The following Table 1 is a chemical composition for soft tofu:

Table 3.1 Chemical composition of soft tofu

Chemical composition Percentage (%)
Water 88.0
Protein 6.0
Fat 2.5
Carbohydrate 3.5

Soft tofu low in saturated-fat and calories than firm or extra firm tofu due to the fact that
soft tofu has higher water content. Soft tofu has the least amount of water pressed out, while firm
tofu has low moisture content and a dense texture. In contrast, one serving of soft or silken tofu
contains about 85 calories, while one serving of firm or extra firm tofu has about 100 calories. The
more firm, the less water content, and therefore, the more calories and nutrients. The more liquid
varieties like soft tofu, the more water content, and fewer calories and fat.

Soft tofu is an excellent source of protein. Soybean is the major component of tofu. It is a
complete source of dietary protein, which means it provides all the essential amino acids needed
in the diet (Tofu: Health Benefits, Uses, and Possible Risks). This makes them more nutritious
protein than other beans, closer to the protein in animal products. Soybeans are also high in
polyunsaturated fats, especially omega-3 alpha-linolenic acid. Furthermore, soft tofu is low
carbohydrates food. Soybeans are a good source of indigestible fibre carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates are an important source of energy for human body, metabolized to glucose during
digestion. Tofu contains other important nutrients such as calcium, magnesium, iron, and zinc.
The calcium and magnesium in soy can help strengthen bones, reduce PMS symptoms, regulate
blood sugar, and prevent migraine headaches.

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 PROCESSING OF SOFT TOFU

3.1 Introduction

When the characteristics of soybean seeds, such as protein content and composition of protein
subunits, and others, are suitable for the desired tofu price, methods of processing and the
relevant conditions involved in the manufacturing of tofu shall be a further important consideration
for yield, textural properties and taste of tofu. These conditions include, in particular, the
parameters used in the processing phases of soya seed soaking, soya milk heating and
coagulation, and others. Even though soybean seeds are specialized in high-quality tofu
processing, the final quality of tofu is also determined by the use of appropriate processing
methods and conditions. The principle or objective of tofu processing is the thermal denaturation
of soybean proteins and the formation of tofu with a compact network structure by coagulant. As
a result, as long as the method can support the gelation of soybean proteins, it can be used to
produce tofu. Tofu processing methods are also characteristically complex.

3.2 Process Chemical Involved in Production of Soft Tofu

3.2.1 Soaking of Soybean Seeds

As an important operating stage in the processing of tofu, soaking directly modifies the structural
characteristics and melting properties of soybean seeds. In addition, the germination and freezing
of soybeans seeds may also alter the chemical components and texture of soybeans seeds in
order to influence the quality of tofu. Specifically, soaking can accelerate protein extraction from
raw soybean seed and therefore lead to higher levels of tofu protein (Yang and James, 2016).
First, to achieve the same soaking effect, the higher the soaking temperature, the less time is
used. This phenomenon may be related to the influence of the soaking temperature on the time
required to obtain the maximum absorption of water.

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 In some cases, soya bean hulls are removed prior to grinding. Dehullers use gentle,
rotating rubber rollers to detach the hull. This improves colour and reduces the bean flavour of
the final tofu (Kang et al. 2014). In addition, soybeans can be pre-treated with sodium bicarbonate
to reduce the bean flavour and increase the smoothness of the final tofu (Rekha and
Vijayalakshmi 2013). Grinding can also be performed using a variety of equipment types, which
include micro-cutters, hammer mills and similar devices. The more thoroughly the slurry is ground,
the more protein it extracts, and the better the yield. Next, the ground slurry is cooked, usually at
100°C to 110°C for 3–10 minutes. This process deforms the soy protein and removes volatile
bean flavours.

3.2.2 Separating the Soy Milk

The soya milk must then be separated from the solid soya pulp or fibre, also known as okara.
This can be achieved by centrifugation and/or filtration. Alternatively, before heating, the soy milk
may be isolated from the okara. In some cases, soy milk is concentrated before coagulation. This
can be achieved through several methods, including heat, reverse osmosis, vacuum evaporation
or nanofiltration. Soya milk heating is indispensable for the rapid creation of tofu during processing.
Theoretically, there is an increase in protein hydrophobic and sulfidrylic content, which facilitates
protein aggregation due to the presence of hydrophobic groups in response to thermal treatment.
After generation of a stable protein network structure, tofu is formed using an appropriate
coagulant. The texture of the final tofu depends to a large extent on the solid quality of the soy
milk prior to coagulation. Soy milk can be concentrated at between 10% and 22% of solids (Kang
et al. 2014).

3.2.3 Coagulating the Soy Milk

As introduced earlier, aggregation occurs among soybean storage proteins due to the emergence
of hydrophobic groups when soybean is thermally treated. This aggregation can be significantly
enhanced by low pH and metal ion strength to form tofu (Kohyama et al., 1995; Renkema et
al. .2002; Peng et al., 2016). The selection of an appropriate coagulant to supply the effect of salt
ions and pH during the processing of tofu is therefore a very important issue. The coagulation
step is the most important step in the development of tofu. The purpose is to coagulate protein

9
and oil in soy milk. Various coagulants are used to produce different types of tofu. Four forms of
coagulants, namely salt, acid, enzyme coagulants and other coagulants, are used for the
treatment of tofu according to their specific chemical characteristics. Characteristics. Salt, such
as CS, MC, and calcium chloride (CC) and others, is commonly used as a traditional coagulant.

Salts, such as gypsum (mainly CS) and nigari (consisting of MC hexahydrate, Magnesium
sulphate [MS], CC and others have long been used in the treatment of tofu. Although the
application of salts dates back to the invention of tofu, the precise mechanism for the formation
of tofu salts has not been uniformly defined. To date, four theories have prevailed in the academic
circles of tofu research (Liu et al., 2000; Qi et al., 2006). The Cation Bridge Theory considers the
cross-linking between heat-induced soybean proteins and metal ions to accelerate the speed of
protein gelation and increase the stability of the three-dimensional network structure (Kao et al. ,
2003), ultimately increasing the strength and hardness of tofu. Magnesium chloride and calcium
chloride salts are more soluble than calcium sulphate and create smoother textured tofu.

By use of acid in tofu processing is mainly based on the provision of hydrons to the pH of
the isoelectric point of the soybean proteins and then on prompt isoelectric precipitation of the
heat-denatured soybean proteins. Among the acids studied, GDL has shown the best application
effect on the production of packaged tofu. GDL may slowly decompose into gluconic acid and
release protons into water at certain temperatures, satisfying the characteristic gradual process
for the formation of a continuous structure of the soya protein network through hydrophobic and
electrostatic interactions (Liu and Kuo, 2011). As a result, higher yields, greater elasticity, higher
WHC and smoother tofu textures made using GDL are typically observed compared to
conventional salts (Shen et al., 1991).

In addition, on the basis of formation of a uniform protein network structure, water can be
homogeneously trapped within this structure to avoid a pressing phase in conventional tofu
processing. GDL leaves a slightly sour taste in the finished product. It may be used in combination
with calcium sulphate to produce soft and smooth textured tofu. Other acids, such as acetic acid
and citric acid, may also be used, but often leave unwanted flavours.

Enzymes can also be used as coagulants. Application of enzymatic coagulants can

increase the controllability of tofu processing and produce tofu with a better aroma than acid-
induced tofu. In addition, enzymatic coagulants can continuously degrade the soybean proteins

10
in tofu to reduce the texture of the hardness and alter the taste. Enzymatic coagulants are widely
distributed in plants, animals, and microorganisms. Transglutaminase has recently become the
most popular. Commonly used enzymatic coagulant with the best coagulation effect. These
enzymes catalyse the crosslinking of amino acids in proteins. Transglutaminase, also known as
protein-glutamine: amine g-glutamyl transferase (EC 2.3.2.13), may catalyse intra-or inter-
molecular cross-linking reactions within or between proteins. Essentially, the acyl-transfer
reaction between g-carbonxyamide groups of protein-bound glutaminyl residues (acyl donor) and
primary amines of amine compounds (acyl acceptor) are catalysed by this enzyme to form cross-
linked ore-(g-glutamyl) lysine iso-peptide bonds in high-MW protein polymers (Kang et al., 1994;
Motoki and Seguro, 1998).

Lastly, the elasticity, WHC, and protein stability are altered, and the textural properties of
protein-containing food materials are modified. An analysis of the quality and mechanism of
formation of MTG-induced protein gel produced from glycine-rich and b-conglycin-rich SPI
showed a discrepancy between the mechanisms for MTG-induced gelling of different storage
proteins (Tang et al., 2006). With the aid of MT Gase catalysis, covalent cross-linking,
hydrophobic and hydrogen bonding and disulphide bonding were the main chemical forces
involved in the formation and maintenance of the glycine-rich SPI gel. The major powers
responsible for the management of the system, however, b-conglycin rich SPI gel structure was
hydrophobic and hydrogen bonding.

3.2.4 Pasteurizing the Tofu

Pasteurization is often used to extend the shelf life of the final tofu product. Tofu can also be
processed using ultra-high temperature (UHT) technology and packaged aseptically to further
extend shelf life.

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 CONCLUSION

4.1 Conclusion

In a conclusion, soft tofu is a free of cholesterol, low in saturated fat and high in protein. On a
moisture-free basis, soft tofu contains about half protein and 27% fat which is the most
polyunsaturated fatty acids. Moreover, soft tofu possesses in unique gelling mechanisms which
is by using Nigari salt as a coagulant where it made from seawater and primarily contains
magnesium salts. Both pure calcium salt and magnesium salt are also used for this purpose, in
order to form a network structure formation in tofu coagulation by ion bridges with these divalent
cations. In addition, glucono-delta-lactone (GDL) is also used for tofu production because GDL
leaves the final product with a mildly acidic flavor. So, the combination of calcium sulfate and GDL
can be used to produce a soft and smooth textured tofu. Besides, soft tofu consists of a complex
physicochemical in which the composition of many nutrients and product shapes are altered. The
processing of soft tofu is influenced by many factors to give a satisfactory quality such as the
soybean variety, composition of soybean proteins and subunits, pretreatments of raw soybean
seed, processing technology and the corresponding operation conditions. Among these possible
factors, the protein profile, soymilk heating and coagulation are the most important steps in the
processing of soft tofu due to protein denaturation by heat and hydrophobic coagulation promoted
by protons from GDL or by calcium ions. Overall, it can be concluded that factors involved in soft
tofu processing are interdependent and their interactions determine by yield, textural properties,
sensory quality, and nutritive value of tofu.

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