CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

For the socio-economic and health status of nations worldwide, the expansion of water

resources has been the benchmark. Nevertheless, pollution of water, many a times

invalidates the benefits obtained from water resources. For many people in Nigeria, water

supply, sanitation and proper disposal of waste remains the most important of all

environmental problems. The variety of pressures places on land and water resources

brings to the fore an issue of how to conserve and sustainably use them. These include

nutrient enrichment of surface water from agricultural chemicals, sediment loading caused

by deforestation and eutrophication, improper land management and abstraction of water

for irrigation and human consumption required for poverty alleviation (Ansah – Asare,

2019).

In Nigeria, not much work has been done on pollution loads on some freshwater systems

including the community and how they affect their inherent resources. Anthropogenic such

as waste disposal, illegal mining, farming occur along the course of the community,

deforestation, land degradation due to improper agricultural practices, excessive use of

inorganic fertilizers in agricultural activities have also contributed to the total pollution

loads in some portion of the river course (Ampofo, 2020). The activities of illegal small-

scale miners have loaded the river with excavations. However, the river is depended on by

the communities along its course for various designated uses including drinking and other

domestic activities and fishing.

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There is a high demand of water for domestic, industrial and agricultural uses. It has

therefore become important to identify the various anthropogenic activities and assess the

quality of the river water taking into consideration most parameters and finding solutions to

the problems and their inherent impact on the inhabitants.

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT AND JUSTIFICATION

Water is vital for life, not only for drinking and washing but also for many other purposes

such as industrial water supply, irrigation, power production and recreation e.g. sailing and

swimming. Each different use of water has its own requirement for composition and purity

and therefore the need for analysis on regular basis to ensure its suitability. Potential

pollutants are released into the environment as a result of anthropogenic activities.

Communities along the course of water obtained over 60% of their water needs from the

river. Recently, there have been series of agitations by the communities due to unsuitability

of the river water for the intended drinking, domestic and fishing activities. The deep

brown coloration of the water which can be sighted from afar may give credence to the

claim of the communities. These have denied thousands of people access to good and cheap

source of drinking water. The communities have therefore resorted to the use of sachet

water for domestic activities. This has introduced untold hardship on the communities. The

tendency also exists for those who could not afford the sachet water and therefore continue

depending on the water to be very vulnerable to water-related health hazards.

The need for constant monitoring of the levels of pollutants is necessary and should be

extended to community to enable the suitability of the water to be ascertained and any

necessary recommendations for the conservation of the river.

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1.3 JUSTIFICATION

This outcome actually combines a management output (100% of pollution reduction

controls installed for nitrogen, phosphorus and sediment no later than 2025) with a water

quality outcome (practices in place to achieve 60% of load reductions necessary to achieve

WQ standards by 2017).

The outputs will be measured through data collected from the jurisdictions annually

through BayTAS and will require no further data collection or analysis other than what is

done annually for Bay Barometer and other purposes.

The Chesapeake Bay Program (CBP) has undertaken monitoring, modeling, and research to

develop the water quality standards and calculate the nitrogen, phosphorus, and sediment

load reductions needed to achieve the standards. The outcomes will be measured using

monitoring information. It was derived using best professional judgment based on expected

implementation progress made by 2017.

1.4 AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this study is to carryout physiochemical and petrographical analysis on some

selected wells and rocks.

1.5 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

1. To carryout physiochemical analysis on the water sample to determine the present

of major element.

2. To carryout phytochemical analysis to identify the mineral constraint in the well

sample.

3
 3. Measure the concentration of some nutrient in the community.

1.6 SCOPE AND ACCESSIBILITY

The scope of the study deals mainly with the quality, essential related resources and

the issues of groundwater management and drinking water pollution protection.

The research will be conducted at science laboratory technology, Abubakar Tatari

Ali Polytechnic, Bauchi which is located along Jos road, Wuntin Dada Area, Bauchi

L.G.A, Bauchi State, while the materials will be obtained from Bauchi metropolis.

1.7 JUSTIFICATION

For centuries, Water quality has an integral part of life in Nigeria. Each and every part of

the water serves as certain purpose most each and every one survive.

The need therefore, for other potential sources of cheaper pharmaceutical excipients

cannot be overemphasized.

Due to limited supply and consequent increase in cost of traditional excipient a

research for other lesser known naturally occurring excipients with the desired

pharmaceutical properties is essential.

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Water as a natural resource

Water covers about three fourth area of the earth’s surface with volume of about one billion

cubic kilometers. Of total surface water reserves, ocean constitutes 97%, permanent

glaciers and ice-caps 2.1%, and remaining only 0.9% water is available as fresh water in

the form of rivers, lakes, ponds, streams (Dugan, 2020).

Figure 2. The world’s water distribution

Water and life are intricately linked, and water is the main constituent of the human body

making up about 80% of total body weight and is the medium for all metabolic activities.

More than half of the world’s species of plants and animals live in water, and even our

terrestrial-derived food is totally dependent on water and often largely composed of water

5
(Mishra, 2022). Water is needed not only for drinking purpose, but also for production of

food.

2.2 Water properties

Water consists of two hydrogen atoms bound to an oxygen atom, forming an isosceles

triangle. Water molecules are attracted to each other, creating hydrogen bonds, which

influence physical as well as chemical properties of water. Pure water at sea level freezes at

0˚C and boils at 100˚C. At higher elevations, the boiling point of water decreases, due to

the lower atmospheric pressure. If substances are dissolved in the water, the freezing point

is lowered (John, 2020). Perhaps the most striking feature of water is that it is less dense in

its solid form (ice) than it is in liquid form, and so ice floats. The density of pure water

approaches to 4˚C, and so water at this temperature is often found in the deep waters of a

river. The density of water increases if solutes are added (i.e., salty water may be denser

than fresh water). Both these features influence thermal and chemical stratification patterns

in lakes, with important environmental consequences. Water has a very high specific heat,

which is the amount of energy needed to warm or cool a substance. People who live close

to large bodies of water are often said to enjoy a maritime climate, with reduced climatic

extremes between the seasons. On the contrary, regions far inland are often said to have

continental climates, with striking seasonal changes in temperature. Water has an extremely

high surface tension, which is a measure of the strength of the water’s surface film. One of

the important characteristics of water is that it is almost the universal solvent, with

extraordinary abilities to dissolve other substances.

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2.3 Water quality deterioration

The relationship between polluted water and disease was established with cholera epidemic

of 1854 in London, England. Protection of public health, the original purpose of pollution

control, continues to be the primary objective in many areas. However, preservation of

water resources, protection of fishing areas, and maintenance of recreational waters are

additional concerns of today. Water pollution problem intensified following world war 11

when dramatic increases in urban density and industrialization occurred. Concern over

water pollution reached a peak in the mid-seventies. In the United States where national

control is exercised by the federal government, public law 92-500(2020) was the official

recognition of this concern.

In Canada, where pollution control is a provincial responsibility of Ontario, through the

water resources Act (1970), was the most active province in prodding municipalities into

action. The situation was similar in Great Britain, Europe, Japan, and other industrialized

countries where increasing urbanization and industrialization were accompanied by serious

water pollution problems. In less developed regions, wastes from burgeoning populations

are a threat to public health and endanger the continued use of often scarce water supplies.

Water pollution is an imprecise term that reveals nothing about either the type of polluting

material or its source. The way we deal with the waste problem depends upon whether the

contaminants are oxygen demanding, algae promoting, infectious, toxic, or simply

unsightly. Pollution of water resources can occur directly from sewer outfalls or industrial

7
discharges (point sources) or indirectly from air pollution or agricultural or urban runoff

(non point sources) (Henry, 2019).

2.3.1 Impact of the water quality deterioration

The impact of polluted water bodies on nature, society and humans is very crucial; it could

be very harmful to aquatic life and detrimental to human health. It is obvious that polluted

water bodies have reduced aesthetic and recreational values. The community in the Eastern

Region, with its poor water quality and stench, is an example of a water body with reduced

aesthetic value. Few people would want to swim in or cruise in the river. The adverse

impact of polluted water on the health of humans is indisputable. The health of millions of

people is threatened by contaminated drinking water. The use of polluted waters for

drinking and bathing is a major common pathway for disease infection. Diseases such as

typhoid and cholera are water borne. Polluted water bodies result in the loss of biodiversity.

Clean and freshwater ecosystems represent a rich portion of biodiversity. Many wetlands

harbour endemic and rare plant species as well as provide habitat for important wildlife and

migratory birds. These important organisms may disappear when water bodies are polluted.

The injudicious use of fertilizers and other industrial chemicals seriously affect water

quality by increasing nutrient loads especially nitrates and phosphorus. The abundance of

these substances causes algal bloom and upsurge of waterweeds in water bodies. The Oti

River for some time now has been infested with waterweeds and strenuous attempts by

technical experts / researchers to combat the infestation have been an uphill task. These

organisms do pollute water bodies when dead by reducing the oxygen content, among

others.

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Finally, polluted water bodies impact negatively on the economic development of the

society. Polluted waters support less fishes and other aquatic life. Fishes and edible aquatic

organisms may accumulate major elements and other potentially harmful substances from

polluted waters. When these are consumed by humans the aftermath could be disastrous. It

also contributes to increased treatment cost of drinking water supply (Agyei, 2019).

3.2 Composition of deteriorated water

Wastewater usually contains relatively small amounts of contaminants (less than 1%), with

the bulk being water, but even small amounts of contaminants can make a big difference in

the usefulness of the water.

Contaminants found in wastewater include the following:

 Bacteria and viruses, some of which can cause disease in humans. These

microorganisms are large enough to be removed by settling, or through filtration in

sand beds or soil. Many will die as they pass through the system.

 Suspended solids are particles that are more dense (sludge) or less dense (scum)

than water and that can be removed by filtration. Most of them can be separated

from liquid waste by allowing enough time in a relatively calm tank. Grease and

fats are a part of the suspended solids. Filtration beds and absorption systems can be

clogged by wastewater high in suspended solids.

 High oxygen demand can lower water quality. The microorganisms that decompose

organic wastes (such as blood, milk residues and garbage grindings) use lots of

oxygen. The amount of oxygen required to 'stabilize' wastewater is typically

measured as biochemical and chemical 'oxygen demand.' Aeration and digestion

9
 processes, in the presence of oxygen and organisms, produce stable, low-odour

wastewater when given enough time. However, wastewater with excess oxygen

demand can cause problems for soil absorption fields, ground water, streams and

lakes by reducing levels of oxygen in the water.

 Organic solvents from cleaning agents and fuels may not be degraded or removed

through treatment and can pass along with the wastewater back into the water

supply.

 Nutrient contaminants are composed mainly of nitrogen from human wastes,

phosphorus from dish washer detergents and some chemical water conditioners.

Nitrate-nitrogen is a common ground water contaminant, and phosphorus is a

common contaminant of surface water.

2.4 Overview of water in Nigeria

Nigeria is well endowed with water resources, but the amount of water available changes

markedly from season to season as well as from year to year. Also the distribution within

the country is far from uniform with the south-western part better watered than the coastal

and northern regions. Water availability is one of the important issues with health

implications that confront Africa in particular and the world in general. The fourth

assessment report of the Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) states that

twelve countries would be limited to 1,000 to 1,700 m3 of water /person/year, and the

population at risk could be up to 460 million mainly in West Africa. The estimate was

based only on population growth rates and did not take into account the variation in water

resources due to climate change and other human activities including mining. Nigeria is

one of the twelve countries that would face water scarcity.

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The Nigerian Chronicle issue of July 25, 2019 gave a vivid picture of Nigeria’s imminent

water crisis 22 when it reported a statement attributed to the Ashanti Regional Programmes

Officer of Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) that, Nigeria is listed among countries

in Africa that would experience water stress of 1700 cubic meters or less per person

annually by 2025. This is due to the pollution of water bodies.

The Nigeria Living Standard Statistical Survey (GLSS, 2020) states that more than 40% of

Nigeriaians in rural, urban and peri-urban centers especially children die each year from

diseases associated with unsafe water, inadequate sanitation and poor hygiene. According

to the GLSS (2020) report, on the average, women and children walk a distance of six

kilometers each day carrying 20 litres of water.

2.4 Mining activities

Gold mining by itinerant miners is acknowledged by the International Labour Organization

(ILO) as the means of livelihood for more than 13 million people in the developing world

(Ballard, 2021). Though there are many potential socio-economic benefits of small scale

mining, there are also negative impacts from these small and inefficient operations due to

wasteful extraction and processing techniques, often involving mercury amalgamation.

2.4.1 Legal framework of small-scale mining

The legal framework for registration of small-scale gold and diamond mines, mineral

production and sales in the sector was established in Nigeria in 2019. The Small-scale

mining law, PNDCL 218 (Anon, 2019a) led to the establishment of the Small-scale Mining

Project within the Nigeria Minerals Commission. The Small-scale Mining Project (now

11
Small-scale Mining Department) has the responsibility of providing technical assistance to

prospective and registered small-scale miners in Nigeria and promoting their activities.

The Mercury Law, PNDCL 217 (Anon, 2019b) legalized the purchasing of mercury for

gold recovery purposes from authorized dealers and the Precious Minerals Marketing

Corporation (PMMC) Law, PNDCL 219 (Anon, 2019c), created an authority to buy and

sell gold and diamonds. The PMMC operates gold and diamond purchasing offices in

Accra, Tarkwa and Bolgatanga and has licensed buying agents and sub-agents throughout

mining areas in the country who buy gold and diamonds purchasing offices in

Accra, Tarkwa and Bolgatanga and has licensed buying agents and sub-agents throughout

mining areas in the country who buy gold and diamonds for resale to the corporation. In

order to introduce some form of competition into the gold purchasing set up, the

Government of Nigeria granted buying licenses to private owned companies namely,

Miramex and Precious Metal Refinery Limited to purchase gold from small - scale miners.

Since the regularization exercise, two types of small scale miners have emerged-legal and

illegal. Legal small-scale miners comprise those who have acquired mining licenses from

the Minerals Commission of Nigeria to cover their concessions. Illegal small-scale miners

include those mining and/or processing ores without the requisite mining license and they

usually operate on concessions held by other companies. Illegal small-scale gold or

diamond mining is popularly known in local parlance galamsey, a corruption of the phrase

‘gather them (the gold) and sell’. By the end of 2001, 420 small-scale mining concessions

had been licensed in the country. Of these, nine were diamond licenses and 411 were gold.

Together these mines generated employment for over 100,000 miners (Minerals

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Commission, Nigeria, 2022). Some small-scale diamond miners recover gold as a by-

product or vice-versa.

2.4.2 Mining and water pollution

Water is essential to life on our planet. A prerequisite of sustainable development must be

to ensure uncontaminated streams, rivers, lakes and oceans. There is growing public

concern about the condition of fresh water in Nigeria. Mining affects fresh water through

heavy use of water in processing ore, and through water pollution from discharged mine

effluent and seepage from tailings and waste rock impoundments. Increasingly, human

activities such as mining threaten the water sources on which we all depend. Water has

been called “mining’s most common casualty” (James Lyon, interview, Mineral Policy

Center, Washington DC). There is growing awareness of the environmental legacy of

mining activities that have been undertaken with little concern for the environment. The

price we have paid for our everyday use of minerals has sometimes been very high. Mining

by its nature consumes, diverts and can seriously pollute water resources.

2.5 Agricultural activities

2.6 Polluted water parameter

2.6.1 Physiochemical parameters

All freshwater bodies are interconnected to the oceans, the atmosphere, and aquifers via a

complex hydrological cycle. Wetlands, icecaps and water in the biosphere also participate

in the continuous conveyance of water on planet Earth. The Earth’s hydrological cycle is

driven by evaporation and gravity on which ecosystems and human societies depend.

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Growing populations may put stresses on natural waters by impairing both the quality of

the water and the hydrological budget (Keith, 2020).

The fate and transport of many anthropogenic pollutants are determined by not only

hydrological cycles, but also physicochemical processes. In order to mitigate the impact

human societies, have on natural waters, it is becoming increasingly important to

implement comprehensive monitoring regimes. Monitoring water resources will quantify

water quality, identify impairments, and help policy makers make land use decisions that

will not only preserve natural areas, but improve the quality of life. In situ environmental

parameters that can be measured remotely by deployable sensors are discussed (Keith,

2020). Parameters covered in this work are pH, Dissolved Oxygen, Electrical Conductivity,

Total Dissolved Solids, Total suspended solids and True colour.

2.6.1.1 Total dissolved solids

Total dissolved solids (TDS), is a term used to define the amount of all the dissolved

minerals in the water. Water with less than 50mg/L indicates drainage from igneous rocks,

while water with more than 100mg/Points to drainage from sedimentary rocks (Maitland,

1990). The primary inorganic ions that make up TDS are Calcium (Ca ++), Magnesium (Mg+
+
), Sodium (Na+), Iron (Fe++), Manganese (Mn++), Bicarbonate (HCO3-), Chloride (Cl),

Sulphate (SO42-), Nitrate (NO3), and Carbonate (CO3-). TDS is an indicator of the

mineralized character of the water. Heavily mineralized water (hard water), is the most

common complaint of residential water. This is due to its tendency toward bad taste,

scaling, spotting of dishes, and a production of a laxative effect. One main concern with

TDS is how it affects surface waters. Fish cannot thrive if water hardness is too high. The

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hard water is difficult to process. The fish not only filter the oxygen out of the water but

they also extract heavy minerals. This ultimately leads to an overdose of those minerals that

finally kill the fish.

2.6.1.2 pH

The concept of pH is of substantial interest as it is generally a parameter required for

permit reporting. The chemical term represents the acidity or alkalinity of water. It is the

measurement of hydrogen ions in aqueous solutions. The value is exponentially expressed

because of the small values incurred. The inverse measurement, pOH, uses the hydroxide

ion instead of the hydrogen ion. Clear water has a pH, and a pOH of 7, the center of both

ranges (Day, 2021). Acceptable limits for the discharge of wastewater into water bodies or

water courses ranges from 6 to 9 (EPA, 1997). The biological effect of changes in pH can

most easily be seen by the sensitivity of freshwater species to acid conditions. Populations

of salmon starts to decrease below pH 6.5, perch below 6.0 and eels below pH 5.5.While

little life is possible below pH 5.0. The eradication of life can result from a change of little

more than 1 pH unit (Roger,1994). This parameter of interest can be measured in any

watershed or waste stream.

The most common laboratory method of measuring pH, the electrometric probe method,

uses two electrodes to generate a potential difference between a glass electrode and a

reference electrode referenced to a standards bureau and a temperature probe such as a

thermocouple. Such potential difference relationships are generally linear. Using glass

liners also makes the probe assembly fairly fragile, but many solutions to the problem

facilitate open measurements in water and waste streams. The measurement of pH is

15
related to the presence of industrial chemicals and other undesirables that could have

negative effects on the watershed, treatment process, and workers in the facilities. (Day,

2021)

2.6.2 Major elements

Heavy metal pollution is caused when such metals as arsenic, cobalt, copper, cadmium,

lead, silver and zinc contained in excavated rock or exposed in an underground mine come

in contact with water. Metals are leached out and carried downstream as water washes over

the rock surface. Although metals can become mobile in neutral pH conditions, leaching is

particularly accelerated in the low pH conditions such as are created by Acid Mine

Drainage.

2.6.2.1 Source of arsenic and its health effects

Arsenic is a naturally occurring element in the earth’s crust. Arsenic is found in the deep

bedrock materials as well as the shallow glacial materials in the study areas. They are also

found alongside the gold ores such as arsenopyrites (FeAsS) (Coakley, 2019). Arsenic is

usually present in the environment in inorganic form. The inorganic arsenic easily dissolves

and enters underground and surface waters. The presence of arsenic in the environment

may be attributed to one of the following sources: residual arsenic from former pesticidal

use, smelter emission from ores of gold such as arsenopyrites from the sulphur treatment

plant. Arsenic in the study areas, especially Obuasi, is very high in the soil/sediment and

river water (Obiri, 2020). Franblau and Lillis (2019), reported two cases of sub – chronic

arsenic intoxication resulting from ingestion of contaminated well water (9-10.9mg/L),

sporadically (once or twice a week) for about two months. Acute gastrointestinal

16
symptoms, central and peripheral neuropathy, bone marrow suppression, hepatic toxicity

and mild mucous membrane and cutaneous changes were observed.

The calculated dose was between 0.03-0.08mg/Kg/day based on a body weight of 65kg and

ingestion of arsenic from 238 to 475ml water/day. The effects observed for the short-term

arsenic exposure (appearance of edema, gastrointestinal or upper respiratory symptoms),

differ from those for long – term arsenic exposure (skin disorders and damages to the

nervous system). Symptoms such as peripheral neuropathy appeared in some of the

subjects or individuals even after cessation of the arsenic intake (USEPA, 2019).

According to Tseng, et al. (2022), chronic dermal exposure to arsenic causes skin cancer.

The prevalence of skin cancer is very high in areas where chronic exposure to inorganic

arsenic is very high. Inorganic form of arsenic is classified as a class A Carcinogen (i.e.

human carcinogen) (Rodricks, 2022). This classification is based on sufficient evidence

from human data. That is, increased lung cancer mortality was observed in multiple

populations exposed to arsenic primarily through drinking of arsenic contaminated water.

Again, an increased mortality from multiple internal cancers (liver, kidney, lung and

bladder) and an increased incidence of skin cancer had been observed in populations

consuming drinking water with high inorganic arsenic concentration (Rodricks, 2022).

2.6.2.3 Sources of lead and copper and their health effects

The presence of lead and copper in the study area is due to weathering and leaching of

these two metals from waste rock dumps (AGC, 2021). Other sources of lead and copper

are the weathering of the Birimain and Tarkwanian rocks, which contains high levels of

lead and copper. Similarly, improper disposal of lead-acid batteries and copper wire also

17
accounts for high levels of lead and copper in the study area. Copper can be released into

the environment by both natural sources and human activities. Examples of natural sources

are wind-blown dust, decaying vegetation, forest fires and sea spray. A few examples of

human activities that contribute to copper release have already been named.

Other examples are mining, metal production, wood production and phosphate fertilizer

production. Because copper is released both naturally and through human activity, it is very

widespread in the environment. Copper is often found near mines, industrial settings,

landfills and waste disposals. Most copper compounds will settle and be bound to either

water sediment or soil particles. Soluble copper compounds form the largest threat to

human health. Usually water-soluble copper compounds occur in the environment after

release through application in agriculture. Lead is a neurotoxin metal. It affects the central

nervous system. Children exposed to high levels of lead contaminated water have low IQs

(Rodricks, 2022). Other symptoms associated with exposure to lead are behavioural

disorders, tremors, etc. Copper can be found in many kinds of food, in drinking water and

in air. Because of that, we absorb eminent quantities of copper each day by eating, drinking

and breathing. The absorption of copper is necessary, because copper is a trace element that

is essential for human health.

Although humans can handle proportionally large concentrations of copper, too much

copper can still cause eminent health problems. Copper concentrations in air are usually

quite low, so that exposure to copper through breathing is negligible. However, people that

live near smelters that process copper ore into metal do experience this kind of exposure.

People that live in houses that still have copper plumbing are exposed to higher levels of

copper than most people, because copper is released into their drinking water through

18
corrosion of pipes. Occupational exposure to copper often occurs. In the work place

environment, copper contagion can lead to a flu-like condition known as metal fever. This

condition will pass after two days and is caused by over sensitivity.

Long-term exposure to copper can cause irritation of the nose, mouth and eyes and it

causes headaches, stomach aches, dizziness, vomiting and diarrhoea. Intentionally high

uptakes of copper may cause liver and kidney damage and even death. There are scientific

articles that indicate a link between long-term exposure to high concentrations of copper

and a decline in intelligence with young adolescents (Rodricks, 2019). Whether this should

be of concern is a topic for further investigation. Industrial exposure to copper fumes, dusts

or mists may result in metal fume fever with atrophic for further investigation. Industrial

exposure to copper fumes, dusts or mists may result in metal fume fever with atrophic

changes in nasal mucous membranes. Chronic copper poisoning results in Wilson’s

disease, characterised by a hepatic cirrhosis, brain damage, demyelination, renal disease

and copper deposition in the cornea.

2.6.3 Nutrient parameters

2.6.3.1 Nitrate/Nitrite

Nitrate is found in nature in very small amounts because of the ongoing growth and decay

process. When plants and animals die and decompose, ammonia is produced. Bacteria

usually turn the ammonia into nitrate (NO3). Pollutants such as sewage or manure however,

contain much higher levels of nitrates. High levels of nitrate may get into groundwater or

streams from fertilized fields, lawns, golf courses, from septic system effluent, or from

runoff of manure.

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Nitrate is a nutrient that helps plants to grow. An excess of nitrates in the water can result

in a rapid growth of algae and other plants. A massive growth of aquatic plant life can

change the water significantly. Water becomes murky, and the water temperature increases.

When the plant life dies and starts to decompose, bacteria use up all the oxygen. The

oxygen level gets so low that many fish and insects can no longer survive in the lake.

Excess nitrates can start a chain reaction that has very serious effects.

Nitrates are a form of nitrogen, which is found in several different forms in terrestrial and
aquatic ecosystems. These forms of nitrogen include ammonia (NH 3), nitrates (NO3), and
nitrites (NO2). Together with phosphorus, nitrates in excess amounts can accelerate
eutrophication, causing dramatic increases in aquatic plant growth and changes in the types
of plants and animals that live in the stream. This, in turn, affects dissolved oxygen,
temperature, and other indicators. Excess nitrates can cause hypoxia (low levels of
dissolved oxygen) and can become toxic to warm-blooded animals at higher concentrations
(10 mg/L or higher) under certain conditions. The natural level of ammonia or nitrate in
surface water is typically low (less than 1 mg/L); in the effluent of wastewater treatment
plants, it can range up to 30 mg/L. Sources of nitrates include wastewater treatment plants,
runoff from fertilized lawns and cropland, failing on-site septic systems, runoff from
animal manure storage areas, and industrial discharges that contain corrosion inhibitors.

2.6.3.2 Phosphates

Phosphorus is one of the key elements necessary for the growth of plants and animals.

Phosphorus in elemental form is very toxic and is subjected to bioaccumulation.

Phosphates PO43- is formed from this settlement. Phosphates exist in three forms

Orthophosphate, metaphosphates (polyphosphates) and organically bounded phosphate.

Each compound contains phosphorus in a different chemical formula. Ortho forms are

produced by natural processes and are found in sewage. Poly forms are used for treating

20
boilers and in detergents. In water, they change into other form. Organic phosphates are

important in nature. Their occurrence may result from the breakdown of organic pesticides

which contains phosphates. They exist in solution as particles, loose fragments or in the

bodies of aquatic organisms. Rainfall can cause varying amounts of phosphates to wash

from farm soils into nearby waterways.

Phosphate stimulates the growth of plankton and aquatic plants which provides food for
fishes. Phosphate also leeches into groundwater. It may not be toxic to people or animals
unless they are present in very high levels. Digestive problems could occur from extremely
high levels of phosphates (USGS, 1970).

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 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

Material and method imply in the course of study are divided into two which are the water

quality analysis and petrographic studies. Water were collected from three different

locations and some rocks were collected with the aid of geologic hammer from these

locations and coordinates of these location were taken by G.P.S

3.1 MATERIALS

Table 1: showing equipment and availability

S/N MATERIALS AVAILABILITY

1 Transparent polythene bottles Water board

2 Cooler Water board

3 0.45 mm Pore six filter Water board

4 Nitric Acid (HNO3) Water board

5 Polypropylene Centrifugal Tubes Water board

6 Multi-parameter instrument Water board

7 Transparent polyethylene bottles Water board

8 Multi element standard solution Water board

9 Multi-channel analyzer Water board

3.1 Measured water quality parameters

The following physio-chemical parameters were determined: pH, total dissolved solids

(TDS), major elements (arsenic, copper, lead) and nutrients (phosphate, nitrate).

22
3.2 Sampling Location

Water samples from the community were taken at Apramkese, Kade and Kusi, at the

upstream, midstream and downstream respectively. Upstream samples were taken from a

point between Apramkese and Kade. Midstream samples were taken from a point between

Kade and Kusi. Downstream samples were taken from a point between Kusi and Takorase.

The same points were sampled throughout the period.

Figure 4. Schematic diagram of the sampling sites

3.3 Sampling Procedure

Five (5) samples were taken at different times on the sampling days in the month of

December, 2021 and January, 2022 from each of the sampling sites. Samples were

collected monthly into clean empty 300ml plastic bottles. The bottles were filled leaving no

air space and were sealed to prevent any leakage. The bottles were respectively labeled

upstream, midstream and downstream and the dates of sampling indicated.

3.4 Treatment of Samples for Analysis

For the heavy metal analysis, exactly 5ml of concentrated HNOз was added to 1000ml each

of the water samples for preservation. Digestion of samples was done by further addition of

20ml of concentrated HNOз and then reduced to 25ml by heating. The water was then

allowed to cool to room temperature. The distilled samples were filtered into a 50ml

volumetric flask and then diluted to 50ml with distilled water.

23
3.5 PARAMETER ANALYSIS

3.5.1 Physiochemical parameters

The following parameters were analyzed at the General Chemical Laboratory of the

Faculty of Renewable Natural Resource (FRNR) at KNUST in Kumasi according to the

AOAC (2019) protocol. The parameters analyzed included pH and Total Dissolved Solid

(TDS), using the Hanna HI (9828) multiparameter probe. The samples were kept on ice at a

temperature of 1 – 4oC and transported. Measurement of pH and total dissolved solids were

done within 6 hours after sampling.

3.5.2 Major elements analysis

Heavy metal analysis was carried out at the Environmental Department of AngloGold

Ashanti, Obuasi. This was also in line with the protocol as recorded by AOAC (2019).

Metals analyzed in the samples were arsenic, copper and lead using the AAS (Atomic

Absorption Spectrometry). AAS 220 model was used in determining the total dissolved

arsenic, copper and lead concentrations in the previously digested samples. A blank

prepared from distilled water as well as the standard reference solution for the individual

parameters were used to calibrate the instrument after the required lamp has been fixed into

the instrument. The instrument was adjusted until the acceptable calibration was achieved.

Once the required calibration was achieved, the samples were run to determine the metal

concentration of interest in the sample.

24
3.5.2 Nutrient Parameters

3.5.2.1 Nitrate

Aliquots of 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 and 0.4ml of the stock solution were measured into different 100ml

volumetric flasks. To these 2ml of 0.1M NaOH was added followed by the addition of 1, 2,

3 and 4 ml of colour developing reagent respectively. The mixtures were diluted to 100ml

mark forming 0.25µg/0.50µg/ml 0.75µg/mg and 1.00µg/ml respectively a straight line

graph of absorbance at 543nm versus concentration passing through the origin was

obtained for the prepared standard solutions. An aliquot of 2ml of 0.1M NaOH solution and

1ml of colour developing reagent was added to a 50ml sample. The mixture was allowed to

stand for 15 to 20 minutes. The nitrite concentration was determined at wavelength 543nm

of absorbance. A blank analysis was performed with all the reagents without samples for all

the analysis.

3.5.2.2 Phosphate

Ascorbic acid Method (Orthophosphate-Phosphorus)

Standard solutions of 1, 2, 3 and 4µg/ml were prepared. To these were added 2 ml of

combined reagent. The absorbance of the solutions after 10 minutes was taken at 655nm

against a blank solution. A curve of absorbance verses concentration was plotted. To 50ml

of the sample was added 2ml of combined reagent. The mixture was allowed to stand for

10 minutes after which the absorbance of the sample was taken with calibrated curve. A

blank analysis was performed with all the reagents without sample for all the analysis.

25
3.6. Data Analyses and Presentation

Microsoft Excel software was used to compute the mean. Data between the three stations

were compared with the WHO water quality standards (2019) and the results of the

samples analysis were presented in a tabular and graph form.

26
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 RESULTS

The evaluation of the physiochemical test result on the effects of major elements in

underground water within ATAP community was involved a comparison with the world

Health Organization (WHO) and the Nigeria Standard for Drinking Water Quality

(N.S.D.W.Q)

Table 2: Results for Physical and Chemical Parameters analyzed

S/N Parameters Simple 1 Simple 2 Simple 3 Simple 4 Simple 5 N.S.D.W.Q

1 Temperature 28.6 28.5 27.0 28.5 28.4 Ambient
2 pH 6.95 6.72 6.56 6.95 6.92 7.85
3 Conductivity 4740 1350 941 200 192 49.72
4 T.D.S 2330 1350 941 200 192 30.5
5 Turbidity 3.37 1.58 0.55 1.69 1.29 7.82
6 Colour 5 2 0 3 2 15
7 Iron 0.00 1.87 0.02 0.09 0.06 24.39
8 Nitrate NO3- 132.000 185.00 198.000 19.800 14.960 139.3
9 Copper 0.10 1.57 0.00 0.03 0.00 135.3
10 Sulphate 150 46 36 0 0 26.3
11 Manganese 1.5 1.4 0.7 1.2 0.7 0,05
12 Magnesium 9.680 7.125 1.152 2.125 1.125 12.00
13 Calcium 19.361 14.250 2.320 4.250 2.510 81.19

27
4.2 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

1. Temperature: refers to the degree of hotness or coldness of a substance. In the context of

water quality, it influences the solubility of gases and biochemical reactions. The recorded

temperatures ranging from 27.0 to 28.6 degrees Celsius are within the expected range for

ambient water temperature, ensuring favorable conditions for aquatic life.

2. pH: is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution on a logarithmic scale. It

influences the chemical behavior of substances in water. The pH values in the range of 6.56

to 6.95 indicate a slightly acidic to neutral environment, falling within the acceptable range

for drinking water (6.5 to 8.5).

3. Conductivity and T.D.S (Total Dissolved Solids): is a measure of a solution's ability to

conduct an electric current, influenced by dissolved ions. T.D.S represents the total

concentration of dissolved solids in water. The variations in conductivity (4740 µS/cm) and

T.D.S (2330 mg/L) suggest differences in the dissolved mineral content, potentially

influenced by geological factors or anthropogenic activities.

4. Turbidity: measures the cloudiness or haziness of a fluid caused by large particles. The

recorded values ranging from 0.55 to 3.37 NTU fall within acceptable limits for drinking

water, indicating relatively clear water with low levels of suspended particles.

5. Colour: in water is an indication of the presence of dissolved organic matter or other

contaminants. The color values ranging from 0 to 5 Pt/Co suggest variations in water

quality. Simple 3, with the absence of color, indicates a cleaner water source, while Simple

1, with the highest color value, may suggest potential contamination.

28
6. Iron: Iron concentrations are generally low, with Simple 1 recording 0.00 mg/L,

indicating minimal iron content.

7. Nitrate (NO3-): Nitrate levels vary, with Simple 2 having the highest concentration

(185.00 mg/L). Elevated nitrate levels may indicate agricultural or industrial runoff.

8. Copper: Copper concentrations range from 0.00 to 1.57 mg/L. Elevated levels in Simple

2 and Simple 9 may suggest potential contamination sources.

9. Sulphate: Simple 1 has the highest sulphate concentration (150 mg/L). Elevated levels

may originate from geological sources or anthropogenic activities.

10. Manganese: Manganese concentrations are generally low, except for Simple 3 (0.7

mg/L). Elevated levels may indicate contamination, and further investigation is needed.

11. Magnesium and Calcium: Concentrations vary, reflecting differences in geological

characteristics. These minerals are essential for biological processes but can cause hardness

in water at elevated levels.

In summary, the physical properties of the water samples reflect variations influenced by

geological conditions, anthropogenic activities, and the source of the water. Regular

monitoring and further analysis are crucial to ensure compliance with drinking water

quality standards and identify potential sources of contamination.

4.3 Petrographic Studies

These samples were collected from the field and analyzed in hand specimen and
microscopically to be observed the important features like colour, cleavage, relief, fracture
pleachorism.

29
Sample A

Plate 6: hand sample A

Hand specimen description of sample A

The rock in hand specimen is a medium grain to coarse crystalline basement rock which

mostly occurs in north eastern part of the area. It is light coloured, visible minerals

(Feldspars Mica and Quartz) and texture. (Medium to coarse).

Coordinate location elevation

N100 21’ 33.5”

E009 53’24.8”
Elevation: 612m
Microscopic study of sample A

Plate 7: PPL Plate 8: XPL

Sample no Colour Visible minerals Texture
Sample A Pinkish Slightly dark Quartz biolite alkali Coarse grain
in colour feldspar embedded in
30
 medium ground mass
These rocks is expected to be granite

Table 3: optical properties of minerals under plane polarized light

A optical properties under plane polarized light

Properties quartz Orthoclas Alkali Plagioclase muscovit biotite
e feldsper e
Colour Colorless Colorless Colorless Colorless Colorless Brown to
clear Cloudy cloudy cloudy light
yellow
Pleochrois absent Absent absent Absent Slightly to Present,
m pale green dark
brown
Cleavage absent 2 set at 2 set at 2 set at 900 One set One set
900 900 perfect perfect
Form subhedra Subhedral Subhedra Subhedral to Tabular Lath
l to anhrdral l to anhrdral crystal, shaped
anhrdral flaes or
laths
Relief Very low Low Low Low moderate moderate
B optical properties under cross polarized light
properties quartz orthoclase Alkali Plagioclase muscovit Biotite
feldsper e
Twinning Not Carlsbad Cross Polysyntheti Hard to Poorly
detected twinning hatch c detect develope
twinning twinning d
Interference First First order First First order Up to Secord
colour order white and order white and Secord order red
white gray white and gray order
and gray gray yellow
extinction Undulos Oblique Oblique Oblique Parallel Parallel
e or varies from varies up angle varies
wavy 20 to 120 to 150 with
composition
Table 4: Percentage for Each Mineral Ostarie After Analyzed
S/N MINERAL A B C D TOTAL
1 Quartz 10 8 10 12 40
2 Muscovite 3 3 5 4 15
3 Biotite 7 9 - 1 17
4 Orthoclase 10 6 7 1 24
5 Plagioclase 5 7 6 2 20
6 Alkali 4 3 5 6 18
feldsper

31
 7 TOTAL 134

STATISTICAL CALCULATION
Quartz 40/134x100 =29.8%
Muscovite 15/134x100 =11.2%
Biotite 17/134x100 =12.6%
Orthoclase 24/134x100 =17.9%
Plagioclase 20/134x100 =14.9%
Alkali feldsper 18/134x100 =13.4%
Total 99.8% =100%
Table 5: MINERAL AND PERCENTAGE
MINERAL PERCENTAGE
Quartz 29.8%
Muscovite 11.2%
Biotite 12.6%
Orthoclase 17.9%
Plagioclase 14.9%
Alkali feldsper 13.4%
Total 100%

PIE CHART
Normalization of sample A
Quartz =29.8%
Alkali feldsper =13.4%
Plagioclase =14.9%
Total =58.1%
For Quartz =29.8%/58.1x100 =51.2%
Alkali feldsper =13.4%/58.1x100 =23%
Plagioclase =14.9%/58.1x100 =25.64%
Total =99.8 =100%

32
 Plate 9: Graph of Sample A

The mineral that was discovered in the QAP graph for the rock sample A is granite.

SAMPLE B

Plate 10: hand sample B

Hand specimen description of sample B
The rock in hand specimen is a medium grain to coarse crystalline basement rock which
mostly occurs in north eastern part of the area. It includes the colour, visible mineral and
texture.
Coordinate location elevation
N100 21’ 33.7”

33
E009 53’22.2”
Elevation: 595m
Microscopic study of sample B
PPL XPL

Plate 11: PPL Plate 12: XPL

Sample No Colour Visible minerals Texture
Sample A Pinkish Slightly Quartz biolite alkali Coarse grain
dark in colour feldspar embedded in the
ground mass
This rock is expected to be Granite
A optical properties under plane polarized light
properties Quartz Orthoclas Alkali Plagioclase Muscovit biotite
e feldsper e
Colour Colorless Colorless Colorless Colorless Colorless Brown to
clear Cloudy cloudy Cloudy light
yellow
Pleochrois Absent Absent Absent Absent Slightly to Present,
m pale green dark
brown
0
Cleavage Absent 2 set at 2 set at 2 set at 90 One set One set
900 900 perfect perfect
Form subhedra Subhedral Subhedra Subhedral to Tabular Lath
l to anhrdral l to anhrdral crystal, shaped
anhrdral flaes or
laths
Relief Very low Low Low Low Moderate moderate
B optical properties under cross polarized light
properties Quartz orthoclase Alkali Plagioclase Muscovit biotite
feldsper e
Twinning Not Carlsbad Cross Polysyntheti Hard to Poorly
detected twinning hatch c detect develope
twinning Twinning d
Interference First First order First First order Up to Secord

34
 colour order white and order white and Secord order red
white gray white and gray order
and gray gray yellow
extinction Undulos Oblique Oblique Oblique Parallel Parallel
e or varies varies up angle varies
wavy from 2 to to 150
0
with
120 composition

PERCENTAGE FOR EACH MINERAL

S/N MINERAL A B C D TOTAL
1 Quartz 15 12 20 8 55
2 Muscovite 4 3 2 3 12
3 Biotite 5 4 7 8 24
4 Orthoclase 4 6 6 5 21
5 Plagioclase 4 5 6 3 18
6 Alkali 7 6 2 3 18
feldsper
7 TOTAL 148

STATISTICAL CALCULATION
Quartz 55/ 148x100 =37.1%
Muscovite 12/ 148x100 =8.1%
Biotite 24/ 148x100 =16.2%
Orthoclase 21/ 148x100 =14.1%
Plagioclase 18/ 148x100 =12.1%
Alkali feldsper 18/ 148x100 =12.1%
Total 99.7 =100%

MINERAL AND PERCENTAGE

MINERAL PERCENTAGE
Quartz 37.1%
Muscovite 8.1%
Biotite 16.2%
Orthoclase 14.1%
Plagioclase 12.1%
Alkali feldsper 12.1%
Total 99.7%

35
 NORMALIZATION FOR SAMPLE B
Quartz =37.1%
Alkali Feldsper = 12.1%
Plagioclase =12.1%
Total = 61.3%
For quartz =37.1/61.3x100 = 60.5%
Alkali Feldsper = 12.1/61.3 x100 = 19.7%
Plagioclase =12.1/61.3x100 =19.7%
Total =99.9 = 100%

Plate 13: Graph of Sample C

The mineral that was discovered in the QAP graph for the rock sample B is quartz rich
granite.

36
SAMPLE C

Plate 14: hand sample C

Hand specimen description of sample C
The rock in hand specimen is a medium grain to coarse crystalline basement rock which
mostly occurs in north eastern part of the area. It includes the color, visible mineral and
texture.
Coordinate location elevation
N100 21’ 29.0”
E009 53’14.3”
Elevation: 609m
Microscopic study of sample B
PPL XPL

Plate 15: PPL Plate 16: XPL

37
 Sample No Colour Visible minerals Texture
Sample A Pinkish Slightly Quartz biolite alkali Coarse grain
dark in colour feldspar embedded in the
ground mass
These rock is expected to be Bauchite
A optical properties under plane polarized light
properties quartz Orthoclas Alkali plagioclase Muscovit biotite
e feldsper e
Colour Colorless Colorless Colorless Colorless Colorless Brown to
clear Cloudy cloudy cloudy light
yellow
Pleochrois absent Absent absent absent Slightly to Present,
m pale green dark
brown
Cleavage absent 2 set at 2 set at 2 set at 900 One set One set
900 900 perfect perfect
Form subhedra Subhedral Subhedra Subhedral to Tabular Lath
l to anhrdral l to anhrdral crystal, shaped
anhrdral flaes or
laths
Relief Very low Low Low low Moderate moderate
B optical properties under cross polarized light
properties quartz orthoclase Alkali plagioclase Muscovit biotite
feldsper e
Twinning Not Carlsbad Cross Polysyntheti Hard to Poorly
detected twinning hatch c detect develope
twinning twinning d
Interference First First order First First order Up to Secord
colour order white and order white and Secord order red
white gray white and gray order
and gray gray yellow
extinction Undulos Oblique Oblique Oblique Parallel Parallel
e or varies varies up angle varies
wavy from 20 to to 150 with
120 composition

38
PERCENTAGE FOR EACH MINERAL
S/N MINERAL A B C D TOTAL
1 Quartz 10 11 12 15 48
2 Muscovite 6 2 3 4 15
3 Biotite 8 7 4 3 26
4 Orthoclase 9 2 5 3 19
5 Plagioclase 4 5 6 2 17
6 Alkali 5 2 4 3 15
feldsper
7 TOTAL 139
STATISTICAL CALCULATION
Quartz 45/139x100 =34.5%
Muscovite 15/139x100 =10.7%
Biotite 26/139x100 =18.7%
Orthoclase 19/139x100 =13.6%
Plagioclase 17/139x100 =12.2%
Alkali feldsper 14/139x100 =10%
Total 99.7% =100%
MINERAL AND PERCENTAGE
Mineral Percentage
Quartz 34.5%
Muscovite 10.%
Biotite 18.7%
Orthoclase 13.6%
Plagioclase 12.2%
Alkali feldsper 10%
Total 99.7 =100%

PIE CHART
NORMALIZATION FOR SAMPLE C
Quartz =34.5%
Alkali feldsper =10%
Plagioclase =12.2%
Total =56.6%
39
For quartz 34.5/56.6x100 = 60.9%
Alkali feldsper 10/56.6x100 = 17.6%
Plagioclase 12.2/56.6x100 =21.5%
Total =100%

Plate 17: Graph of Sample C

The mineral that was discovered in the QAP graph for the rock sample C is quartz Rich
granite.

40
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Summary

The examination of water quality around Abubakar Tatari Ali Polytechnic reveals critical

insights into the major elements affecting the region's water resources. The recorded

temperatures, falling within an acceptable range, indicate conducive conditions for aquatic

ecosystems. pH values suggest a slightly acidic to neutral environment, aligning with

drinking water standards. Variations in conductivity and T.D.S highlight potential

influences from geological and anthropogenic factors in the region. Turbidity levels within

limits indicate relatively clear water, while color variations may signify differences in

water quality, necessitating further investigation. The concentrations of iron, nitrate,

copper, sulphate, manganese, magnesium, and calcium vary, shedding light on potential

contamination sources. This comprehensive assessment underscores the importance of

continuous monitoring to ensure that water quality around Abubakar Tatari Ali Polytechnic

adheres to established standards, safeguarding the well-being of the local community and

preserving the ecological balance.

5.2 Conclusion

In conclusion, the research project "Petrographic Studies and Water Quality Analysis under

Major Elements around Abubakar Tatari Ali Polytechnic Bauchi" has provided a holistic

understanding of the environmental conditions in the ATAP Bauchi area. The study's

41
combined focus on petrographic analyses of rock samples and the assessment of water

quality offers valuable insights into the geological landscape and the health of water

resources. The near-neutral pH levels in the water samples, consistent with ecological and

human-use standards, demonstrate a favorable water chemistry. Additionally, the moderate

total dissolved solids (TDS) and electrical conductivity (EC) values, coupled with localized

variations, emphasize the need to consider site-specific factors in interpreting water quality

dynamics. The petrographic studies revealed the predominant presence of granite and

quartz-rich granite in the region. This research contributes significantly to the knowledge

base for sustainable resource management around Abubakar Tatari Ali Polytechnic Bauchi,

highlighting the interconnectedness of geological and environmental factors. Continued

monitoring and research in this area will be crucial for making informed decisions and

implementing effective strategies for environmental conservation and water resource

sustainability.

5.3 Recommendations

The research project "Petrographic Studies and Water Quality Analysis under Major

Elements around Abubakar Tatari Ali Polytechnic Bauchi" offers several recommendations

to enhance environmental management in the ATAP Bauchi area. First and foremost, the

establishment of a continuous monitoring system for water quality parameters is crucial for

tracking changes and implementing timely interventions. Conducting further site-specific

studies will help unravel the localized variations in water quality, especially with respect to

specific geological factors and land use practices. Encouraging interdisciplinary

collaboration between geologists, environmental scientists, and water resource

management experts is essential for a holistic understanding of the interplay between

42
geological formations and water quality dynamics. Public awareness programs should be

implemented to educate local communities and policymakers about responsible land use

and water conservation practices. The integration of findings from petrographic studies and

water quality analyses into a comprehensive database will serve as a valuable resource for

future research and decision-making. The research outcomes should inform the formulation

of effective environmental policies and regulations that balance sustainable resource

utilization with the preservation of water quality and geological integrity. Long-term

geological surveys are recommended to monitor changes in the geological composition,

contributing to an understanding of the region's evolution. Lastly, investing in capacity

building initiatives for local researchers and environmental professionals will empower

communities to actively participate in ongoing environmental monitoring efforts.

Implementing these recommendations will contribute to the sustainable management of

water resources and geological landscapes in the region.

43
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