Water Resources

Rainwater, oceans, rivers, lakes, streams, ponds and springs are natural sources of water. Dams, wells, tube
wells, hand-pumps, canals, etc, are man-made sources of water.

Rain Water. Rain water is collected on Earth in the form of surface water and underground water.

Two Main Sources of Water

1. Surface Water. Water present on the surface of the earth in the form of oceans, rivers, lakes, reservoir, ponds
and streams is called surface water. The water in rivers and lakes comes from rain and melting of snow on
mountains. Rivers flow into the sea.

2. Underground Water. Some of the rainwater seeps through the soil on to the non-porous rocks below. This is
underground water. Sometimes due to high pressure, this water sprouts out in the form of springs. It can be
obtained by digging wells or sinking tube wells, etc. Groundwater lies under the surface of the land, where it
travels through and fills openings in the rocks. The rocks that store and transmit groundwater are called
aquifers.

Water Distribution on Earth

Figure 4 is a pie chart showing where all water on, in, and above the Earth exists. The first pie chart shows
how almost all of Earth's water is saline and is found in the oceans. Of the small amount that is actually freshwater,
only a relatively small portion is available to sustain human, plant, and animal life. It is observed that only 3% of
Earth's water is freshwater which is the water needed for life to survive.
The middle pie chart shows the breakdown of freshwater. Almost all of it is confined in ice and in the ground. Only
0.3% of all freshwater is surface water, which serves most of life's needs.
The last pie chart shows the breakdown of surface water. Most of this water is found in lakes. Rivers make
up 2% of surface freshwater and 11% swamps. Although rivers account for only a small amount of freshwater, this
is where humans get a large portion of their water.

Sources of Drinking Water

Water is very important in each of our lives. Not only it is essential to our health, but also, we use it for
numerous household tasks. Every day we use water for cooking, bathing, cleaning, and drinking.
The World Health Organization and UNICEF Joint Monitoring Report (2017) define improved drinking
water sources as those that have potential to deliver safe water by nature of their design and construction. These
include piped water tube wells or boreholes; protected dug wells, protected springs; rainwater. Families that use
bottled water or refilling stations for drinking are classified as using an improved source only if the water they use
for cooking and hand washing comes from an improved source.
According to the results of the 2017 APIS, 94 percent of the 24 million Filipino families have improved
source of drinking water. In the urban and rural areas, 97 and 91 percent, respectively, have improved source of
drinking water. Residents in rural areas are more likely to have an unimproved source of drinking water than
those in urban areas (9.1% vs. 2.6%). Almost four in every five families (77%) do not practice any method or
treatment in ensuring that their drinking water is safe to drink.
 Activities that Affect the Quality and Availability of Water for Human Use

Water quality describes the condition of the water, including chemical, physical, and biological characteristics,
usually concerning its suitability for a particular purpose such as drinking or swimming.

Water has physical and chemical characteristics. Some of the physical attributes include temperature, color,
taste, odor, and turbidity. The temperature of water affects some of the important physical properties and
characteristics of water: thermal capacity, density, specific weight, viscosity, surface tension, specific conductivity,
salinity, and solubility of dissolved gases, etc.

Color, on the other hand, is primarily a concern of water quality for aesthetic reasons. Colored water gives the
appearance of being unfit to drink, even though the water may be perfectly safe for public use. It can indicate the
presence of organic substances, such as algae or humic compounds. More recently, color has been used as a
quantitative assessment of the presence of potentially hazardous or toxic organic materials in water.

Taste and odor are human perceptions of water quality. Human perception of taste includes sour (hydrochloric
acid), salty (sodium chloride), sweet (sucrose), and bitter (caffeine). Relatively simple compounds produce sour
and salty tastes. However sweet and bitter tastes are produced by more complex organic compounds. Humans detect
many more tips of odor than tastes. Organic materials discharged directly to water, such as falling leaves, runoff,
etc., are sources of tastes and odor-producing compounds released during biodegradation.

Furthermore, turbidity is a measure of the light-transmitting properties of water and is comprised of

suspended and colloidal material. It is important for health and aesthetic reasons.

The chemical characteristics of natural water are a reflection of the soils and rocks with which the water
has been in contact. In addition, agricultural and urban runoff and municipal and industrial treated wastewater
impact the water quality. Microbial and chemical transformations also affect the chemical characteristics of water.
(Source: https://echo2.epfl.ch/VICAIRE/mod_2/chapt_2/main.htm)

Water with good qualities is good for human consumption. Water availability is defined as the quantity of water
that can be used for human purposes without significant harm to ecosystems or other users.
However, our water resources face a host of serious threats. Currently, about 40% of the world's population lives
in water-stressed areas. (Source: https://freshwaterwatch.thewaterhub.org/.2020)

Water scarcity occurs when the amount of water withdrawn from lakes, rivers or groundwater is so great that
water supplies are no longer adequate to satisfy all human or ecosystem requirements, resulting in increased
competition between water users and other demands. Water scarcity can be caused primarily by human activities
which promote sedimentation, pollution, climate change, deforestation, landscape changes, and urban growth.
Human waste disposal contributes to pollution of the air, land, and water resources. Such pollution can affect the
quality of rainwater and water resources both above and below ground, thus damaging our natural systems.

Although it is difficult to instantly put an end to such problems, man must manage, develop, and protect water and
related resources in an environmentally and economically sound manner.

Activity 2

Read the essay. Make a concept map on the different activities that affect the quality and availability of water.

How are aquatic ecosystems threatened by sediments in water?

One of the most serious threats to water resources is the degradation of the ecosystem. It often takes place
through changes of landscapes such as the clearance of forests, the conversion of natural landscapes to farmland,
the growth of cities, the building of roads, and surface mining. Each type of change to a landscape will have its
specific impact, usually directly on the natural ecosystem and directly or indirectly on water resources.
Also, sediments can occur in bodies of water naturally, but they are also produced in large amounts
because of land-use change and agriculture. Sediments are naturally occurring particles that develop as earth
materials are broken down through weathering and erosion. Sediment can consist of sand, rocks, and minerals, or
may consist of organic particles of plants and microbes. Activities such as farming, clearing forests, building roads,
and mining can put too much soil and particulate matter as sediment in rivers. These sediments can harm plants
and animals by carrying toxic chemicals into the water, smothering fish eggs and small organisms used by fish as
food, raising the water temperature, and reducing the amount of sunlight penetrating the water.
Sediment can also reduce the capacity of reservoirs and make it difficult for ships to navigate in waterways.
It can also damage equipment used in water supply installations and hydroelectric plants, thus increasing their
maintenance costs.
 Human Activities that Affect the Quality and Quantity of Soil

Soil can be defined as the organic and inorganic materials on the surface of the earth that provide the
medium for plant growth. Soil develops slowly over time and is composed of many different materials through the
process of weathering.

Soil is a necessary resource because it helps sustain life on Earth including humans, animals and plants.
Aside from life sustaining roles, soil helps purify, or clean, water as it drains through the ground and into rivers,
lakes, and oceans. In addition, decomposers in soil also help recycle nutrients by breaking down the remains of
plants and animals, releasing nutrients that living plants use to grow. Soil also provides a home for a variety of
living things, from tiny one-celled organisms to small mammals.

Despite the mentioned importance in sustaining life on earth, there are serious issues concerning the soil’s
good qualities and availability. In fact, a review of soil degradation in the Philippines (Asio, V. 2009) revealed that
soil degradation, the physical, chemical and biological decline in soil quality is a major agricultural and
environmental problem in the Philippines due to erosion. Loss of nutrients and organic nutrients, salinization,
acidification, pollution, compaction and subsidence are other soil degradation processes cause by erosion.
Aside from natural causes of soil erosion, there are some other human activities that contribute to the loss of good
quality soil. We are going to limit our discussion on the three major human activities that cause soil degradation.

FARMING
Farming is one of the traditional sources of income in our country done by planting crops or raising
livestock. Listed below are some positive and negative effects of farming.

Positive Effect of Farming

Application of herbicide, a pesticide used to kill unwanted plants used in farming has a positive benefit on
soil health. Lime and mineral fertilizers added to soil provide stable optimum growing conditions for plants.
Organic manures and other organic fertilizers provide a source of food/energy for many soil organisms thus
making the soil healthy and good for planting. Even the growing plants help in stabilizing the soil structure.
Another important effect of farming on soil health is the provision of water through irrigation and drainage.
Irrigation/drainage water stabilizes the soil moisture thus making it healthier and more suitable for planting.

Negative Effect of Farming

Tillage in farming is the preparation of soil for planting and the cultivation of soil after planting. It can
cause direct damage to soil microorganisms and potentially expose those to new predators. Though pesticides are
found beneficial to soil, it was found to have long term harmful effects on the overall activity or population of soil
organisms. Some applied veterinary medicines are found to affect the normal degradation rate of some insects and
animals, thus altering the soil’s health.

Construction of Structure
Construction activities, such as grading and filling, reduce soil quality on construction sites. Land use
conversion usually done to support urbanization activities can cause rapid soil degradation and sedimentation. Soil
nutrients are washed away making it unsuitable for farming.

Waste Disposals
Soil quality is adversely affected by improper waste disposal. Soil pollution happens when hazardous
chemicals from human and industrial sewage are carelessly disposed of, altering soil’s natural health and quality.
At this point, you have learned about the effects of human activities on quality of soil. It is therefore imperative that
we protect and preserve soil. There are methods of soil conservation and protection that can be observed in order
to protect and conserve our soil at the same time. The goal here is to reduce erosion and to ensure the soil’s
fertility.

Let’s take a look these remarkable ways to protect and conserve the soil.

Forest Protection
Trees as well as other plants and vegetation in the forest are important in the creation of new soil as leaves and
other vegetation rot and decompose. Hence, soil qualities are ensured when forest are protected and conserved.

Buffer Strips
Buffers are strips or corridors of permanent vegetation used to reduce water and wind erosion. They provide
protection where stream banks exist. They can be created with grass, trees and shrubs.

No-Till Farming
No-till farming is an approach that allows crops to remain in place for a season. This keeps the soil from being left
bare and unprotected.
Fewer Concrete Surfaces
Soil requires an adequate amount of water in order to function properly. Lots of concrete surfaces,
especially in residential areas make it difficult for water to get to the soil. Using paving stones for patios and
gardens work to protect the soil. They are also a tool to prevent soil erosion in specific areas.

Plant Windbreak Areas

Windbreaks are composed of shrubs, plants and trees. They work in combination and serve a conservation
purpose. These will work together to slow the force of wind over ground areas. This is a method that can also work
to prevent erosion of the soil.

Terrace Planting
This type of planting is done by maximizing the topography of the land. It benefits from the way the rain
water flows naturally. This is a way to protect the soil from erosion. It is also a proven method to encourage growth
from moist soil areas.

Plant Trees
Simply planting trees is a good conservation method. As the tree grows, its roots become even more secure
in the soil. This soil is protected in numerous ways because of the trees’ existence. Erosion is prevented from this
planting process.

Crop Rotation
Crop rotation is a process that works to conserve soil. It is accomplished by planting and growing a serious
of different crops in the same soil. This process prevents overgrowth of pathogens and a lack of fertility in the soil,
overall.

Water the Soil

This is a simple process that provides a lot of benefits to the soil. Watering your soil along with plants and
vegetables is important. This helps to not only nourish the soil but to protect it. Moist soil is not in danger of
erosion due to wind activity.

Maintain pH
Soil pH or soil reaction is an indication of the acidity or alkalinity of soil and is measured in pH units. A pH
range of approximately 6 to 7 promotes the readiest availability of plant nutrients. The pH levels in the soil can be
affected by a number of pollutants and acid.

Indigenous Crops
Indigenous crops are native crop options that enhance the soil. Planting these is a way to ensure
conservation efforts. They should be planted even when diverse crops are being planted, as well.

Afforestation
Planting trees is a method of conserving the soil. Afforestation is another of tree planting method wherein
the areas under trees are protected. This is usually done by planting foliage in forest undergrowth areas. It
encourages healthy soil and water absorption.

Monitor Grazing
Animal grazing plays a critical role in conserving soil. Monitoring the areas where cows and other animals
graze is important. This helps to prevent depletion of the soil. It also addresses the issue of hoof damage, which can
occur to the soil.
Dams
Dams are important resources when it comes to soil conservation. These structures work to prevent soil
erosion. This is especially important in areas where rivers exist. Flooding of rivers has been the cause for many
instances of soil erosion. Dams offer additional protection.
Fertilizers
Not all fertilizer products are effective for conservation efforts. The composition of these fertilizers can be the
problem. The use of organic fertilizer improves the quality of soil because it is composed of readily biodegradable
materials make better nutrient sources.

No Soil Compacting
A simple conservation method that some gardeners and farmers apply is not to compact the soil. This is a
protection method that is helpful. You can do this by creating dedicated paths in your garden. This helps you to not
walk on wet soil causing it to be compacted.

Control Storm Water

Instead of allowing water to puddle in yards or gardens, it is important to control it. Storm water can easily cause
flooding or problems in these areas. Setting up large container to hold excess water in problem locations is helpful.
This water can be re-used for watering gardens and yards.
Monitor Growth
When crops or plants grow normally, they have a healthy appearance. It there is a problem with the growth, often
the soil is the issue. Checking the salient composition and fertility is important. This is done through regular
monitoring of the soil and overall plant growth.

Soil Conservation Methods and Practices

Soil is one of the most important natural resources that require conservation practices. Most of the methods that
are utilized to promote sustainable use of the soil are:
1. Tree Planting: Roots of trees firmly hold on the soil making it stagnant and prevent soil erosion. As they grow,
their roots go deeper and spread wider into the soil. In addition, soil under a vegetative cover is saved from
erosion due to wind as this cover acts as a wind barrier.
2. Terraces Building: A terrace is a leveled section of a hilly cultivated area. Having its unique topography, it
prevents rapid surface runoff of water. Terracing gives the landmass a stepped appearance like the famous
Philippine Rice Terraces, thus slowing the washing down of soil. Dry stonewalling is a method used to create
terraces in which stone structures are made without using mortar for binding.
3. No-till Farming: Tilling is the process of preparing soil for plowing. In conserving the soil, no-till farming which
is a way of growing crops without disturbing it through tillage is highly recommended. The process of tilling is
beneficial in mixing fertilizers in the soil, making rows and preparing the surface for sowing. Unfortunately,
tilling activity can lead to compaction of soil, loss of organic matter in the soil and the death of soil organisms.
No-till farming is a way to prevent the soil from this harm.
4. Contour Plowing: This practice of farming on slopes considers the slope gradient and the elevation of soil along
the slope. It is the method of plowing across the contour lines of a slope. This method helps in slowing the water
runoff and prevents soil from being washed away along the slope. Contour plowing also helps in percolation of
water in the soil.
5. Crop Rotation: Some pathogens tend to build up in soil if the same crops are cultivated again and again.
Continuous cultivation of the same crop also leads to imbalance in the fertility demands of the soil. To save the
soil from these adverse effects, crop rotation is practiced. It is a method of growing a series of dissimilar crops in
an area. Crop rotation also helps in the improvement of soil structure and fertility.
6. Maintaining Soil pH: The contamination of soil by addition of acidic or basic pollutants and due to acid rains has
an adverse effect on the soil pH. Soil pH
is an indicator of the level of nutrients in soil. The uptake of nutrients by plants also depends on the pH of soil.
Maintaining the correct value of soil pH, is thus essential for soil conservation.
7. Water the Soil: We water plants, we water the crops, but do we water the soil? We seldom do. Watering soil is a
good measure of soil conservation. Watering the soil along with plants growing in it is a way to prevent soil
erosion caused by wind.
8. Salinity Management: The salinity of soil increases due to excessive accumulation of salts in the soil. This has a
negative effect on the metabolism of crops. The salinity of soil is detrimental to the vegetative life in it. The
death of vegetation leads to soil erosion. Hence, salinity management is an indirect way of conserving soil.
9. Promote Helpful Soil Organisms: Nitrogen-fixing and denitrifying bacteria are important constituents of the
nitrogen cycle. They live in soil. Bacteria and fungi help keep the soil healthy. Organisms like earthworms help
decompose organic material in the soil. They aid soil aeration and help it maintain porosity. Rodents too, help
soil the same way. This increases the absorbing capacity of soil. Earthworms, through aeration of soil, enhance
the availability of macronutrients. These helpful organisms boost soil fertility and help in soil conservation.
10. Grow Indigenous Crops: Planting native crops is beneficial for soil conservation. If non-native plants are
grown, fields should be bordered by indigenous crops to prevent soil erosion, thus achieving soil conservation.

How People Generate Different Types of Waste

Waste Defined
The United Nations Environment described wastes as unwanted or unusable materials which are disposed of or
are intended to be disposed of or are required to be disposed of by the provisions of national law.

Kinds of Waste
There are different kinds of wastes generated by the people around the world.

A. Solid Waste. This type of wastes is in solid form like domestic, commercial and industrial wastes such as
plastics, styrofoam, papers, scrap iron, and sludge from a wastewater treatment plant or air control facility.

B. Liquid Waste. This type of wastes is in liquid form such as chemicals, oils, and waste water from ponds and
manufacturing industries. It includes sewage as well as wastewater from industrial processes and agricultural
processing.
C. Gaseous Waste. This type of waste is in gaseous form which usually originates from chopping and dissolution
operations. As an example, volatile radionuclides are discharged to the stack after scrubbing with sodium
hydroxide and filtration through charcoal filter devices. Electrostatic precipitation, wet scrubbers and gaseous
waste treatment are some ways of minimizing gaseous waste.

The main objective of waste management is to reduce the quantity and type of hazardous substances used to avoid
adverse impact on human health and environment. Transformation of waste into usable secondary products can be
done through recycling, reusing, repurposing, reducing, and recovering. Thus, the waste generated from different
industries and societies must be classified in order to apply the correct form of management.
 Several wastes disposal practices in the country include concentrate and contain or also known as isolation
specifically for solid waste. Landfills and dumps minimize the impact of waste in the environment. Landfill is a
place to dispose waste material by burying or covering over with soil and becoming an extending usable land after
a few years. Dump is an excavated piece of land for waste storage and regulated by the government. A dump is
smaller than a landfill. Other useful options are composting, resource recovery and energy recovery.
 Earth Material and Processes
Waste (or wastes) are unwanted or unusable materials. Waste is any substance that is discarded after
primary use or is worthless, defective, and of no use. A by-product by contrast is a joint product of relatively minor
economic value. A waste product may become a by-product, joint product, or resource through an invention that
raises a waste product's value above zero.
Examples include a municipal solid waste (household trash/refuse), hazardous waste, wastewater (such as
sewage, which contains bodily wastes (feces and urine) and surface runoff), radioactive waste, and others.

What is solid waste?

Solid waste is defined as any garbage, refuse, sludge from waste treatment plant, water supply treatment plant, or
air pollution control facility and other materials, including solid, liquid, semisolid, contained gaseous resulting from
industrials, commercials, mining, and agricultural operations from community activities.
Types of Waste
A. Biodegradable waste. These are the wastes that come from our kitchen, and include food remains, garden
waste, etc. These are also known as moist waste. These can be composted to obtain manure. They decompose
themselves over a period depending on the material.

B. Non-biodegradable waste. These are the wastes which include old newspapers, broken glass pieces, plastics,
etc. These are known as dry waste. Dry wastes can be recycled and can be reused. Non-biodegradable wastes do
not decompose by themselves and hence are major pollutants.

Waste can be classified into five types of waste which are all commonly found around the house. These include
liquid waste, solid rubbish, organic waste, recyclable rubbish, and hazardous waste. Make sure that you segregate
your wastes into these different types to ensure proper waste removal.

1. Liquid Waste - commonly found both in households as well as in industries. It includes dirty water, organic
liquids, wash water, waste detergents, and rainwater.

2. Solid Rubbish can include a variety of items found in your household along with commercial and industrial
locations.
Solid rubbish is commonly broken down into the following types:
• Plastic waste – This consists of bags, containers, jars, bottles, and many other products that can be found in your
household. Plastic is not biodegradable, but many types of plastic can be recycled. Plastic should not be mixed in
with your regular waste. It should be sorted and placed in your recycling bin.
• Paper/card waste – This includes packaging materials, newspapers, cardboards, and other products. Paper can
easily be recycled and reused so make sure to place them in your recycling bin or take them to your closest
recycling area near your place.
• Tins and metals – These can be found in various forms throughout your home. Most metals can be recycled.
Consider taking these items to a scrap yard or to your closest recycling area to dispose of this waste type properly.
• Ceramics and glass – These items can easily be recycled. Look for special glass recycling bins and bottle banks to
dispose them correctly.
3. Organic Waste is another common household. All food waste, garden waste, manure, and rotten meat are
classified as organic waste. Over time, organic waste is turned into manure by microorganisms. Organic waste in
landfills causes the production of methane, so it must never be simply discarded with general waste.

4. Recyclable Rubbish includes all waste items that can be converted into products that can be used again. Solid
items such as paper, metals, furniture, and organic waste can all be recycled.

5. Hazardous Waste - includes all types of rubbish that are flammable, toxic, corrosive, and reactive. These items
can harm you as well as the environment and must be disposed of correctly.

Characteristics of wastes
1. Corrosive: these are wastes that include acids or bases that are capable of corroding metal containers, e.g., acid,
or alkaline solution, rust remover, battery acid, and caustic hot tank waste.
2. Ignitability: this is waste that can create fires under certain conditions, e.g., waste oils and solvents.
3. Reactive: these are unstable in nature, they cause explosions, toxic fumes when heated, e.g., lithium-sulfur
batteries and explosives.
4. Toxicity: waste that is harmful or fatal when ingested or absorbed, e.g., the household products in homes that
are improperly disposed of such as old batteries, pesticides, paint, and car oil.
5. Non-Hazardous waste: is any type of industrial waste which, according to regulations, cannot be added to a
dumpster or sewage line. e.g., refuse, garbage, sludge, municipal trash.
6. Hazardous waste: The most common examples of hazardous waste found within the home include paints,
batteries, solvents, cleaning agents, pesticides, heavy metals, and chemical sludges.
7. Radioactive: high and low-level radioactive waste. Low-Level Radioactive Waste (LLRW) is a regulatory term
defined as the broad group or class that is not included in the following classes of radioactive waste:
a. Spent nuclear fuel.
b. Fuel that has been withdrawn from a nuclear reactor after use.
c. High-level radioactive wastes are the highly radioactive materials produced as a byproduct of the
reactions that occur inside nuclear reactors

High-level wastes take one of two forms:

i. Spent (used) reactor fuel when it is accepted for disposal.
ii. Waste materials remaining after spent fuel is reprocessed.

8. Mixed waste: Radioactive organic liquids, radioactive heavy metals. Mixed hazardous waste is waste that falls
into two or more different categories of hazardous materials. Examples include radioactive contaminated
phenol/chloroform, or blood labeled with a radionuclide.

What are the sources of waste materials?

The source of waste comes from industrial, the typical waste generated is light and heavy manufacturing,
fabrication, construction sites, power, and chemical plants. The commercial is another source of waste like stores,
hotels, restaurants, markets, office buildings, etc. The institutional source came from schools, hospitals, prisons,
government centers.

How are waste materials treated?

Hazardous waste can be treated by chemical, thermal, biological, and physical methods. Chemical methods
include ion exchange, precipitation, oxidation and reduction, and neutralization. Among thermal methods is high-
temperature incineration, which can not only detoxify certain organic wastes but can also destroy them.

According to a report by the Senate Economic Planning Office (SEPO), the country’s waste generation
steadily increased from 37,427.46 tons per day in 2012 to 40,087.45 tons in 2016. Meanwhile, solid wastes
produced by Philippine cities are expected to increase by 165 percent to 77,776 tons by 2025.
Solid wastes are generated from residential, commercial, industrial, and institutional sources. Residential wastes
account for more than half (57%) of the total solid wastes (e.g., kitchen scraps, yard waste, paper and cardboard,
glass bottles, etc.) Wastes from commercial sources, which include commercial establishments and public/private
markets, account for 27%. Wastes from institutional sources such as government offices, educational and medical
institutions account for about 12% while the remaining four percent (4%) is waste coming from the industrial or
manufacturing sector (NSWMC).

Causes of Increase in Solid Waste

1. Population growth
2. Increase in industrials manufacturing
3. Urbanization
4. Modernization, technological advancement, and an increase in the global population created rising in demand
for food and other essentials. This has resulted into rising in the amount of waste being generated daily by each
household.

Sources of waste can be broadly classified into four types:

1. Industrial Waste. These are the wastes created in factories and industries. Most industries dump their wastes in
rivers and seas which cause a lot of pollution. Example: plastic, glass, etc.
2. Commercial Waste. Commercial wastes are produced in schools, colleges, shops, and offices. Example: plastic,
paper, etc.
3. Domestic Waste. The different household wastes which are collected during household activities like cooking,
cleaning, etc. are known as domestic wastes. Example: leaves, vegetable peels, excreta, etc.
4. Agricultural Waste. Various wastes produced in the agricultural field are known as agricultural wastes.
Example: cattle waste, weed, husk, etc.

When you are thinking about solid waste management, it is likely the same as garbage being dumped in
landfills or incinerated. For example, treatment techniques act to reduce the volume and toxicity of solid waste.
These steps can transform it into a more convenient form of disposal. The composition and quantity of waste are
based on selecting waste treatment and disposal methods.
Here are major waste treatments and disposal methods:
Following are some of the most used thermal waste treatment techniques:

A. Thermal Treatment refers to the processes that use heat to treat waste materials.
1. Incineration is one of the most common waste treatments. This approach involves the combustion of waste
material in the presence of oxygen. It is commonly used as a means of recovering energy for electricity or
heating. The advantages of this approach are it is quickly reduced waste volume, lessens transportation costs,
and decreases harmful greenhouse gas emissions.
2. Gasification and Pyrolysis are two similar methods, both of which decompose organic waste materials by
exposing waste to low amounts of oxygen and very high temperature. Pyrolysis uses no oxygen while
gasification allows a very low amount of oxygen in the process. Gasification is more advantageous as it allows
the burning process to recover energy without causing air pollution.
3. Open Burning is a legacy thermal waste treatment that is environmentally harmful. The incinerators used in
such a process have no pollution control devices. They release substances such as hexachlorobenzene, dioxins,
carbon monoxide, particulate matter, volatile organic compounds, polycyclic aromatic compounds, and ash.
Unfortunately, this method is still practiced by many local authorities internationally, as it offers an inexpensive
solution to solid waste.

B. Dumps and Landfills.

1. Sanitary landfills provide the most used waste disposal solution that is desired to eliminate or reduce the risk
of environmental or public health hazards due to waste disposal. These sites are situated where land features
work as natural buffers between the environment and the landfill. For instance, the landfill area can be
comprised of clay soil which is quite resistant to hazardous wastes or is characterized by an absence of surface
water bodies or a low water table, preventing the risk of water pollution.
2. Controlled dumps are the same as sanitary landfills. These dumps comply with many of the requirements for
being a sanitary landfill but may lack one or two. Such dumps may have a well-planned capacity but no cell
planning. There may be no or partial gas management, basic record-keeping, or regular cover.
3. Bioreactor landfills are the result of recent technological research. These landfills use superior microbiological
processes to speed up waste decomposition. The controlling feature is the continuous addition of a liquid to
sustain optimal moisture for microbial digestion. The liquid is added by re-circulating the landfill leachate.
When the amount of leachate is not adequate, liquid waste such as sewage sludge is used.

C. Biological Waste Treatment

1. Composting is another most frequently used waste disposal or treatment method which is the controlled
aerobic decomposition of organic waste materials by the action of small invertebrates and microorganisms.
The most common composting techniques include static pile composting, vermin composting, windrow
composting, and in-vessel composting.

2. Anaerobic Digestion also uses biological processes to decompose organic materials. Anaerobic Digestion,
however, uses oxygen and a bacteria-free environment to decompose the waste material where composting
must have air to enable the growth of microbes.

Some of the main waste disposal methods include:

a. Incineration- The burning of waste materials at high temperatures to transform them into gases or residue.
b. Recycling- The conversion of waste material into new products. It aims to reduce strain on the environment by
minimizing the waste that is added to the water, air, and land.
c. Open Dumping- A simple and inexpensive method that involves the deliberate disposal of garbage in an open
space.
d. Ocean Dumping- Occurs when sewage, garbage, construction debris, hazardous chemicals, etc. are intentionally
discarded at sea by ships, aircraft, and other man-made machines. Incineration of trash at sea is also included
in this definition.

Proper waste disposal and management can be done by applying the 3Rs– Reduce, Reuse and Recycle.
Reducing means lessening the amount of trash/garbage produced. Reusing involves the repeated use of items or
parts of items that still have usable aspects. Recycling means the use of waste itself as a resource.
Color coding exists to allow you to easily distinguish the different types of biomedical waste, by sorting them into
different categories, each pertaining to a single color. Your colored bins take different kinds of waste. Green for
biodegradable waste (non-recyclable waste); black for electronic product-waste; and blue for plastic and metal
waste (recyclable waste).

The Effect of Different Kind of Waste to People’s and Environment

How is waste affecting our environment?
Disposing of waste has huge environmental impacts and can cause serious problems. Some waste will eventually
rot, but not all. In the process, it may smell, or generate methane gas, which is explosive and contributes to the
greenhouse effect. Leachate produced as waste decomposes may cause pollution.

How does waste affect people’s health?

The more emissions that we produce due to how much trash we generate, may affect us in the long term. One can
develop diseases such as asthma, birth defects, cancer, cardiovascular disease, childhood cancer, COPD, infectious
diseases, low birth weight, and preterm delivery.

Exposure to hazardous waste can affect human health, with children being more vulnerable to these
pollutants. Waste from agriculture and industries can also cause serious health risks. Other than this, co-disposal of
industrial hazardous waste with municipal waste can expose people to chemical and radioactive hazards.
Soil, water, and air pollution can be a result of improper waste disposal and occurs when either of them becomes
contaminated with hazardous materials. Not only does this contribute to the creation of greenhouse gas effects but
also causes significant harm to marine and wildlife. Ignorance of people about proper waste disposal and laziness
can cause improper garbage disposal. Some people do not follow the rules of proper waste disposal. They always
throw it in what place they want, and they have no care of what will be its effect.

Disposing of waste has huge environmental impacts and can cause serious problems. Some waste will
eventually rot, but not all, and in the process, it may smell, or generate methane gas, which is explosive and
contributes to the greenhouse effect. Leachate produced as waste decomposes may cause pollution.

Sources of Human Exposures

1. Exposures occur through
a. Ingestion of contaminated water or food
b. Contact with disease vectors
c. Inhalation
d. Dermal
2. Points of contact, Soil adsorption, storage, and biodegrading
3. Plant uptake
4. Ventilation
5. Runoff
6. Leaching
7. Insects, birds, rats, flies, and animals
8. Direct dumping of untreated waste in seas, rivers, and lakes results in the plants and animals that feed on it

Impacts of solid waste on health

1. Chemical poisoning through chemical inhalation
2. Uncollected waste can obstruct the stormwater runoff resulting in a flood
3. Low birth weight
4. Cancer
5. Congenital malformations
6. Neurological disease
7. Nausea and vomiting
8. Increase in the hospitalization of diabetic residents living near hazardous waste sites.
9. Mercury toxicity from eating fish with high levels of mercury

Effects of Solid Waste on Animals and Aquatics life

1. Increase in mercury level in fish due to disposal of mercury in the rivers.
2. Plastic found in oceans ingested by birds
3. Resulted in a high algal population in rivers and sea.
4. Degrades water and soil quality

Impacts of solid waste on Environment

1. Waste breaks down in landfills to form methane, a potent greenhouse gas
2. Change in climate and destruction of the ozone layer due to waste biodegradable
3. Littering, due to waste pollutions, illegal dumping.
4. Leaching is a process by which solid waste enters soil or groundwater and contaminates them.

The Negative Effects of the Improper Removal and Disposal of Waste

1. Soil contamination - It does not only affect plant growth, but it is also unhealthy to humans and animals feeding
on those plants. Take the case of plastic bottles. When they eventually break down, they release DEHA (diethyl
hydroxylamine), a carcinogen that affects our reproduction systems, causes liver dysfunction, and weight loss.
2. Air contamination - Waste that releases dioxins are also dangerous and pose a health risk when they diffuse into
the air that we breathe. Landfill gas produced by the decomposing wastes can be explosive and can harm
nearby communities.
3. Water contamination - Untreated sewages can destroy and suffocate marine habitats, such as corals.
Contaminated water is also dangerous and harmful to humans who consume fish and other marine life.
4. Bad impact on human health - Improper disposal of waste can greatly affect the health of the population living
nearby the polluted area or landfills. Exposure to improperly handled wastes can cause skin irritations, blood
infections, respiratory problems, growth problems, and even reproductive issues.
5. Impact on animals and marine life- The effects of pollution caused by improperly disposed wastes and rubbish,
Styrofoam, and cigarette butts have been known to cause deaths in marine animals. Animals who consume
grasses near contaminated areas or landfills are also at risk of poisoning due to the toxins that seep into the
soil.
6. Disease-carrying pests- Mosquitoes breed in cans and tires that collect water and can carry diseases such as
malaria and dengue. Rats find food and shelter in landfills and sewage, and can carry diseases such as
leptospirosis and salmonellosis.
7. Adversely affect the local economy- Landfill facilities that are mismanaged can cause the local economy to sink,
which can then affect the livelihood of the locals.
8. Missed recycling opportunities. There is revenue in recycling. Cities that do not implement proper removal and
recycling of wastes miss on this, miss out on the resources that can be reused, and on the employment
opportunities that a recycling center brings.
9. Causes extreme climate changes. Decomposing waste emits gases that rise to the atmosphere and trap heat.
Greenhouse gases are one of the major culprits behind the extreme weather changes that the world is
experiencing.

Weathering
Weathering is the process of breakdown of rocks at the Earth’s surface, by the action of water, ice, acids,
salts, plants, animals, gravity and changing temperatures. There are three types of weathering: physical
weathering, chemical weathering, and biological weathering.

Agents of Weathering
1. Water
Either in liquid or solid form is one of the agents of mechanical weathering. In liquid form, it seeped into
cracks and crevices of rocks and when the temperature dropped, it freezes and definitely will expand in the form of
ice. The ice then works as a wedge which slowly widens the cracks and splits the rock. When the ice melts, the
liquid water performs the act of erosion by carrying away the tiny rock fragments lost in the split.

2. Salt
 In the process of haloclasty, salts served as an agent of weathering. Saltwater sometimes gets into the
cracks and pores of rock. When it evaporates, salt crystals are left behind and grow in the cracks and pores which
caused pressure on the rock and slowly break it apart.

3. Temperature
Temperature changes can also contribute to weathering through the process called thermal stress. During
thermal stress, rock tend to expand with heat and contract with low temperature. As this happens repeatedly, the
structure of the rock weakens and over time crumbles.

4. Plants
Plants also served as agents of weathering. Its contribution take place when the seed of a tree being spread
in the environment sprout in soil that has collected in a cracked rock. As the roots grow, they widen the cracks,
eventually breaking the rock into pieces. Over time, trees can break apart even large rocks. Even small plants, such
as mosses, can enlarge tiny cracks as they grow.

5. Animals
Animals that tunnel underground, such as moles and prairie dogs, also work to break apart rock and soil.
Other animals dig and trample rock aboveground, causing rock to slowly crumble.

Types of Weathering

A. Physical Weathering
Physical weathering is caused by the effects of changing temperatures on rocks, causing the rock to break
apart. The process is sometimes assisted by water. It happens especially in places where there is little soil and few
plants grow, such as in mountain regions and hot deserts. It occurs either through repeated melting and freezing of
water (mountains and tundra) or through expansion and contraction of the surface layer of rocks that are baked by
the sun (hot deserts). There are two main types of physical weathering:

1. Abrasion. It occurs when rocks surface is frequently exposed to water, wind and gravity.

2. Freeze-thaw. It occurs when water continually seeps into cracks, freezes and expands, eventually breaking the
rock apart. It occurs in mountainous regions like the Alps or Snowdonia. It occurs through the following process:
Rainwater or snow- melt collects in cracks in the rocks→ at night the temperature drops and the water freezes and
expands→ the increases in volume of the ice exerts pressure on the cracks in the rock, causing them to split further
open→ during the day the ice melts and the water seeps deeper into the cracks → at night, the water freezes again.

3. Exfoliation. It can happen as cracks develop parallel to the land surface as a consequence of the reduction in
pressure during uplift and erosion. It occurs typically in upland areas where there are exposures of uniform
coarsely crystalline igneous rocks. The following are the process of exfoliation.
The rock mass at depth is under high pressure from underlying rocks. It tends to be uniform and lack fractures. →
As progressive erosion occurs, the rock mass is subjected to progressively lower pressure of overlying rocks which
leads to tension in directions at right angles to the land surface → this tension is relieved by formation of cracks
which follow the land surface. They are relatively flat on plateaus but can be steep on the flanks of mountains
which are called exfoliation domes → once the crack is developed; water enters and causes chemical weathering
leading to the formation of new low- density minerals. This enhances the cracks and encourages slabs of rock to
detach from the surface.

B. Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering is caused by rainwater reacting with the mineral grains in rocks to form new minerals (clays)
and soluble salts. These reactions occur particularly when the water is slightly acidic. These chemical processes
need water, and occur more rapidly at higher temperature, so warm, damp climates are best. Chemical weathering
(especially hydrolysis and oxidation) is the first stage in the production of soils.

There are different types of chemical weathering, the most important are:
1. Carbonation – carbon dioxide in the air dissolves in rainwater and becomes weakly acidic. This weak “carbonic
acid” can dissolve limestone as it seeps into cracks and cavities. Over many years, solution of the rock can form
spectacular cave systems.
2. Hydrolysis – the breakdown of rock by acidic water to produce clay and soluble salts. Hydrolysis takes place
when acid rain reacts with rock-forming minerals such as feldspar to produce clay and salts that are removed in
solution.
The only common rock-forming mineral that is not affected is quartz, which is a chemically resistant mineral.
Therefore, quartz and clay are the two of the most common minerals in sedimentary rocks.
3. Hydration – a type of chemical weathering where water reacts chemically with the rocks, modifying its chemical
structure. Example: H2O (water) is added to CaSO4 (calcium sulfate) to create CaSO4 + 2H2O (calcium sulfate
dihydrate). It changes from anhydrite to gypsum.
4. Oxidation – the breakdown of rock by oxygen and water, often giving iron- rich rocks a rusty-colored weathered
surface.

C. Biological weathering
Biological weathering of rocks occurs when rocks are weakened by different biological agents like plants and
animals. When plant roots grow through rocks, it creates fracture and cracks that result eventually to rock
breakage. It can be classified into:

1. Biological Weathering by Physical Means. Burrowing animals like shrews, moles and earthworms create
holes on the ground by excavation and move the rock fragments to the surface. These fragments become more
exposed to other environmental factors that can further enhance their weathering. Furthermore, humans also
indirectly contribute to biological weathering by different activities that cause rocks to break.

2. Biological Weathering by Chemical Compounds. Some plants and animals also produced acidic substances
that react with the rock and cause its slow disintegration.

Earth’s Internal Heat Sources

Earth was formed about 4.6 billion years ago and continue to serve as habitat to diverse organisms. Its
biotic components remain alive due to proper regulation of internal heat. It has massive amount of heat that varies
from its layer. The heat increases from the crust down to the inner core due to several reasons. This internal heat
comes from the following sources.

1. Primordial heat of the planet remains from its early stage.

The Earth was formed from the process of accretion wherein gasses and dust of cloud was attracted by
gravitational energy. When these masses compacted it formed planetesimals. In the process, due to the collision of
these masses, heat was generated. This process formed the earliest stage of planet Earth which is molten in state
and heat is trapped in the core of the planet. Eventually, the accrued heat did not vanish. It took a long time for heat
to move from the internal part of the planet going to its surface. There had been the convective transport of heat
within the core to the mantle of the earth. While conductive transport of heat occurs through different plate
boundary layers. This resulted in the preservation of some amount the primordial heat in the interior earth.

2. Heat from the decay of radioactive elements.

Earth is considered as thermal engine since its main source of internal heat come from the produced decay
of some naturally occurring isotopes from its interior. This process is known as radioactive decay by which the
spontaneous breakdown of an atomic nucleus causes the release of energy and matter from the nucleus. Some of
the isotopes are potassium – 40, Uranium - 235, Uranium - 238 and Thorium - 232. There are other radioactive
isotopes that are also present in the Earth. However, they play a minor role in the production of heat due to its
small abundance and low heat capacity. This process of radioactive decay which emits heat energy as one of the
products prevents the Earth from completely cooling off.

3. Gravitational pressure
The more a person descend into Earth’s interior, the amount of pressure increases due to the force pressing
on an area caused by the weight of an overlying rocks. The pressure near the center is considered to be 3 to 4
million times the pressure of atmosphere at sea level. Again, because rocks are good insulators, the escape of heat
from Earth’s surface is less than the heat generated from internal gravitational attraction or squeezing of rock, so
heat builds up within. At high temperature, the material beneath will melt towards the central part of the earth.
This molten material under tremendous pressure conditions acquires the property of a solid and is probably in a
plastic state.

4. Dense core material in the center of the planet.

Due to increase in pressure and presence of heavier materials towards the earth’s center, the density of
earth’s layers also increases. Obviously, the materials of the innermost part of the earth are very dense. The inner
core as the inner most layer is composed primarily of iron and nickel which contributes to the density in the core
that ranges between 12,600-13,000 . This suggests that there must be other heavy elements such as gold,
platinum, palladium, silver and tungsten that are present in the core. Like in the descent of the dense iron-rich
material that makes up the core of the planet to the center that produce heating in about 2,000 kelvins. The inner
core’s intense pressure prevents the iron and other minimal amount of some elements from melting. The pressure
and density are simply too great for the iron atoms to move into a liquid state. Thus, this contributes to the intense
heat in the interior of the planet.