Cleaner and Responsible Consumption 7 (2022) 100085

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Cleaner and Responsible Consumption

journal homepage: www.journals.elsevier.com/cleaner-and-responsible-consumption

Development of a low-cost dispenser-type water filtration system

Roselle Y. Mamuad a, b, Ma. Faye T. Pascual b, Angelo Earvin Sy Choi a, *
a
Department of Chemical Engineering, De La Salle University, 2401 Taft Ave, Manila, 0922, Philippines
b
Department of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering, Mariano Marcos State University, City of Batac, 2906, Ilocos Norte, Philippines

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Water has always been one of the most significant utilities for humans because of its wide array of applications.
Ceramic filter The economic impact of the scarcity of supply to clean water for consumption in emergent nations like the
Drinking water Philippines, where a large proportion of the people suffer from water-related diseases due to scarcity of supply to
Water filtration
clean water consumption. There is the proliferation of water refilling stations in the Philippines and the pro­
Sustainable
portion of Filipino households relying on commercial water has been escalating but not everybody can adapt to
this lifestyle. Another problem identified is, not every place has the access to such system like the communities
living on the islands and near the shorelines. The low-cost dispenser-type water filtration system (LCDTWFS)
developed will provide readily safe drinking water in the household. The equipment is made up of clay and has a
volume capacity of 10 L. The clay used for filter fabrication has no harmful elements and no effect on the filtered
water when used as a ceramic filter. The quality of the tap water was significantly improved after passing it
through the LCDTWFS. The equipment was tested for 6 consecutive weeks after which, the characteristic of the
filtered water is still within the standards of the Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water (PNSDW). The
bacteriological/microbiological, chemical, and physical characteristics of the filtered water are within the
allowable limits of the PNSDW making it potable and safe for consumption. LCDTWFS is effective yet affordable
since it has no electricity requirements, is sustainable, environment-friendly, easily manipulated, and easily
produced by local craftsmen. This study can also contribute to the prosperity of rural potters since introducing
this newly innovated product could be their source of additional income.

1. Introduction
Water has always been one of the most important necessities for
humans because of its wide array of applications in the industries of
food, medicine, metal, and almost everything on the planet. Water is
abundant but only a small portion is available for human consumption.
United Nations and the World Health Organization (WHO) have re­
ported many times the serious dilemma globally with the water
contamination and accessibility to safe water for consumption exists
(Khalili et al., 2006) including in the Philippines (Andrews, 2018).
About 785 million population globally have no connection to the
potable supply of water, collecting from unsafe water sources (Edokpayi
et al., 2018) or still need to commute to gather drinking water (Maciel
et al., 2021). It is approximated worldwide that 1.8 billion population
use a potable supply of water that is contaminated with fecal coliforms
(Bain et al., 2014), especially in the coastal areas (Ben et al., 2021). The
worldwide population had grown from 6.1 billion to 7.8 billion between
2012 and 2020. At this time, 2 billion population acquired supply to
accredited water services, and the multitude of the population lacking
safe water supply lessened by 342 million. Out of the 2 billion popula­
tion that until now go without a supply of safe water for consumption in
2020 includes the 1.2 billion population utilizing essential services, 282
million employing limited services, 367 million connected to unsafe
services, and 122 million using run-off water for consumption
(WHO/UNICEF, 2021). It is also projected that as early as 2025, half of
the world’s population could be living in areas facing water scarcity,
some 700 million people could be displaced by intense water scarcity by
2030 and roughly 1 and 4 children worldwide will be living in areas of
extremely high-water stress (UNICEF, 2021).
The scarcity of supply to clean water is a serious barrier to the
improvement in individual wellness and progress of the neighborhood in
the Philippines (Lee et al., 2020) and the entire world (Boretti and Rosa,
2019). Family may have supplied to public water connection supervised
by the local government unit; however, deficiency of water supply and
damage to municipal water network causing the substandard quality of
drinking water is still a recurring problem (Ehdaie et al., 2017).

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: angelo.choi@dlsu.edu.ph (A.E.S. Choi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clrc.2022.100085
Received 30 June 2022; Received in revised form 27 September 2022; Accepted 1 November 2022
Available online 7 November 2022
2666-7843/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
R.Y. Mamuad et al.
Waterborne disease resembles diseases resulting from contamination
of food and water (Arvelo et al., 2008) and is still the major cause of
human mortality worldwide (Griffiths, 2016). Approximately one-half
of all population in the emerging countries worldwide is experiencing
one or more of six primary diseases caused by substandard water supply
and sub-optimal sanitation as assessed by WHO at a given point of time.
The identified diseases are diarrhea, Ascaris, dracunculiasis, hookworm,
schistosomiasis, and trachoma (WHO/UNICEF, 2021).
The leading cause of the scarcity of clean water is a shortage of water
supply or contamination of water sources according to the Environ­
mental Protection Agency (EPA) and the World Summit of Sustainable
Development (Jury and Vaux, 2007). Another identified factor in water
scarcity is climate change, and social and physical determinants
(Schimpf and Cude, 2020). The scarcity of safe water for drinking is due
to both lack of interest in improving the water systems of the govern­
ment involved and inadequate maintenance of available systems. This
problem is more obvious in under-developed and developing countries
due to economic factors, awareness, hygiene, and lack of access to
appropriate technologies (Khalili et al., 2006). In the Philippines, the
long dry season in the country is the reason why most of the individuals
are relying on the groundwater for their utilities, and part of the water
supply problem is due to the lack of up-to-date information on
groundwater levels (Lee et al., 2008). Another identified problem faced
by water concessionaires in developing countries is approximately half
of the water is dropped to leakage, illegal hook-ups, and vandalism
(Muller, 2020).
In the Philippines, water supply for consumption is highly subsidized
for the individual connected to the water supply and on expensive pri­
vate sellers, generally wealthy individuals while the destitute should
depend on substandard sources (Tansengco-Schapero et al., 2013). Ac­
cording to the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), inaccessibility
to safe water is experiencing adverse consequences on children world­
wide. The purpose for this involves lack of water supply, indigence, and
lack of understanding concerning the impact of drinking unsafe water
(WHO/UNICEF, 2021). There are 3.5 million deaths every year due to
deficient supply of water, sanitation, and hygiene, among them, are
around 6000 Filipinos dying prematurely of waterborne diseases
(Rodriguez, 2015). The economic impact on emerging countries like the
Philippines where vast proportions of the population experiencing such
illnesses is intelligibly atrocious.
People then tend to choose to buy bottled purified waters from
water-purifying stations to ensure safe drinking water. But not everyone
can afford this in the long run, and not every place has access to such
systems. There is a proliferation of water refilling stations in the
Philippines and the portion of Filipino households relying on commer­
cial water has been growing, but not everyone can bear this. Another
problem is limited locations have access to such system and some areas
cannot access it like the area near shorelines. While potable water in the
household establishment is not possible for a multitude of people, water
purification to a household degree could be a quick solution (Pradhan
et al., 2018). Current technologies in water purification systems include
the homogeneous granulation process that has been used to remove
oxalate (Roselle Y. Mamuad et al., 2022), nickel (Salcedo et al., 2016),
calcium carbonate (de Luna et al., 2020; Sioson et al., 2020), cobalt
(Bayon et al., 2021), zinc (Udomkitthaweewat et al., 2019), manganese
(Alvarez-Bastida et al., 2018), and copper. Other actions taken to
improve the situation have offered water treatment solutions based on
ceramic membrane filtration (Wang et al., 2022), household cartridge
filtration (Maciel et al., 2021), and electrochemical ceramic filtration (Li
et al., 2022), among others. The problem with the conventional micro­
filtration/ultrafiltration membrane is the difficulty of efficient and
economical removal of the refractory pollutants (Wang et al., 2022).
Other water purification systems are developed to meet a small group of
household but are not suitable for isolated single-household locations
(Arnal et al., 2010).
By introducing a water filtration system made from readily available
2
Cleaner and Responsible Consumption 7 (2022) 100085
materials in the locality like the clay, rice husk and potential source of
granulated activated carbon from peanut shells (Roselle Y Mamuad
et al., 2022), this study will provide a low-cost and efficient water
filtration system. It is effective yet affordable since it has no electricity
requirement, sustainable because the materials are readily found in the
area and ably produced by local artisan, environment-friendly and easily
operated. The study aimed to develop a low-cost, dispenser-type water
filtration system. This study can also contribute to the prosperity of the
business of local potters since introducing this newly developed tech­
nology could be their source of additional income.
The study also specifically aimed to determine the height and
diameter of a 10-L water container suitable for single household use,
determine the thickness and diameter of the water filter to process 5 L/h
to 6 L/h of tap water, characterize the clay used for filter fabrication in
terms of chemical composition, analyze the filtered water and compare
it with the characterized tap water and compare the filtered water to the
PNSDW.
2. Methodology
2.1. Materials
The materials utilized for the development of LCDTWFS were clay
and rice husk from the locality of San Nicolas, Ilocos Norte, Philippines
for the container. Sieve trays were used to collect even particles size of
clay to produce the filter. Silver Nitrate solution utilized (1%) to
enhance the antimicrobial activity of the filter was purchased from the
Curated Chemical Collection. Granular activated carbon is also incor­
porated in the filter was purchased at Water Filter Philippines. The
Spigot, Cement (XS, 327), and water-proof paint (RU103) were pur­
chased at the local construction supply in the area. A schematic diagram
of the LCDTWFS is shown in Fig. 1.
2.2. Experimental method
2.2.1. Design equation and specification
Determination of dimensions. The thickness of the filter and
container wall was prearranged to the measurement of 0.5 in as
accounted by the artisan to be the optimum thickness. At 85% of the
container filled, the diameter of the container and the height of the
container was computed using Eq. (1). Considerations were based on
the standard continuous stirred tank (CST) design.
πD2 H
V= (1)
4
where V = volume of the container; D = diameter of the container; H =
height of the liquid + twice the thickness of the filter (Hicks and Chopey,
2012).
Determination of the Filter Thickness using the Flowrate. After
determining the final dimensions of the container and the filter and to
ensure that the filters are working correctly, the flow rates of the filters
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the LCDTWFS.
R.Y. Mamuad et al.
were tested. The filter was soaked in a water bath and then filled to the
rim. A 24-h initial run was performed to remove impurities from firing
the ceramic container and filter. Flowrate was observed and recorded
afterward.
v containers using cement. The cement was also used to attach the spigot
Q= (2)
t
Eq. (2) was used in determining the flowrate of the water passing
through the filter (Perry and Green, 2008). The time of observation was
always 1 h, and the volume of the water that passes through the filter
was observed and recorded.
If the measured flowrate is not within the range of 5 L/h to 6 L/h, the
thickness of the filter was adjusted keeping the height and the diameter
of the container and filter constant. A series of trials was observed until
the 5 L/h to 6 L/h flowrates was achieved.
2.2.2. Fabrication and assembly
After determining the dimensions of the equipment, the specifica­
tions were provided to the artisan at Barangay 8 San Rufino, San Nicolas,
Ilocos Norte for fabrication. Clay was the primary component of the
container and filter. The filter was incorporated with rice husks and
adsorbent at a ratio of 7:3.
The upper storage and lower storage were fabricated separately.
Cement was used by the researcher in attaching the spigot to the hole in
the lower storage and merging the upper and lower storage forming the
low-cost dispenser-type filtration system.
2.2.3. Characteristics of the clay for filter fabrication
The components of the clay as one of the raw materials were
analyzed at the Center of Innovative Materials and Emerging Applica­
tions (CIMEA) at Mariano Marcos State University, City of Batac, Ilocos
Norte.
2.2.4. Analysis of tap water and filtered water
Tap water was collected from the borehole at Payas, Barangay 16,
San Marcos, San Nicolas, Ilocos Norte. Filtered water samples were
collected from the lower reservoir of the water filtration system. Tap
water and filtered water samples were analyzed in the laboratory of
Ilocos Norte Water District (INWAD) located at Laoag City, Ilocos Norte
for parameters that conform to the PNSDW.
2.2.5. Comparison of tap water to filtered water
The characteristics of the tap water and filtered water were
compared to determine the effectiveness of the water filtration system.
2.2.6. Comparison of filtered water to PNSDW
The characteristics of the filtered water were compared to the
PNSDW to determine the safety of the filtered water if it conforms to the
set standard.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Determination of the dimensions of the LCDTWFS
Using Eq. (1), the determined height of the liquid and the diameter
of the container is 9.1934 inches. Considering the standard container
volume at 85% filled, the height of the container is 10.8153 inches
(Hicks and Chopey, 2012). Given a fixed thickness of 0.5 in as per the
instruction and proposition of the artisan as the optimum thickness for a
jar container, the total height of the container is 11.82 in. The thickness
of the filter was given a fixed measurement of 0.5 in as per the in­
struction and proposition of the local artisan and using Eq. (2) to ach­
ieve the targeted flowrate ranging from 5 L/h to 6 L/h.
3
Cleaner and Responsible Consumption 7 (2022) 100085
3.2. Fabrication and assembly of the LCDTWFS
The upper and lower storage were fabricated separately by the
artisan and assembled by the researcher by attaching the two storage
to the hole in the lower storage. The water filtration system was coated
with water-proof cement paint to prevent water from leaching out of the
container and avoid moisture from the environment to stick to the sur­
face of the container.
The equipment is a cylindrical container and has a volume capacity
of 10 L. It has upper storage to contain the tap water and lower storage
for the filtered water to be extracted from a faucet which can be seen in
Fig. 2.
3.3. Characterization of the clay for filter fabrication
The clay gathered in Ilocos Norte, Philippines utilized for filter
fabrication was characterized through an XRF spectrophotometer and
the result is presented in Table 1. The result indicates that the clay has
minimal traces of metals, and the presence of the tabulated elements is
within the normal concentrations which will have no harmful effect on
the filtered water when used as a ceramic filter. Silicon (Si), aluminum
(Al), magnesium (Mg), and iron (Fe) are the major components of clay
effective for ceramic water filter utilization after drying the heat treat­
ment of the clay causes the particles to agglomerate into cohesive, much
stronger, finished product (Annan, 2016). The result is related to the
observation that the clay-containing aluminum and iron oxide surfaces
and chemically modified clay has higher fluoride adsorption through the
swapping of OH− ions with F− (Zereffa and Desalegn, 2019).
3.4. Analysis of the tap and filtered water
Base on the Department of Health (2007), the Philippine National
Standards for Drinking Water is developed to assist the Water conces­
sionaires both Government and Private sectors, health and sanitation
administrators, and the citizens, and all others concerned. The guide­
lines contain standards for the acceptable values of the determined pa­
rameters in measuring the quality of water. These parameters include
microbiological, physical, chemical, and radiological compositions of
the water (Department of Health, 2017). Presented in Table 2 are the
PNSDW standards for microbial analysis where the standard method of
detection and values of microbial quality is indicated. This information
was utilized in evaluating whether the filtered water produced using.
The LCDTWFS passed PNSDW and could be utilized for safe drinking
water. The PNSDW standard for physical and chemical parameters were
presented in Table 3. The following information was utilized in evalu­
ating whether the filtered water using LCDTWFS is within the standard
and safe for consumption.
Escherichia coli (E. coli) is a species of fecal coliform bacteria usually
located in the intestines of humans and animals. An excellent indicator
Fig. 2. Schematic 3D diagram and fabricated low-cost dispenser-type water
filtration system.
R.Y. Mamuad et al. Cleaner and Responsible Consumption 7 (2022) 100085

Table 1 Table 3
XRF analysis of clay. PNSDW Standard values for physical and chemical parameters.
Elements Amount Deviation (±) Parameters Maximum level (mg/L) or characteristics

LE (Light Elements) 61.48% 0.4597% Physical

Si 18.68% 0.1710% Taste No objectionable taste
Al 7.80% 0.1438% Odor No objectionable odor
Fe 7.27% 0.0655% Color
Mg 2.69% 0.6570% Apparent 10 color units
Ca 1.57% 0.0160% True 5 color units
Ti 3607 ppm 180.73 ppm Turbidity 5 NTU
Mn 1057 ppm 46.91 ppm Hardness 300 as CaCO3
Sr 125 ppm 3.04 ppm pH 6.5–8.5
Zn 102 ppm 7.03 ppm Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) 500
Cu 96 ppm 9.53 ppm Chemical
Zr 65 ppm 2.65 ppm Aluminum 0.2
Y 34 ppm 2.20 ppm Chloride 250.0
Rb 5 ppm 1.27 ppm Copper 1.0
Hydrogen sulfide 0.05
Iron 1.0
Manganese 0.4
Table 2 Sodium 200
PNSDW Standards methods of detection and values for microbiological quality. Sulfate 250
Zinc 5.0
Parameters Methods of Value Units of
Antimony 0.02
determination measurement
Arsenic 0.05
Total coliform Multiple Tube <1.1 MPN/100 mL Barium 0.7
Fermentation Technique Boron 0.5
(MTF) Cadmium 0.003
Chromogenic substrate Absent MPN/100 mL Chromium (Total) 0.05
test (Presence-Absence) <1.1 Cyanide (Total) 0.07
Membrane Filter (MF) <1 Total coliform Fluoride 1.0
Technique colonies/100 mL Lead 0.01
Compliance with Total Coliform Mercury (Total) 0.001
(a) For water systems analyzing at least 40 samples per Nickel 0.02
month, no more than 5% of the monthly sample may be Nitrate 50
positive for total coliform Nitrite 3
(b) For water systems analyzing fewer than 40 samples per Selenium 0.01
month, no more than one sample per month may be
positive for total coliform
Source: EPA, 40CPR Part 1, 136, II and 1999 (Department of Health, 2007).
At least 95% of standard samples taken in each year from each
reservoir are total coliform negative is presented in Table 5. TDS are ions dissolved in water, including salts,
No standard sample taken each month should exceed the
minerals, and metals, that can be found in all non-pure water sources
maximum allowable value specified in the above.
Fecal coliform Multiple Tube <1.1 MPN/100 mL (Campbell, 2021). Water that flows through natural springs and wa­
Fermentation Technique terlines with a high amount of organic salts within minerals and rocks,
(MTF) or groundwater that comes from wells with a high amount of salt will
Chromogenic substrate <1 Fecal coliform also lead to higher particle measurements (Wang, 2021). Several studies
test colonies/100 mL
Membrane Filter (MF) <1.1 MPN/100 mL
were conducted to lower TDS such as boiling and heating tap water with
Technique and without sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), absorption by food-grade
Heterotrophic Pour Plate <500 CFU/mL activated carbon (Sujiono et al., 2022), and battery-powered electrol­
plate count Spread Plate ysis (Resan Kalash et al., 2015). In the physical analysis of the filtered
Membrane Filter
water using LCDTWFS, an increase in the total hardness of the filtered
Technique
water was observed. The possible infusion of the soluble materials in
Source: Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, clay and the over burn-out materials in the filter influences the increased
(Department of Health, 2017). *Most Probable Number (MPN) - a statistical amount of total hardness in the filtered water. Similar to the study
method of determining microbial populations.
conducted that higher the amount of burn-out material during the
production of the filter elements will increase the porosity and flow rate
that there is an occurrence of recent sewage or animal waste contami­ which lead to lower removal efficiency of turbidity, microorganisms,
nation is the presence of E. coli in water (Khan et al., 2021). Sewage and water hardness from the source water (Bulta and Micheal, 2019).
might have several varieties of disease-causing organisms. Comparing
the tap water to the filtered water which was passed thru the water
filtration system for six consecutive weeks, the result demonstrates that
there is a significant decrease in the total coliform organisms and fecal
coliform organisms indicating that the water filtration system functions
as required. This might also be due to the integration of silver nitrate in
the ceramic filter which caused the degradation of bacteria (Maxwell
et al., 2021). Based on the result presented in Table 4, the low-cost
dispenser-type water filtration system has the potential to produce
safe drinking water since the result of microbial analysis within five
weeks of utilization is still within the limit set by PNSDW.
One of the basic procedures to evaluate water quality is to measure
its physical characteristics such as total dissolved solids (TDS), pH and
hardness. The result of the physical analysis of the tap and filtered water

4
R.Y. Mamuad et al.
Table 4
PNSDW limit and microbial analysis of tap and filtered water.
Parameters Tap water PNSDW limit
Total coliform organisms 8 <1.1
Fecal coliform organisms 8 <1.1
Table 5
PNSDW limit and physical analysis of tap and filtered water.
Parameters Tap water PNSDW limit
Total dissolved solids (mg/L) 324 600
pH at 25 ◦ C 6.7 6.5–8.5
Hardness (mg/L CaCO3) 170 300
Because pH is considered an aesthetic water quality, there is no
prescribed standard for pH although one of the most important in­
dicators for water quality is its pH level. Dissolved metals might be
included in drinking water with a low pH level since metals easily
dissolve in acidic water. Metals like iron, manganese, copper, and lead
can infiltrate drinking water located in pipes or the local aquifer (Judith,
2019). The PNSDW pH standard for drinking water is 6.5–8.5. The
filtered water utilizing the LCDTWFS has a pH of 7.6–8.0, there is an
increase in pH compared to the 6.7 value of the tap water. In a study on
the evaluation of point-of-use ceramic water filters, an increase in the pH
of the filtered water was also observed (Bolaji and Akande, 2013).
The conventional scale of the ability of water to react with soap is
water hardness. Hard water requires significant amount of soap to create
a lather. Hard water frequently builds a noticeable deposit of pre­
cipitates like insoluble metals, soaps, or salts in vessels, including
“bathtub rings”. It is not due to a single material but by a variety of
dissolved polyvalent metallic ions, primarily calcium and magnesium
cations, minimal contributions can be observed with other cations like
aluminum, barium, iron, manganese, strontium, and zinc. Hardness is
usually measured in mg of calcium carbonate equivalent per L (WHO,
2010). Varying levels of total hardness, calcium and magnesium con­
centrations in different sources of drinking water are used by pop­
ulations in different regions. The use of water purifiers can address the
dilemma of maintaining the standard levels of hardness. An opposite
relationship between various conditions, including cardiovascular dis­
ease and hard water has been found out (Kanadhia et al., 2014). The TDS
analysis of the filtered water utilizing LCDTWFS has increased compared
to that of the tap water. Total dissolved solids are directly proportional
to the hardness of water (Rafiqul Islam, 2016). Since an increase in total
dissolved solids was observed, then it is expected that the hardness of
water will also increase.
Manganese, iron, nitrates, sulfate, and other materials in drinking
water may be the cause for its turbidity and these materials may come
from corrosion of iron pipes (Peng and Korshin, 2011) and residual
related to agricultural activities (Bangar et al., 2020). Dissolved man­
ganese in water may cause several issues including tinged water, stains,
and mud in water systems among others (Gerke et al., 2016). Manganese
susceptibility alters the nervous system roles, and might even create an
irreversible Parkinson-like disorder called manganism (Alvarez-Bastida
et al., 2018). The presence of nitrate in drinking water has a clear impact
on human health since it causes blue child disorder (Bangar et al., 2020).
The ceramic filter incorporated with the biochar type of the LCDTWFS
efficiently removed nitrates in water similar to the study conducted on
the removal mechanisms of contaminants in the ceramic filter (Nigay
et al., 2020). Sulfate is a substance that is present naturally in drinking
water and studies claim that ingestion of water containing high levels of
sulfate causes diarrhea (EPA, 2022). Although the sulfate content of the
Cleaner and Responsible Consumption 7 (2022) 100085
Filtered water
Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Weeks 5–6
<1.1 <1.1 <1.1 <1.1 <1.1
<1.1 <1.1 <1.1 <1.1 <1.1
Filtered water
Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Weeks 5–6
351 347 339 343 330
7.6 7.4 7.7 7.5 8.0
208 204 196 200 188
tap water subject to filtration is within the PNSDW, it could be observed
that a minimal amount of sulfate was eliminated. In the study conducted
by Nigay et al. (2020), the ceramic filter developed which is made of
clay and sawdust show a high removal efficiency of sulfate. Chemical
analysis of the tap and filtered water using the LCDTWFS is presented in
Table 6. The results show that LCDTWFS can effectively remove nitrates,
manganese, sulfate, and iron. The integration of carbonated rice hull in
the filter enhanced the efficient removal of these materials in tap water
as revealed in the study of Fseha et al. (2022), biochar improves the
efficiency of the filter to eliminate manganese and nitrate from synthetic
groundwater. Based on the PNSDW limit, the filtered water is still within
the acceptable value for drinking water standard up to five weeks of
utilization of the LDTWFS.
Chloride is an important nutrient for human health and the major
supplier of chloride is foods and drinking water making up only a small
portion of normal dietary intake. Drinking water containing chloride is
not dangerous, and most interests are associated with the often rela­
tionship between high chloride levels with elevated sodium levels. There
is no health-based drinking water standard for chloride however the
standards for Canadian Drinking Water Quality suggest an appealing
taste for chloride levels of 250 mg/L, based on the possibility of unac­
ceptable tastes at concentrations above this level. Chloride is an element
that is commonly present in almost all natural waters and is consistently
discovered as a component of salt such as sodium chloride (NaCl) or in
some situations in solution with potassium or calcium. The existence of
chloride underneath water sources could be from several sources
including the deterioration of soils, salt-bearing geological generations,
salt spray deposition, utilization of salt for road de-icing, an endowment
from wastewaters and in coastal areas, intervention of water from the
ocean into sources fresh groundwater (“Chloride in Drinking Water |
Government of Prince Edward Island,” 2015). This is possible as indi­
cated in the chloride analysis of the filtered water using LCDTWFS
where the amount of chloride in the filtered water increases but still
within the PNSDW limit.
4. Conclusions
This study has developed and scientifically evaluated the effective­
ness of LCDTWFS to provide household drinking water, particularly
those living in the coastline area who have limited access to potable
water lines and water purification facilities. The equipment developed is
a cylindrical container and has a volume capacity of 10 L. It has upper
storage to contain the tap water and lower storage for the filtered water
to be extracted from a faucet. The filter is made up of clay, activated
carbon, and enhanced with 0.1% silver nitrate. The raw materials were
gathered locally and the LCDTWFS was crafted by a local artisan. The
XRF analysis of the clay utilized for filter fabrication has a minimal trace
of metals and other elements present have no harmful effect on the
5
R.Y. Mamuad et al.
Table 6
PNSDW limit and chemical analysis of tap and filtered water.
Parameters Tap water (mg/L) PNSDW limit (mg/L)
Chloride 96 250
Iron 0.05 1 0.01
Manganese Nil 0.4
Nitrate 14 50
Residual Chlorine Nil 0.3–1.5
Sulfate 11 250
*Nil – not detectable/less than the method detection limit.
filtered water. The microbial analysis of the filtered water is less than 1.1
MPN/100 mL for the total coliform count and fecal coliform count and
the value is within the standard set by PNSDW. The physical analysis of
the filtered water is within the allowable limit although the value has
increased compared to the tap or raw water. The chemical analysis of the
processed water is within the standard set by PNSDW. All the chemicals
present in the tap water indicate a decrease in value except for Chloride
which was increased from 96 mg/L to 122 mg/L. It was observed that
the LCDTWFS can effectively remove microorganisms and materials
from tap water to produce potable safe drinking water that is within the
standard of the PNSDW. It is recommended that the effect of porosity of
the ceramic filter developed be conducted to improve its flowrate and
filtration efficiency. Life cycle analysis could also be done to assess the
feasibility and environmental impact of the material used for
fabrication.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
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Filtered water (mg/L)
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122 115 118 116 108
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