2 1 5.

1
8 9 IN Fourth World Congress on
Desalination and Water Reuse

Kuwait — November 4-8, 1989

Organised by
The International Desalination Association

.•A ! C !',

THE INCREASING DEMAND FOR DESALINATION

by
T.A. Dabbagh and A. Al-SaqabI

Award

Th s Paper won the awar d f or the best

oral pa per presentation by a bal lot of the
S c l e n t I f I c Commt t t e e of the 4th W o r l d
Congres s on DesalInatlon* as o f f e r I n g t h e
b e s t c o m b i n a t i o n of t e c h n I c a 1 and
sclentl f Ic qual I t y , or 1 gl nalI t y , rel ev ance
t o the theme of the Congress and styl e of
presentation.
•
 Desalination, 73 (1989) 3-26
Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam — Printed in The Netherlands

THE INCREASING DEMAHD FOR DBSALINATIOK

T.A. Dabbagb and A. Al-Saqabi
Kuwait Fund for Arab Econonic Development*
P.O. Box 2921, Safat
13030 Kuwait

ABSTRACT
Desalination techniques have usually been
u t i l i s e d in a r i d zone countries with high incomes
arising mainly from oil production. Potable water
provided to the public by d e s a l i n a t i o n has to be
heavily subsidised by the governments concerned.

I n r e v i e w i n g the a l t e r n a t i v e water
resources a v a i l a b l e in other arid and s i m i - a r i d
zone countries when appraising water sectors for
p r o v i d i n g a i d for d e v e l o p m e n t , i t becomes
increasingly evident that there w i l l be a greater
demand for desalination by the turn of the century.
In f a c t , desalination has already imposed itself on
some developing c o u n t r i e s , in s p i t e of i t s high
c a p i t a l cost and the subsequent subsidies required,
since the only a l t e r n a t i v e may be to convey water
for long d i s t a n c e s , possibly from other countries.

The paper reviews the cost of producing

water in developing countries and points out that
when i t comes to providing water the price w i l l be
paid, however high i t may be. Reducing the cost of
desalinated water, however, is not only dependent
on improving d e s a l i n a t i o n technology, but also on
improving the management of the conservation and
u t i l i s a t i o n of d e s a l i n a t e d w a t e r . The paper
therefore emphasises t h a t when d e s a l i n a t i o n i s
proposed i t i s important that i t should be carried
out in conjunction with improving the efficiency of
the water supply system, re-using sewage effluent
and s u b s t a n t i a l l y increasing storage capacity.

* The views expressed in t h i s p a p e r a r e not

n e c e s s a r i l y t h o s e of Kuwait Fund for Arab
Economic Development.

0011-9164/89/$03.50© Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. f •

 F i n a l l y , t h e paper a t t e m p t s t o i n d i c a t e
areas where f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i s r e q u i r e d and t o
show the need for collaborative action by arid zone
o i l - p r o d u c i n g c o u n t r i e s i n s e t t i n g up an
i n s t i t u t i o n a l framework t h a t would enable t h e i r
e x t e n s i v e e x p e r i e n c e with d e s a l i n a t i o n t o be
shared, and permit the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a body of
e x p e r t i s e t h a t could work t o w a r d s r e d u c i n g t h e
p r e s e n t , often p r o h i b i t i v e , cost of desalination.

1.0. BACKGROUND

1.1. The h i s t o r y of l a r g e - s c a l e d e s a l i n a t i o n can

no l o n g e r be considered s h o r t ; f o r t y y e a r s have
elapsed since i t commenced in the e a r l y f i f t i e s .
D u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d t e c h n o l o g y i n o t h e r more
c h a l l e n g i n g f i e l d s has l e a p t forward and s p r e a d
worldwide. Yet l a r g e - s c a l e d e s a l i n a t i o n , a
b a s i c a l l y simple p r o c e s s , has been c o n f i n e d t o
c e r t a i n a r e a s of the world, eventhough the demand
for water has never been g r e a t e r .

1.2. Despite major developments in the technology

of d e s a l i n a t i o n , t h e o l d m u l t i - s t a g e flash
d i s t i l l a t i o n process (MSF), s t i l l predominates for
sea-water desalination, amounting t o n e a r l y 62% of
the p l a n t s in the world. The next most successful
process, reverse osmosis (R0), accounts for n e a r l y
25%. The remaining 13% consists of various systems
which a r e of more l i m i t e d u s a g e , l e s s w e l l
d e v e l o p e d , or s t i l l a t t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s t a g e
(Ref.1).

1.3. Desalination technology has been a s s o c i a t e d

m a i n l y w i t h w e a l t h as i t has only been used
extensively in arid oil-producing c o u n t r i e s and t o
a l e s s e r extent in some i n d u s t r i a l c o u n t r i e s and
a r i d i s l a n d s . The development of t h i s technology
h a s been s t i m u l a t e d and encouraged by
oi1—producing c o u n t r i e s since t h e i r o i l incomes
have e n a b l e d them t o use d e s a l i n a t i o n as t h e i r
most r e l i a b l e solution to the problem of p r o v i d i n g
w a t e r when s u r f a c e and g r o u n d w a t e r a r e v e r y
limited or n e g l i g i b l e . Since the i n c e p t i o n of the
d e s a l i n a t i o n i n d u s t r y the c a p a c i t i e s of i n s t a l l e d
d e s a l i n a t i o n p l a n t s have i n c r e a s e d enormously.
F i g u r e ( 1 ) shows t h e c u m u l a t i v e i n c r e a s e i n
capacity over the l a s t t h r e e d e c a d e s . Following a
slow i n c r e a s e i n t h e a d o p t i o n of d e s a l i n a t i o n
technology, a rapid change s t a r t e d t a k i n g p l a c e in

11

to

9
1
•a
9
*B
r-»

£7

5 .

/
3
y
2

1
^*"
^ ^

S2 66 66 70 72 74 76 7B 60 62 84 66 86 Year

Figure 1 - Cumulative Capacity of all Land-based

desalting plants capable of producing
more than 100 tn3/unit of fresh water
daily against contract year.
Source: Wangnick K Consulting, 1988 IDA Worlwide
Desalting Plants Inventory, Gnawenburg
Germany, 1988.
6

the s i x t i e s when the average increase in cumulative

c a p a c i t y was in the r e g i o n of 46 m i l l i o n m3 per
year (10 b i l l i o n g a l l o n s per y e a r ) . This trebled
between 1970 and 1976 and h a s s i n c e i n c r e a s e d
s i x - f o l d t o an i n c r e a s e in cumulative capacity of
about 283 m i l l i o n m3 per year (62 b i l l i o n g a l l o n s
per y e a r ) .

2 . 0 . WATER DEMAND IN ARID AKD SEMI-ARID ZOHES

2.1. Many a r i d and s e m i - a r i d c o u n t r i e s face

shortages of potable water a v a i l a b l e from n a t u r a l
sources. The Arab World is representative of such
countries. I t covers an area of about 14 m i l l i o n
square kilometres and includes 22 countries with a
present population of about 200 m i l l i o n estimated
t o i n c r e a s e to 280 m i l l i o n by the turn of the
century. The average annual r a i n f a l l g e n e r a l l y
v a r i e s between 100 and 250mm and in most Arab
countries not only are there no rivers or lakes but
groundwater often l i e s at a considerable depth
below t h e s u r f a c e and s u f f e r s from a l a c k of
s u b s t a n t i a l natural recharge. To make matters
worse, many aquifers in the Arab World are of high
s a l i n i t y or suffer from increasing deterioration of
water- q u a l i t y as a r e s u l t of i n c r e a s e d w a t e r
abstraction.

2.2. The water resources in the Arab World in 1985

were estimated to be about 172 b i l l i o n m3, while
the water demand for d o m e s t i c , i n d u s t r i a l and
a g r i c u l t u r a l purposes was estimated to be about 305
b i l l i o n m3, leaving a d e f i c i t in the region of 133
b i l l i o n m3 (Ref. 2 ) . With an estimated population
increase of around 2.5% annually, the d e f i c i t is
expected to remain nearly the same u n t i l the year
2 0 0 0 , • p r o v i d e d t h a t the development of w a t e r
resources takes an i n c r e a s i n g l y high p r i o r i t y in
the development plans of a l l the regions and t h a t
adequate financial allocation is made to carry them
out .

2.3. Within each region of the Arab World there

w i l l be major d i f f e r e n c e s . The s i t u a t i o n , for
instance, in Somalia and Djibouti is expected to be
s u b s t a n t i a l l y worse than in Egypt and Sudan. In
the e a s t e r n r e g i o n , the development of w a t e r
resources in Jordan will be far more difficult than
in the other c o u n t r i e s w h i l e , in the w e s t e r n
r e g i o n , T u n i s i a , Libya and Mauritania will have
greater difficulty than, say, Morocco or Algeria.
In the Arabian Peninsula, water shortages will be
the problem of the r e g i o n ' s n o n - o i l - p r o d u c i n g
c o u n t r i e s , since the oil producers w i l l increase
t h e i r r e l i a n c e on d e s a l i n a t i o n . Kuwait, for
example, already has desalination capacity of about
250 mgd (1.14 million m3/day) to meet the water
demand into the next century, even if a proposal
for conveying water from Iraq does not become a
reality. Considerable variation also exists within
each Arab country and i s l i k e l y to be accentuated
in f u t u r e . Sudan, for instance, although it enjoys
the Nile, has serious water shortages in i t s arid
areas .

2,4. The lack of water for the development of arid

and semi-arid regions is becoming a crucial issue.
Indeed, the situation could become a key factor in
confrontations over p o l i t i c a l f r o n t i e r s (Ref. 3).
A c c o r d i n g t o t h e C e n t r e for S t r a t e g i c and
I n t e r n a t i o n a l Studies regarding U.S. Foreign Policy
on Water Resources in the Middle East, the Middle
East i s on the brink of another major natural
resource c r i s i s so that before the t w e n t y - f i r s t
century, the struggle over limited and threatened
water resources could break already f r a g i l e t i e s
among r e g i o n a l s t a t e s and lead to unprecedented
upheaval within the area (Ref. 4 ) ,

3.0. ALTERNATIVES FOR DEVELOPING WATER RESOURCES

3.1. Hence there is an urgent need t o i n c r e a s e the

r a t e of development of water resources in the Arab
World in p a r t i c u l a r and in developing c o u n t r i e s in
general. The d i f f i c u l t i e s encountered w i l l be
substantial. Apart from o i l - p r o d u c i n g c o u n t r i e s ,
the investment r e q u i r e d i s not r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e
and must be obtained as t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e or
loans from Arab development i n s t i t u t i o n s or from
i n d u s t r i a l c o u n t r i e s or t h e i r d e v e l o p m e n t
institutions. They need to be convinced of the
economic v i a b i l i t y of the p o s s i b l e a l t e r n a t i v e s .
H o w e v e r , by t h e t u r n of t h e c e n t u r y , some
developing c o u n t r i e s w i l l have so depleted t h e i r
8

natural resources that t h e y w i l l be forced t o

consider the a l t e r n a t i v e s of i m p o r t i n g w a t e r from
neighbouring countries or d e s a l i n a t i n g sea or
brackish water.

3.2. Importing water from n e i g h b o u r i n g c o u n t r i e s

by p i p e l i n e or t a n k e r i s not a new i d e a , but has
been promoted more widely r e c e n t l y . Turkey h a s
p r o p o s e d a " P e a c e P i p e l i n e " for s h a r i n g its
abundant water r e s o u r c e s w i t h neighbouring
Countries. Europe h a s f r e q u e n t l y promoted t h e
shipment of water from s o u t h e r n Europe t o N o r t h
A f r i c a and o t h e r developing c o u n t r i e s (Ref. 5 ) .
P r e l i m i n a r y s t u d i e s have been made for conveying
w a t e r by p i p e l i n e from P a k i s t a n t o t h e Arabian
Peninsula. But one of t h e most s e r i o u s of a l l
t h e s e p r o p o s a l s i n v o l v e s b r i n g i n g water from the
S h a t t Al Arab in I r a q t o Kuwait. The i d e a goes
back t o t h e e a r l y f i f t i e s , but has taken since then
to reach the drawing board. If t h i s i s so for one
of t h e s i m p l e s t p r o p o s i t i o n s , t h e n i t i s n o t
s u r p r i s i n g t h a t o t h e r more complicated p r o j e c t s ,
w h i c h i n v o l v e c r o s s i n g s e a s , mountains or o t h e r
c o u n t r i e s , n e v e r r e a c h even t h i s s t a g e . The
s u c c e s s f u l t r a n s p o r t a t i o n of water has g e n e r a l l y
only been c a r r i e d - out over r e l a t i v e l y short
d i s t a n c e s , as between Malaysia and Singapore or
China and Hong Kong.

3.3. In s p i t e of t h e r e l u c t a n c e of financing
a g e n c i e s t o c o n s i d e r d e s a l i n a t i o n as a v i a b l e
a l t e r n a t i v e because of i t s high c a p i t a l and r u n n i n g
c o s t s , i t h a s , however, been imposing i t s e l f as a
r e l i a b l e and s t r a t e g i c a l l y safe s o l u t i o n . I t has
a l r e a d y been chosen by some developing countries as
a main source of water in some of t h e i r towns and
i n d u s t r i a l or t o u r i s t i c c e n t r e s . Table (1) shows
the t o t a l c a p a c i t i e s i n s t a l l e d in some d e v e l o p i n g
c o u n t r i e s which a r e not major o i l p r o d u c e r s .

3.4. The o p e r a t i o n and m a i n t e n a n c e of some of

t h e s e p l a n t s has not been e a s y . Cape Verde, for
example h a s e x p e r i e n c e d numerous difficulties
o p e r a t i n g the p l a n t s which i t has been u s i n g for
t h e l a s t 20 y e a r s . Nevertheless it will be
i n c r e a s i n g i t s capacity in 1990 by constructing two
small a d d i t i o n a l p l a n t s w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e of
foreign aid. Mauritania, on the other hand, had to
close down i t s d e s a l i n a t i o n plant near the capital
Nouakchott after a few years owing to the high cost
of o p e r a t i o n and maintenance. Instead, groundwater
is now pumped from a well f i e l d , but at the cost of
d e p l e t i n g t h e a q u i f e r , i n c r e a s i n g sea w a t e r
intrusion and provoking an even more s e r i o u s water
shortage in the f u t u r e .

Table ( 1 )

Desalination Capacities in Some Non-oil

Producing Countries of the Third World
(2)
Country Capacity GNP/Capita
(1)
m3/day KGD
Cape Verde 5,363 1.2 500
Chile 13,240 2.9 1 ,310
China 11,768 2.6 300
Columbia 7,465 1.6 1 ,220
Cyprus 7,710 1.7 5,210
Ecuador 5,604 1.2 1,040
Egypt 52,510 11.5 710
India 214,443 4.7 300
J ordan 6,861 1.5 1,540
Malaysia 6,968 1.5 1 ,800
Malta 66,254 14.5 4,010
Maur itania 4,654 1.0 440
Peru 14,852 3.3 1,430
Philippines 3,787 0.83 590
S ingapore 16,500 3.6 7,940
Syria 5,623 1.24 1 ,820
Tunisia 20,370 4.5 1 ,210
North Yemen 2,053 0.5 620
South Yemen 3,161 0.7 420

S ource (1) Wangnick C o n s u l t i n g , 1 9 8 8 IDA

Worldwide D e s a l t i n g P l a n t s Inventory,
Wangnick C o n s u l t i n g , G n a r r e n b u r g ,
Germany, 1 9 8 8 .

(2) World B a n k , The World Bank At 1 a s

1988, Washington D.C.
10

3.5. D e s a l i n a t i o n has a l s o been i n c r e a s i n g l y

resorted to by i n d u s t r i a l c o u n t r i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y
Spain and the U.S.A. Between 1986 and 1987 Spain's
c a p a c i t y increased by about 85,000 m3/day ( 1 8 . 7
mgd) r e p r e s e n t i n g 12.3% of the desalination plants
sold in that year, and making Spain the t h i r d major
buyer a f t e r Saudi Arabia and the U.A.E. In the
same year the U.S.A. increased i t s d e s a l i n a t i o n
c a p a c i t y by a b o u t 5 2 , 0 0 0 m3/day ( 1 1 . 5 mgd)
representing 7.65% of the desalination p l a n t s s o l d .

3.6. While e f f o r t s have been made to improve the

u t i l i s a t i o n of n a t u r a l water r e s o u r c e s , they have
not been very effective because of the d i f f i c u l t i e s
encountered in changing consumer h a b i t s , even in
i n d u s t r i a l c o u n t r i e s with e f f i c i e n t managerial
c a p a b i l i t i e s (Ref. 7 & 8 ) , The r e s u l t h a s
f r e q u e n t l y been o v e r - e x p l o i t a t i o n of aquifers and
d e t e r i o r a t i o n in t h e i r q u a l i t y . At the same time
s u r f a c e water has been u t i l i s e d extensively by the
construction of dams on most r i v e r s in the world.
T r a n s p o r t i n g w a t e r from w a t e r - r i c h r e g i o n s has
proved to be both exorbitantly expensive and beset
with i n s t i t u t i o n a l obstacles (Ref. 7).
Consequently, the demand for d e s a l i n a t i o n has gone
beyond t h e p r o v i s i o n of water for domestic or
i n d u s t r i a l use. The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation i s
a l r e a d y constructing the world's largest R.O. plant
of a b o u t 2 7 2 , 0 0 0 m3/day (60 mgd) c a p a c i t y i n
Arizona to d e s a l i n a t e i r r i g a t i o n drainage. In
addition, desalination is being considered as p a r t
of the process of r e f i n i n g sewage effluent to make
i t d r i n k a b l e (Ref. 1 0 ) ,

4.0. THE COST OF WATER

4.1. T h eu n i t cost of water production i n

d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s v a r i e s considerably, as can be
seen from T a b l e ( 2 ) which g i v e s t h e c o s t i n a
n u m b e r of c o u n t r i e s who r e p l i e d t o a WHO
questionnaire r e c e i v e d in December 1985 (Ref. 9 ) .
Their per c a p i t a incomes varied between US$ 1,362
to US$ 14,764 and the most s t r i k i n g o b s e r v a t i o n i s
t h a t some d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s pay far more to
produce t h e i r water than i n d u s t r i a l c o u n t r i e s o r ,
indeed, than o i l - p r o d u c i n g countries such as Saudi
Arabia which rely basically on the d e s a l i n a t i o n of
 11

sea water. Although this ie the exception rather

than the rule, it nevertheless shows that when it
comes to the provision of water the price will be
paid however high it may be.
TABLE (2)

Unit Cost of Water Production

in US$/m3 in Countries of varying
GMP/Caoita 136 to 14764 US $

Country Cost GHP/Capita % Cost to

$/»3 $ per capita

Cape Verde 4.65 317 1.5

Cayman Is. 2.75 13000 0.02
Cameroon 2.00 800 0.25
Mexico 1.50 2080 0.07
Argentina 1.50 1929 0.08
Netherland 1.25 9290 0.01
Zambia 1.05 390 0.3
Saudi Arabia* 1.00 8850 0.01
Sierra Leone 0.90 200 0.45
Tonga 0.80 354 0.23
Botswana 0.75 840 0.09
Togo 0.66 300 0,22
Sur inane 0.60 3030 0.02
Sey chelles 0.60 2250 0.03
Malawi 0.60 170 0.35
Papua New Guinea 0.55 649 0,09
Tunisia 0.50 1277 0.04
Cook Islands 0.40 7170 0.006
Cyprus 0.40 3572 0.01
Dj ibouti 0.40 480 0.08
Rwanda 0.40 280 0.14
Bahamas 0.37 7556 0.005
Laos 0.35 100 0.35
Barbados 0.34 4889 0.007
Ghana 0.35 420 0.08
Burundi 0.35 230 0.15
Mali 0.33 142 0.23
Switzerland 0.33 14764 0.002
Afghanistan 0.30 163 0.18
Maurit ius 0.29 1020 0.03
Burma 0.25 188 0.13
12

S ingapore 0.24 7420 0.003

Spa in 0.22 4256 0.005
Vanuatu 0.22 529 0.04
Zaire 0.22 271 0.08
Hungary 0.23 1909 0.01
Finland 0.21 10531 0.002
Thailand 0.21 729 0.03
Hondorus 0.20 720 0.03
Republic of Korea 0.19 2032 0.009
Haiti 0.18 320 0.06
Malays ia 0.18 2033 0.009
Costa Rica 0.17 1300 0.013
Madagas car 0.17 240 0.07
Angola 0.15 560 0.03
Nicaragua 0.14 770 0.02
Morocco 0.14 512 0.03
Chile 0.12 1430 0.008
Peru 0.12 1010 0.012
Iraq 0.118 2964 0.004
Bangladesh 0.09 136 0.07
Ecuador 0.09 1160 0.008
Western Samoa 0.09 660 0.013
Panama 0.07 2100 0.003
Philippines 0.05 585 0.008

* I t i s not c l e a r whether 1 $/m3 quoted for Saudi

A r a b i a i s f o r w a t e r o b t a i n e d by d e s a l i n a t i o n
alone or includes a b s t r a c t i o n of ground water as
well. In Kuwait, however, the average cost i s
1.6 $/m3 of d e s a l i n a t e d w a t e r .

Source : W o r l d Water/WHO, The I n t e r n a t i o n a l

D r i n k i n g Water Supply and S a n i t a t i o n
D e c a d e D i r e c t o r y , E d i t i o n 3 , Thomas
Telford L t d . London, 1987.

4.2. The high cost of p r o d u c t i o n of water is not

n e c e s s a r i l y due t o a l a c k of l o c a l r e s o u r c e s .
Singapore has no r i v e r s of any s i g n i f i c a n c e , and
baTely any ground water to e x p l o i t , but i n s t e a d has
t o r e l y on h a r v e s t i n g r a i n water and importing
water from the n e i g h b o u r i n g Malaysian m a i n l a n d .
Even s o , t h e u n i t c o s t of w a t e r p r o d u c t i o n in
Singapore is one of the lowest in t h e t a b l e , t h a t
i s $DS 0 . 2 4 / m 3 . By c o n t r a s t , Cameroon w i t h
abundant r a i n f a l l and surface water has one of t h e
 13

h i g h e s t c o s t s of water p r o d u c t i o n , t h a t ie $US
2.00/m3. This phenomenon can be a t t r i b u t e d to many
c a u s e s , t h e most i m p o r t a n t of w h i c h i s t h e
e f f i c i e n t u t i l i z a t i o n of the sources a v a l a b l e ; a
major feature of Singapore Water Management i s i t s
high degree of e f f i c i e n c y .

4 . 3 . Over t h e l a s t f o r t y y e a r s t h e r e has been

an o v e r a l l r e d u c t i o n in the cost of desalination.
This has been p r e s e n t e d g r a p h i c a l l y , based on
extensive sources of information, by the U.S. Office
of Technology Assessment (Ref. 1 0 ) . The Graph,
reproduced in Figure ( 2 ) , shows that, whereas higher
oil prices affected the cost of desalinated sea water
u s i n g d i s t i l l a t i o n , t h e c o s t u s i n g RO was not
s u b s t a n t i a l l y affected. N e v e r t h e l e s s , the cost of
d i s t i l l a t i o n is decreasing at a steeper gradient

.3.0

.2.5

2.0

_1.5

11.0

0.5
-CQst of treated water::

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

Time in years

Figure 2- Approximate Desalination Costs(in 1985 $) for

Plants Producing 1 U.S.mgd(450O m3/day) to
5 U.S.mgd(23000 m3/day)

Source: Using Desalination Technologies for Water

Treatment, Background Paper, U.S.Office of
Technology Assessment, X988, P.25
14

t h a n RO and i t has been shown t o be the most

c o s t - e f f e c t i v e t e c h n o l o g y for p r o d u c i n g l a r g e
amounts, t h a t is over 1 mgd (4,500 m3 per day), of
desalinated water. When using brackish water of
s a l i n i t y up to about 10,000 mg/1, however, RO and
ED are more cost-effective, p a r t i c u l a r l y for small
communities. In f a c t , these systems have become
competitive with c o n v e n t i o n a l methods of water
treatment as shown in Figure ( 2 ) .

4.4. In c o m p a r i n g t h e c o s t of s e a water
d e s a l i n a t i o n p l a n t s for developing countries, the
most important,factors are o p e r a t i o n a l s i m p l i c i t y
and the a v a i l a b i l i t y of spare p a r t s , whether, for
i n s t a n c e , they can be manufactured l o c a l l y or in
neighbouring c o u n t r i e s . bearing t h i s in mind,
d i s t i l l a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y MSF, i s more s u i t a b l e
for d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s than RO which r e q u i r e s
more careful control of the p r e - t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s .
If t h i s i s disrupted i t can lead to fouling of the
very expensive membranes which have t o be imported
from abroad from a limited number of manufacturers.
India can manufacture membranes, but they are not
yet s u i t a b l e for d e s a l i n a t i n g sea w a t e r .

5 . 0 . REDUCING THE COST OF DESALIMATIOK

5.1. I n a t t e m p t i n g t o r e d u c e t h e c o s t of
d e s a l i n a t i o n two a s p e c t s n e e d t o b e l o o k e d a t :
f i r s t l y t h e t e c h n o l o g y a n d s e c o n d l y t h e management
of the production and conservation of desalinated
water. Technological efforts must concentrate on
reducing the c a p i t a l , operation, maintenance and,
above a l l , the energy c o s t s . Managerial e f f o r t s
must concentrate on maximising the conservation of
d e s a l i n a t e d water by r e d u c i n g unaccounted-for
water, r e u s i n g sewage e f f l u e n t and i n c r e a s i n g
storage capacities. The need t o t a c k l e both
aspects together is i l l u s t r a t e d by Table (3) which
g i v e s a break-down of the cost of producing and
distributing one metre cube of water in Kuwait in
1983/1984. I t hows that whereas the cost of energy
accounts for 65.5% of the cost of water production,
leakage r e p a i r s account for 51.75% of the cost of
water d i s t r i b u t i o n .
 15

5.2. The c a p i t a l cost of a d e s a l i n a t i o n plant i s

d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o i t s l i f e span. Technological
improvements in plant design, heat t r a n s f e r
t e c h n o l o g y , c o r r o s i o n p r o t e c t i o n and c h e m i c a l
s e l e c t i o n h a v e l e a d t o extended l i f e spans and
reduced o p e r a t i o n and maintenance c o s t s , so t h a t
the l i f e span of some MSF d e s a l i n a t i o n u n i t s may
exceed 15 y e a r s . However, t h e l i f e span of a
c o n v e n t i o n a l water t r e a t m e n t p l a n t i s s t i l l much
longer being normally t a k e n as 30 t o 40 y e a r s .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , i n n o v a t i o n s are s t i l l being made,
even with the long-established MSF p r o c e s s . Trials
in the m i d - e i g h t i e s , for i n s t a n c e , concluded that
one a n t i - s c a l i n g chemical, Belgard EVN, d e s p i t e i t s
high u n i t p r i c e was more c o s t - e f f e c t i v e than other
lower c o s t c h e m i c a l s . Other developments have
enabled p l a n t s to be operated a t lower temperatures
using a wider range of c h e m i c a l s , t h e r e b y reducing
s c a l e f o r m a t i o n , i n c r e a s i n g l o n g e v i t y , and
minimising p l a n t shut-downs for m a i n t e n a n c e
opera t i o n s .

TABLE ( 3 )
Cost of Production and Distribution
of Water in Kuwait in 1983/1984
1) Production of one m3 of Water

Cost Percentage
US$/m3
Capital cost 0.188 12.0
Operation 0.126 8.0
Fuel 1.029 65.5
Maintenance 0.063 4.0
Administrat ion
and Overheads 0.084 5.4
1.49
Mixing with
Brackish Water 0.08 5.1
Total Cost
of Production 1.57 100.0%
16

2) Distribution of one m3 of Water

Capital Cost 0.156 18.7

Consumers Services 0.192 23.1
Admini stration
and Overheads 0.054 6.5
Leakage repairs 0.431 51.7

Total cost
of Distribution 0.833 100.0%
Total cost of 2.403 $/m3
Production and
Distribution

S o u r c e : - M i n i s t r y of W a t e r and Electricity,
Proceedings of Seminar on Water Resources
i n t h e Arab World and Extending t h e i r
U t i l i z a t i o n in the Arab World ( A r a b i c ) ,
Kuwait (1986) 338-359.

Note:- F i g u r e s used a r e converted from cost of

100 0 Imp. Gal. in KD.

1 KD = 3.5 US$

5.3. One t e c h n o l o g i c a l approach i s t o t r y t o use

a l t e r n a t i v e e n e r g y s o u r c e s such as s o l a r and
nuclear energy. Saudi Arabia has a l r e a d y
e s t a b l i s h e d the Solar Village north of Riyadh (Ref.
13) while I s r a e l has a l r e a d y used n u c l e a r energy
f o r d e s a l i n a t i o n ( R e f . 1 0 ) , but v e r y l i t t l e
information i s available about the outcome. Energy
r e q u i r e m e n t s h a v e , however, been reduced for many
y e a r s by u s i n g a d u a l s y s t e m of s e a w a t e r
d e s a l i n a t i o n and e l e c t r i c i t y g e n e r a t i o n r e s u l t i n g
in a cost reduction of about 25% in comparison with
s e p a r a t e systems. One of the disadvantages i s that
the two systems are interdependent and thus tend t o
s u f f e r s u f f e r from a lack of f l e x i b i l i t y . Excess
e l e c t r i c i t y cannot be s t o r e d and excess water can
only be s t o r e d for l i m i t e d periods since extensive
s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y r e s e r v o i r s a r e expensive and i t
may develop odour. Excess water may, however, be
produced b e c a u s e , t y p i c a l l y , t r e a t m e n t and
d e s a l i n a t i o n p l a n t s have been designed to meet
 17

maximum demand, which may exceed average demand by

a f a c t o r ranging from 1.3 t o 2.0 or even h i g h e r ,
and also to meet f u t u r e p e a k demands.
Consequently, a l a r g e investment in peak capacity
may be r a r e l y u t i l i z e d .

5.4. For fuller u t i l i z a t i o n of desalinated water, and

hence f u r t h e r cost reduction, greater water storage
capacity is required. To this end, Aquifer Storage
Recovery (ASR) could be used. This is a relatively new
system which has been developed and used successfully
in the USA to improve the use of water supply and water
treatment f a c i l i t i e s . It involves the use of injection
wells for the underground storage of treated drinking
water in a suitable aquifer when the capacity of water
supply f a c i l i t i e s exceeds the demand and i t s subsequent
recovery from the same well to meet s e a s o n a l , peak,
emergency or long term demands. Figure (3), ASR may be
used to store surplus water in this way. When e l e c t r i c i t y

Monthly
Water
Demand
Water Treatment(or
Desalination) Plant
Capacity
Above
Average

Average

Below
Average

Figure 3 - Typical Aquifer Storage Recovery

Operating Schedule
Source: R.D.G. Pyne, Aquifer Storage Recovery:
A New Water Supply and Ground Water
Recharge Alternative, CH2 HILL, Inc,
Consulting Engineers USA, Post 1985,
Particulars N.A.
18

i s i n low demand i t can be u s e d t o inject

desalinated water into the a q u i f e r . Such seasonal
storage may reach m i l l i o n s of cubic metres through
a single well, compared t o a few hundred thousand
c u b i c m e t r e s s t o r e d in c o n v e n t i o n a l ground or
elevated storage tanks to meet demand v a r i a t i o n s .

5.5. By making more e f f i c i e n t use of e x i s t i n g

water supply s y s t e m s , i n c l u d i n g d e s a l i n a t i o n
p l a n t s , ASR can reduce capital costs by as such as
50% (Ref. 14). Treatment of the recovered water i s
g e n e r a l l y u n n e c e s s a r y a p a r t from d i s i n f e c t i o n .
Should brackish water be already p r e s e n t in the
s t o r a g e a q u i f e r i t may be p o s s i b l e to use wells
with horizontal screens to spread the d e s a l i n a t e d
w a t e r over i t . The technology for c o n s t r u c t i n g
such wells has developed e x t e n s i v e l y and they can
be far more e f f i c i e n t for r a p i d aquifer recharge
than ordinary tube wells (Ref. 15, 16, 17 and 18).

5.6. Maximising the u t i l i z a t i o n of available water

is the f i r s t l i n e of a t t a c k when r e s o u r c e s a r e
scarce or water i s expensively obtained. Records
for u n a c c o u n t e d - f o r w a t e r in o i l - p r o d u c i n g
c o u n t r i e s of the Middle East a r e very hard to
obtain, but there is evidence that they are in the
region of 30% to 35% of the water produced. They
indicate the amount of water produced but not paid
for. There are two main types of losses included
in unaccounted-for water. The f i r s t are f i n a n c i a l
in t h a t the water i s used but i s not paid for, as
in f i r e f i g h t i n g , w a t e r i n g p a r k s , f a u l t y water
meters and i n e f f i c i e n t t a r i f f collection e t c . The
second type are actual in t h a t the water i s wasted
t h r o u g h t h e l e a k a g e of p i p e s , m a i n t e n a n c e
operations and the overflow of water t a n k s . In
i n d u s t r i a l countries unaccounted-for water can vary
from as l i t t l e as 2% to 40% or even more (Ref. 1 9 ) ,
but since the value of the water may be very low,
i t does not encourage e x t e n s i v e r e n o v a t i o n and
r e p a i r s to the d i s t r i b u t i o n network. On the other
hand, when the cost of water i s very high, i t i s
e s s e n t i a l to determine the unaccounted-for water
and t o r e d u c e i t by c a r r y i n g o u t r e p a i r s or
introducing improvements to the distribution system
or the management procedure.
 19

5.7. The re-use of sewage effluent is an important

source of water in a r i d r e g i o n s and i t should
always be considered when desalination is adopted.
A great deal of doubt has been g e n e r a t e d with
r e g a r d t o i t s impact on h e a l t h , w h i l e s o c i a l
p r e s s u r e s and customs have c o n s t i t u t e d further
b a r r i e r s against i t s u t i l i z a t i o n . This has led to
the adoption of s o p h i s t i c a t e d sewage t r e a t m e n t
f a c i l i t i e s which a r e both extremely costly and
d i f f i c u l t to operate and m a i n t a i n . The p r e s e n t
treatment of sewage in Kuwait and Saudi Arabia, for
example, provides a safety margin much l a r g e r than
i s j u s t i f i e d by e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e and
g r e a t e r than can be a f f o r d e d by most c o u n t r i e s
(Ref. 2 0 ) . Only t h i s year, WHO has clearly stated
t h a t t e r t i a r y treatment i s not n e c e s s a r y in any
c o u n t r y and a l s o t h a t " i n a r i d and s e m i - a r i d
regions e s p e c i a l l y and a l s o in other a r e a s , i t is
imperative t h a t r e - u s e be taken i n t o account as a
f e a s i b l e o p t i o n for the d i s p o s a l of c o l l e c t e d
w a s t e w a t e r s r a t h e r than as something t h a t i s
possible only under exceptional c o n d i t i o n s " (Ref.
21).

5.8. WHO's new approach g r e a t l y widens the scope

f o r r e - u s i n g sewage e f f l u e n t e s p e c i a l l y in
countries where desalination is used. Not only can
the cost of treatment be minimised but u t i l i s a t i o n
can be maximised by recharging ground-water. This
i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t when brackish ground
water, used for blending with desalinated water, is
being d e p l e t e d . The a r t i f i c i a l recharge of sewage
effluent can provide major b e n e f i t s : improving the
q u a l i t y of the e f f l u e n t and, if recharging wells
are used, reducing evaporation l o s s e s .

6.0. DEVELOPMENT OF DESALINATION TECHNOLOGY

6.1. The technology of d e s a l i n a t i o n expanded in
unusual circumstances with demand mainly limited to
a c e r t a i n zone where t h e o i l boom made money
readily available. The s u b s e q u e n t r e l a t i v e
r e c e s s i o n s i n t h e o i l - p r o d u c i n g c o u n t r i e s had
r e p e r c u s s i o n s on the manufacturing industry which,
having expanded r a p i d l y , had t o s h r i n k f a s t . This
a f f e c t e d the a v a i l a b i l i t y of funds for research and
development s i n c e , s u r p r i s i n g l y , during f o r t y years
20

of d e s a l i n a t i o n , progress has depended mainly on

research c a r r i e d out by manufactures. Industrial
c o u n t r i e s , a p a r t from the USA, have shown l i t t l e
interest i n a l l o c a t i n g funds t o d e v e l o p a
technology which they r e g a r d as h a v i n g l i t t l e
importance for furthering their economic prospects.
The USA was a t t r a c t e d by t h e i n d u s t r y in t h e
s i x t i e s , but l o s t i n t e r e s t in the e i g h t i e s ,
allocating no more than a few m i l l i o n d o l l a r s per
y e a r for r e s e a r c h (Ref. 1 0 ) . By c o n t r a s t , in a
field regarded as v i t a l l y i m p o r t a n t , the r e d u c t i o n
of o i l c o n s u m p t i o n , t h e i n d u s t r i a l countries
concentrated on r e s e a r c h and reduced consumption
s i g n i f i c a n t l y w i t h i n a few years of o i l p r i c e s
being i n c r e a s e d .

6.2. Compared with conventional water treatment

i n d u s t r i e s , d e s a l i n a t i o n t e n d s t o have been a
province l i m i t e d t o i n t e r e s t e d s p e c i a l i s t s . The
t o p i c h a s , m o r e o v e r , not been widely taught a t
Universities. Some r e s e a r c h c e n t r e s have been
e s t a b l i s h e d by oil-producing countries, such as the
Water Resources Development Centre in Kuwait and
the Saline Water Conversion Corporation in Saudi
Arabia which has r e c e n t l y e s t a b l i s h e d a r e s e a r c h ,
development and t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t e in J u b a i l .
C l e a r l y , t o avoid d u p l i c a t i o n of research and t o
c o - o r d i n a t e development, an i n s t i t u t i o n a l set-up
needs to be established. In the l a t e s e v e n t i e s an
Arab Centre for desalination of water was discussed
during the Arab World-Europe dialogue conducted
t h e n , but no agreement was r e a c h e d (Ref. 2 2 ) .
Today, the timing of such a venture may be more
a p p r o p r i a t e since t h e r e i s an increasing number of
highly q u a l i f i e d personnel in the o i l - p r o d u c i n g
countries.

7.0. IHTERHATIOHAL IHSTITUTIOHAL

7.1. The research carried out by the existing
i n s t i t u t i o n a l set-ups in the major oil-producing
countries has led to improvements in manufacturing
standards, particularly with regard to protection
against corrosion, optimum operating procedures,
and the use of chemicals. The knowledge of such
innovations has, however, been confined mainly to
the dialogue between manufacturers and researchers
 21

who have used i t to update technical specifications

(Ref. 12). Evidently, there is a need for a l l the
a v a i l a b l e experience to be co-ordinated so that
improvements can be s u g g e s t e d in both t h e
technology of desalination and the management of
desalinated water. This could be effected by an
i n t e r n a t i o n a l s e t - u p r e l y i n g b a s i c a l l y on the
e x p e r i e n c e a v a i l a b l e in t h e o i l - p r o d u c i n g
countries. Substantial financial backing would be
needed since no fund has so far been allocated for
such research and development. The organization
could have the following objectives:

1. Collection of data -from all desalination plants

in the region, with p a r t i c u l a r regard to the
quality of feed water and product water, energy
consumption, performance, main c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
of o p e r a t i o n and maintenance and r e l a t i v e
advantages and d i s a d v a n t a g e s of d i f f e r e n t
procedures.

2. Identification of promising f i e l d s of research

e.g. construction materials, process chemicals,
alternative energy, p a r t i c u l a r l y solar energy
and nuclear power, or the use and/or extraction
of minerals from b r i n e .

3. Provision of advice by drawing up a roster of

specialists to review designs and a l t e r n a t i v e
technologies.

A. C o - o r d i n a t i o n of the above a c t i v i t i e s by
contacts with the following organizations:

A. Governmental Institutions
a) to subsidise major research together with
i n d u s t r i a l n a t i o n s t o a c c e l e r a t e the
development of promising technology.

b) t o a s s e s s t h e e c o n o m i c s of u s i n g
d e s a l i n a t i o n as part of comprehensive
water supply schemes that optimise plant
o p e r a t i o n , reduce unaccounted-for water,
increase storage capacity, use aquifer
r e c h a r g e r e c o v e r y , and maximise the
re-use of sewage e f f l u e n t .
 22

c) to study the optimum conjunctive use of

water, especially in arid zones i.e.
desalinated water, brackish water, and
sewage effluent.

B. Academic Institutions

a) to identify i n s t i t u t i o n s i n t e r e s t e d in
promoting research r e 1 at e d to
desalination.

b) to subsidise research

c) to establish prizes for research so as to

attract international talent to
p a r t i c i p a t e more a c t i v e l y in the
development of d e s a l i n a t i o n .

d) to propose d e s a l i n a t i o n s y l l a b i to be
included in u n i v e r s i t y courses.

C. Manufacturing Industry

a) to e s t a b l i s h standard for a l l materials

and replacement p a r t s .

b) to e s t a b l i s h f a c t o r i e s in the region or
in o t h e r d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s w i t h
greater i n d u s t r i a l c a p a b i l i t i e s .

8.0. COSCLUSIOK

8.1. The demand f o r d e s a l i n a t i o n i s expected t o

i n c r e a s e as t h e demand for water grows i n a r e a s
where t h e p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e i s s u b s t a n t i a l and
n a t u r a l w a t e r r e s o u r c e s a r e b o t h l i m i t e d and
subject to o v e r - u t i l i s a t i o n leading to t h e i r
d e p l e t i o n or q u a l i t y d e t e r i o r a t i o n . Also,
d e s a l i n a t i o n p r o v i d e s a r e l i a b l e and i n d e p e n d e n t
source of w a t e r which h a s s t r a t e g i c advantages in
comparison with r e l i a n c e on outside w a t e r r e s o u r c e s
which r e q u i r e s a considerable investment, prolonged
planning, besides the difficulties of
i m p l e m e n t a t i o n and o p e r a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s .

8.2. D e s a l i n a t i o n h a s imposed i t s e l f on some

d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s i n s p i t e of i t s high c o s t .
 23

However, the cost has been reduced s u b s t a n t i a l l y

and with improvements in technology and management
in the d e s a l i n a t i o n i n d u s t r y , i t is possible that
the c o s t of producing d e s a l i n a t e d water w i l l
compare i n c r e a s i n g l y favourably with conventional
means of water production, particularly in arid and
semi-arid regions as their natural resources become
depleted. The exhaustive u t i l i z a t i o n of water
s o u r c e s i n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s could lead
eventually to a serious s i t u a t i o n t h a t may r e s u l t
in confrontation among neighbouring c o u n t r i e s .

8.3. Desalination as a v i a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e water

source should be evaluated in the light of improved
u t i l i z a t i o n of the whole water supply system.
Major elements in this respect are the reduction of
u n a c c o u n t e d - f o r w a t e r , the r e - u s e of sewage
e f f l u e n t and the i n c r e a s e in s t o r a g e capacity
r e s u l t i n g from using a q u i f e r s t o r a g e r e c o v e r y .
Another prime component of such an assessment i s
the dual system of d e s a l i n a t i o n and e l e c t r i c i t y
generation.

8.4. L i t t l e f i n a n c i a l support has been a l l o c a t e d

f o r major r e s e a r c h i n t o d e s a l i n a t i o n so t h a t
research has relied mainly on the manufacturers who
have been a t the mercy of a f l u c t u a t i n g market.
Hence t h e i m p o r t a n c e of e s t a b l i s h i n g an
i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e s e a r c h set-up with s u b s t a n t i a l
f i n a n c i a l backing to look i n t o the t e c h n i c a l and
managerial f a c t o r s involved in the desalination of
sea water in order to develop i t as a r e l i a b l e
source of water that can cater for the increasing
demand in arid and semi-arid r e g i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y
those with modest incomes.

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