Professional Documents
Culture Documents
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
https://about.jstor.org/terms
This content downloaded from 144.122.186.130 on Sat, 24 Nov 2018 11:47:58 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
4
Maurice Jackson
Department of Sociology
University of California, Riverside
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
Max Weber is well known for his general theory of social action
specific theories of stratification, organizations, authority, power, and r
Yet far less is known about his treatment of ethnicity. Fortunately, it is
to gather a framework for interpreting his theory of ethnicity from a
translated works (Weber, 1946; 1947; 1949; 19&; 1971; 1973; and
secondary sources (Mannesse, 1967) and (Hechter, 1976). This pap
heavily on these sources.
This study is an analysis of the Weberian theory of ethnicity in terms
cerns that an adequate theory of race and ethnicity must address. Th
divided into those matters that 1) relate to racial and ethnic groups,
their relationships to other groups, and 3) provide directions foF fur
nent research. 1) With regard to the study of groups, first of all, it is n
to define racial and ethnic groups and, secondly, distinguish them f
groups. Third, the origin and bases of the groups must be explaine
the theory of race and ethnic groups must be related to an explicit
systematic theory of social behavior, in this case social action. Fifth, the
should explain how the groups engage in action.
2) Race and ethnic relations address a different set of concerns. F
theory should specify the nature of the relationships. Second, it mu
This content downloaded from 144.122.186.130 on Sat, 24 Nov 2018 11:47:58 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
5
the persistence of the relationships. Third, it must account for the way they
change.
3) The theory should provide directives for research pertaining to it.
These theoretical concerns of Weber can serve as guidelines for the develop
ment of theories of race and ethnic relations. At the same time, they can serve
as criteria for evaluating current theories. For example, the popular theories in
race and ethnic relations do not relate to explicit general theories of human ac
tion. This, then, is an area that requires much attention if our knowledge of
these groups is to be enhanced significantly.
Definitions of Ethnicity
This content downloaded from 144.122.186.130 on Sat, 24 Nov 2018 11:47:58 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
6
Despres (1975), and Hoetnik (1975); emerging, Yancey et al. (1976); belonging
and pride, Glazer and Moynihan (1975); felt consciousness of kind, Bell (1974);
self identification, Enloe (1973); feelings of belonging, Woods (1956); sense of
identification, Davis (1978); sense of peoplehood, Gordon (1964); self
ascription, Barth (1969); and sentiments based on culture, Hechter (1974).
A final few definitions combine past and present emphasis: belonging
together by virtue of common descent, Francis (1976); identification and sense
of history, Parsons (1975); perceived alike by self and others because of
common ancestry—real or imaginary, Shibutani and Kwan (1965); shared
history and physical traits, Nie et al. (1974) associations; identification with
common origins, Haller (1973); and descent by birth formed by structure of ex
change of marriage, goods and services, and messages between groups, Keyes
(1976).
According to Weber (1968), what is important in ethnicity is the belief in, and
not the fact of, common descent. After all, commonality of descent is impossi
ble to determine, precisely, because parents, grandparents and other ancestors
have different lines of descent and also because people of the same descent may
identify themselves differently. These difficulties have not deterred people from
deciding who are their most important ancestors. For instance, in the United
States there are simple rules for making the decisions about one's ancestors,
e.g. the father's line of descent is given priority over that of the mother while
any amount of black blood is thought to make one black. These social defini
tions, then, become matters of social belief. While they do not solve the dif
ficult problem posed by the fact that immediate lines of descent are dual, and
that more distant lines of descent are multiple, they provide rules to follow.
This brings us to another major feature of ethnic groups. Weber asserted that
they are not groups in the strict sense of the word and they are not com
munities, which means that they are not composed of individuals engaged in
social action or social interaction. Ethnicity is a presumed identity among ac
tors which represents a potential for group formation, communal relations, and
social action. Put another way, Weber thought ethnicity, belief in common des
cent, represents categories of individuals not individuals or groups in action. To
the extent that ethnicity is a potential, it can be reactivated time and time again,
if certain conditions prevail. Modern sociologists, following Weber, would be
more involved in trying to determine the conditions under which ethnicity does
or does not transform into action, rather than in debating whether ethnicity is
new and emergent, or persistent and enduring.
This content downloaded from 144.122.186.130 on Sat, 24 Nov 2018 11:47:58 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
7
This content downloaded from 144.122.186.130 on Sat, 24 Nov 2018 11:47:58 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
8
whether sexual relationships between groups are preferred or rare, are perma
nent or temporary and whether intermarriage does or does not occur. What
makes physical similarity or contrast important is that it is recognized as
important.
In the United States, in the early 1900s, Weber observed that Indians had
greater esteem than blacks. He reasoned that it was not due to the greater
cultural achievement of Indians or to less physical differences, or less physical
repulsion to them. The great numbers of mUlattoes was evidence to him that
repulsion due to physical characteristics could not be true. As an example, the
major reason for the lesser esteem of blacks, he concluded, was that they had
been slaves and were disliked because of "the feudal contempt" held by white
Americans for the hard physical labor performed by slaves (Weber, 1946).
Weber also felt that a variety of customs had generated the feeling of com
mon descent. Among these are: shared political memories, a persistent attach
ment to old cult-communities, the continuing strength of kinship ties and other
groups (shared by old and new communities), and other enduring relationships
with a continuing emotional basis (Weber, 1978:365).
Weber was of the opinion that any small and minor differences in customs
(language, religion, clothing, housing and so on) could become the bases of
ethnicity. As a matter of fact, he pointed out that what matters in the develop
ment of ethnicity is "precisely those things which may appear to be of only
minor social importance" (Weber, 1978:366).
Common and shared customs are not more important than different customs
in creating ethnicity. For instance, he claimed that shared language and ritual,
based on shared religion, played an exceptional part in "creating feelings of
ethnic affinity" (Weber, 1978:366). Despite these hypotheses, he also argued
that marked differences in dialect and religion do not rule out feelings of com
mon ethnicity. In fact, he concluded that striking differences in economic life
also play a part in creating feelings of ethnic identity.
On a final point, Weber spoke directly about the tenacity of ethnicity and its
relative independence from factors which produce it. While he felt that among
communities it is primarily the political communities which inspire the belief in
ethnic identity, the latter may survive the downfall of the community.
This content downloaded from 144.122.186.130 on Sat, 24 Nov 2018 11:47:58 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
9
This content downloaded from 144.122.186.130 on Sat, 24 Nov 2018 11:47:58 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
10
explanations are based implicitly upon actors who are partners to the inter
action or exchange. If so, it is necessary to be explicit about the character of
each partner, especially if the interaction or exchange is not reciprocal.
Therefore, the sociological analyst is logically forced into a dissection of the ac
tion of the individual actor, which, again, is the Weberian unit of study. The
transition into psychology which is possible here is avoided by the development
of typical action and actors, through the construction of ideal types. This
makes the individual case an instance of a type rather than a unique
phenomenon.
Weber also distinguished between rational social action (wertrational and
zweckrational) and irrational social action (affectual and traditional). One type
of rational action, wertrational action, refers to an orientation to an absolute
value which involves the conscious formulation of the values and planned at
tempts to realize that value. Zweckrational action is an orientation which
employs appropriate means to an end, which have been consciously weighed
against others. Affectual and traditional action are irrational. Affective action
stresses an orientation based on emotional impulses. Finally, traditional social
action, the most important for the purposes of this paper, is an orientation
based on habituation and settled custom.
Many scholars have stressed Weber's great concern with rationality.
However, he was quite clearly interested in both rational and irrational social
action. For instance, he said:
This content downloaded from 144.122.186.130 on Sat, 24 Nov 2018 11:47:58 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
11
Hence, for example, as certain activities such as hostilities with another society
become a matter of concern to the entire society, ethnic distinctions between
groups become suspended as the entire society engages in political and
communal action.
Weber did say that it is difficult to determine, in the individual case, what in
fluence specific ethnic factors have on the formation of communities. (Weber,
1968) Further, the content of communal action on an ethnic basis is indefinite
or, put another way, belief in common descent, when it is transformed into
social action, results in substantively indefinite communal action.
Not only this, but ethnically conditioned action is very complex
This content downloaded from 144.122.186.130 on Sat, 24 Nov 2018 11:47:58 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
12
Having given Weber's treatment of racial and ethnic groups, we now turn to
his answers to the three momentous questions that have formed the core in
terest of this area of study. What is the basic relationship between racial and
ethnic minority groups and the majority group? Why do these relationships
persist? Can the relationships be changed? If so, how does change occur?
Part of understanding racial and ethnic minority groups involves their rela
tionship to dominant groups in the society. Weber saw ethnic groups as specia
once within the status order of society, often having a caste relationship wit
more powerful groups. The status order, and the class and party orders are
components of the stratification system, the distribution of power within
society.
By way of understanding the caste relationship it is necessary to discuss status
groups within the status order. The fates of members of these groups are deter
mined by a specific, positive or negative social estimation of honor (Weber
1947:187). The social honor is expressed in the expectation that a specific style
of life can be found among everyone who aspires to the same social circle. This
contrasts with classes whose members have common economic interests in
goods and opportunities, and parties whose members seek social power.
Although ethnic groups are also found within the status order they differ
from status groups in normally not being communities. There is, however, a
similarity. Ethnic group members also have a sense of honor which is based on
a belief in their own excellence. Not only that but as long as ethnic relations are
horizontal each ethnic group can "consider its own status as the highest"
(Weber, 1946:189). Understanding this view would have alerted modern
sociologists to the fact that members of American racial and ethnic groups
possess dignified views of themselves. Otherwise how could blacks, for
This content downloaded from 144.122.186.130 on Sat, 24 Nov 2018 11:47:58 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
13
example, have remained motivated, and, often, very highly motivated despite
living in very difficult situations.
The relationship of status groups is one in which more powerful groups usurp
or monopolize status honor. When monopolization becomes more or less com
plete, the ethnic group becomes a caste, the usual form of ethnic community.
At this point, the sanctioning of ethnic group members by disapproval is re
placed by legal sanctioning enforced by a staff of people. Status distinctions,
Weber said, become guaranteed by rituals or religious sanctions as well as by
conventions and laws. All physical contact with a member of a caste seen as in
ferior is considered a matter of ritual impurity by the 'superior' caste which
must be cleansed by a religious act. (Weber 1947:188-189)
In short, castes tend to occur only where there are underlying ethnic dif
ferences. The members of these ethnic communities, which Eire closed to out
siders, believe in blood relationships and exclude exogamous marriages and
social intercourse.
Yet ethnic segregation is not the same as status segregation transformed into
a caste. Ethnically segregated groups co-exist in a state of mutual repulsion and
disdain. Yet each considers its honor the highest. The caste structure results in
subordination of one group and a greater sense of honor in the privileged
group. However, even this does not mean an absence of social honor among
negatively privileged groups. Only the bases differ.
By including ethnic groups within the status order, Weber implied that
monopolization of honor and styles of life occurs before economic exploita
tion. He did not assume as proponents of contact theory do that subordination
of racial and ethnic minority groups follows competition over scarce resources.
Instead, social degradation and humiliation of groups of independent people
with honor occur first. Following this, the groups are subordinated, making
economic exploitation and political oppression possible.
The most important question, variously phrased, in the study of race and
ethnicity has been and is: how are the relationships between racial and ethnic
minorities and the majority group maintained? Why are minorities subor
dinate? Different? Why can they not be like other people? Various answers
have been given to this question ranging from responsible minority
characteristics such as intelligence, personality, and family life to responsible
majority characteristics such as prejudice, authoritarianism, racism, self pro
tection, capitalism, and colonial orientations. Weber's answer, derived from
This content downloaded from 144.122.186.130 on Sat, 24 Nov 2018 11:47:58 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
14
his translated works, is remarkable in that it runs counter to the long estab
lished tradition in sociology and other social sciences, based on literally
thousands of studies. While the typical explanations tend to be negative
Weber's is positive.
He reasoned that social order exists because members of the order grant it
legitimacy, see it as moral, just, and right. In his view, there are two types of
order based on different authority structures, which relate back to social ac
tion. These are rational and traditional orders that are characterized by rational
and traditional authority and action respectively. Authority is the probability
that commands will be obeyed by followers because they believe that the com
mands are legitimate. Traditional authority is characterized by a belief in the
legitimacy of customs and traditions; rational authority by a belief in the
legitimacy of rules.
Ethnicity, an irrational phenomenon, typically is found in traditional orders.
Yet it can occur within a rational order to the extent the order is experiencing a
breakdown of social relationships and a high degree of social mobility.
So, race and ethnic relations, part of the order of society, are maintained
because the followers of the traditional authority structure believe they are
legitimate not because of deficiencies within either minority or majority groups.
The relationships have endured a sufficiently long time so that they are typically
believed to be right.
These relationships can also be maintained in a rational organized system to
the extent there is a high degree of social and geographical mobility. Again the
relationships are thought to be legitimate the way they are.'
This content downloaded from 144.122.186.130 on Sat, 24 Nov 2018 11:47:58 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
15
RESEARCH DIRECTIVES
This content downloaded from 144.122.186.130 on Sat, 24 Nov 2018 11:47:58 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
16
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
This content downloaded from 144.122.186.130 on Sat, 24 Nov 2018 11:47:58 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
17
This content downloaded from 144.122.186.130 on Sat, 24 Nov 2018 11:47:58 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
18
This content downloaded from 144.122.186.130 on Sat, 24 Nov 2018 11:47:58 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms