PART II- Metal-casting Processes and

Equipment
Chapter 11: Metal-Casting Processes
and Equipment.
Manufacturing systems
Beatriz Achiaga
Eduardo Garcia
Alberto Murillo

Manufacturing systems 1
FUNDAMENTALS SOLIDIFICATION OF METALS

FIGURE 11.1 (a) Typical gray-iron castings used in automobiles, including the transmission valve body (left)
and the hub rotor with disk-brake cylinder (front). Source: Courtesy of Central Foundry Division of General
Motors Corporation. (b) Die-cast magnesium housing for the Olympus E-3 camera;
Source: Courtesy of Olympus Inc. (c) A cast transmission housing. (d) Cast aluminum impellers for automotive
turbochargers. Source: (c) and (d) Courtesy of American Foundry Society.

Manufacturing systems 2
INDEX

1. Introduction
2. Expendable-Mold and Permanent-Pattern Casting Processes
3. Expendable-Mold and Expendable-Pattern Casting Processes
4. Permanent-Mold Casting Processes
5. Casting Techniques for Single-crystal Components
6. Melting practice and furnaces

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INDEX

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2.1 - INTRODUCTION

When did it
start?

What metal?

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2.1 - INTRODUCTION

Parts and components made by casting

• Monoblock engine
• Crankshafts
• Automotive components
• Agricultural machinery - railway
• Pipelines
• Electrical equipment
• Large Hydraulic Turbine Components
• Jewelry

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2.1 - INTRODUCTION

CURRENT TRENDS

• Automation
• Machinery
• Control processes

• Quality
• Superficial
• Dimensional

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2.1 - INTRODUCTION

CLASSIFICATION
• Expendable molds
• Mold: sand, ceramic, plaster, ... + binder (e.g.: 90% sand, 7% clay, 3% water)
• Reusable or expendable pattern

• Permanent molds
• Metal Mold = Molding
• Cooling speed
• Remove the part from the mold

• Composite Molds
• At least two materials (sand, graphite, metal)
• It has a expendable part and a permanent part

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2.1 - INTRODUCTION

CLASSIFICATION

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2.1 - INTRODUCTION

CHARACTERISTICS

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 2.2 EXPENDABLE MOLD AND PERMANENT PATTERN CASTING
PROCESSES

• Sand Casting
• Shell Molding
• Plaster Mold Casting
• Ceramic Mold Casting

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2.2.1 SAND CASTING

SAND CASTING PROCESS

Example

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2.2.1 SAND CASTING

Sand Mold Quality Factors

• RESISTANCE
• Maintain geometry Grain shape
Binding adhesive capacity
• Resist erosion
• PERMEABILITY
• Evacuation of gases and hot air

• THERMAL STABILITY
• Resist cracking and buckling of the mould when in contact with molten metal

• COLLAPSIBILITY
• Allow material shrinkage

• REUSE

Some of these factors are incompatible

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2.2.1 SAND CASTING

TYPES OF MOULDS
• GREEN MOLDING SAND Sand + Clay + Water
• Durability for most parts
• Good collapsibility
• Good permeability
• Easy to reuse
• Inexpensive and widespread
• Defects due to humidity

• SKIN-DRIED method
• Increases resistance to green sand
• Intermediate collapsibility
• Higher strength Large parts

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2.2.1 SAND CASTING

TYPES OF MOLDS

• COLD BOX MOULD - COLD SETTING

• Organic or inorganic binders
• Chemically bonding of grains - dry curing - Hardening at room temperature
• Greater precision
• Higher cost

• MOULDING OVEN DRIED- BAKING

• They use organic binders
• Increases endurance
• Minor collapsibility (hot breakage)
• Improved casting dimensional accuracy
• More expensive and less production (oven time)
• Medium-large parts

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2.2.1 SAND CASTING

PARTS OF SAND MOLDS

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2.2.1 SAND CASTING

MODELS
• Material: wood, plastic, metal. (dimensional accuracy, number of pieces,...)
• Types:
− One-piece models (loose or solid) simple, low production, wood.
− Split models
− Bipartite plate models (moulding machines, large batches, small parts)
− 3D Printing - Rapid Prototyping

• Design (Theme 3)

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2.2.1 SAND CASTING

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2.2.1 SAND CASTING

CORES
• Same characteristics as the mold (resistance, collapsibility, permeability, heat
resistance)  SAND
• Fixed by means of chaplets: location and support
• They are manufactured in a similar way to sand moulds.

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2.2.1 SAND CASTING

CORES

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2.2.1 SAND CASTING

SAND CASTING MACHINES

• Eliminate manual labor
• Controlled mold handling (Repeatability)
• Controlled compaction pressure
• Production and Quality

1. Vertical Flaskless Molding

2. Sandslingers
3. Impact Molding
4. Vacuum Molding

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2.2.1 SAND CASTING

SAND CASTING MACHINES

1. Vertical Flaskless Molding (Video)
• Vertical partition line
• Without molding box

a) The sand is compressed between the two halves of the mould.

b) The assembled moulds pass along an assembly line for casting.
c) Picture of vertical molding line without box

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2.2.1 SAND CASTING

SAND CASTING MACHINES

2. The Sand Throwers

• High velocity sand throwing
• Large moulding boxes
3. Impact Molding
• Immediate sand compaction
• Controlled explosion, pressurized gas release

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2.2.1 SAND CASTING

SAND CASTING MACHINES

4. Vacuum Molding
• Vacuum sand compaction (without binder)
• No exit angles required
• Low tooling cost and high quality parts

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 2.2 EXPENDABLE MOLD AND PERMANENT PATTERN CASTING
PROCESSES

• Sand Casting
• Shell Molding
• Plaster Mold Casting
• Ceramic Mold Casting

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2.2.1 SHELL MOLDING

DESCRIPTION OF THE PROCESS (Video 1) (Video 2) (Video 3)

• Heat (175-370ºC)
• Separating agent.
• Set model in box.
• Sand (very fine*) + binder
(thermosetting resin).
• Generation of the coating
(flipping or throwing).
• Oven curing of resin.
• Thickness control (5 – 10
mm) and resistance - time.
• Extraction of the shell, the
two parts are put together
and placed in a box for
casting.

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2.2.1 SHELL MOULDING

PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS

• Fine Sand:
• Improved dimensional tolerances and surface finish
• Low permeability  gas entrapment defects  Venting
• "Low cost" finishing operations, labor, and easy automation
• Precision for mechanical parts: gears, connecting rods, cylinder heads

• High precision molding cores

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 2.2 EXPENDABLE MOLD AND PERMANENT PATTERN CASTING
PROCESSES

• Sand Casting
• Shell Molding
• Plaster Mold Casting
precision castings
• Ceramic Mold Casting
...Lost wax and foam...

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2.2.1 CASTING IN PLASTER MOLDS

PROCESS DESCRIPTION (Video)

• Gypsum (with additives) + Water = Slurry
• Pouring the slurry over the mould
• After 15 min mold hardens, mold is removed
• Drying (120 - 260°C)
• Assembly of the two parts of the mold and pouring of the molten metal (vacuum or pressure).

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2.2.1 CASTING IN PLASTER MOLDS

PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS

• High precision (dimensional and surface finish)

• Small parts (125 - 250 gr): gears, locks, valves, tools, ...
• Low conductivity gypsum slows cooling  uniform grain
• Gypsum Permeability  
− Pressure or Vacuum
− Antioch process: dehydration autoclave 6-12h + hydration air 14h
− Gypsum Foams (air bubbles)
• Pattern: aluminium, thermosetting plastics, brass or Zn alloys. Wood NO
• Max. mould temperature plaster = 1200°C Aluminium, Magnesium, Zn and Cu Alloys

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2.2.1 CERAMIC MOLD CASTING

PROCESS DESCRIPTION
• Similar to plaster molding but using refractory materials
• Suspension with ZrSiO4, Aluminium Oxide, Fused Si
• Wooden or metallic pattern
• Forming and removal of the mold
• Burning of volatile material and baking
• Assembly of the two parts of the mould and pouring of the molten metal (vacuum or pressure).

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2.2.1 CERAMIC MOLD CASTING

PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS
•  Quality (dimensions and finish) but €€€€€€€
• High Temperature (ferrous alloys and other alloys Tmelt)
• Up to 700 kg (wide range of geometries and sizes)
• Impellers, cutting tools for machining, molds for plastics

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2.3 EXPENDABLE PATTERN MOLD CASTING PROCESSES

1. Evaporative-pattern/Lost foam casting

2. Investment/Lost wax casting

They use one mold and one pattern for each casting.
Pistons, engine monoblocks, crankshafts, braking components, manifolds, machine bases, etc.

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2.3 EXPENDABLE PATTERN MOLD CASTING PROCESSES

EVAPORATIVE-PATTERN CASTING - LOST FOAM

• PS model that evaporates on contact with molten metal. Video1, Video2, Video3
− PS particles in a mold (aluminium).
− PS expands to fill the mold - Additional heat to melt the particles together.
− Extraction and coating of the PS model with refractory material.
− Molding box: pattern and fine-grain sand (additional strength)
− Pouring the molten metal and vaporisation of the model.

Video3 at home

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2.3 EXPENDABLE PATTERN MOLD CASTING PROCESSES

EVAPORATIVE-PATTERN CASTING - LOST FOAM

Lost Foam - Expendable-pattern casting process

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2.3 EXPENDABLE PATTERN MOLD CASTING PROCESSES

EVAPORATIVE-PATTERN CASTING - LOST FOAM

• Simple process without separating lines, cores and risers
• Complex geometries (PS)
• Requires minimal finishing and cleaning
• Economical in large runs (aluminium mould for PS and 2 sets of tools).
• Influence PS solidification:
− Energy to degrade  Thermal gradients
− Faster cooling, less fluidity
− Effect on microstructure and directional solidification

CASE STUDY 11.1

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2.3 EXPENDABLE PATTERN MOLD CASTING PROCESSES

LOST WAX CASTING - INVESTMENT CASTING

• Wax model that melts before pouring molten metal. Video1.
− Create wax model
− Coating with refractory solution (several layers, different grain size)
− Melt and remove wax (90 - 175°C)
− Mould burning, 650 - 1050°C (to remove water of crystallization and residual wax)
− Pour molten metal, cool, break mould and remove part

CASE STUDY 11.2, 11.3

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2.3 EXPENDABLE PATTERN MOLD CASTING PROCESSES

LOST WAX CASTING - INVESTMENT CASTING

INVESTMENT CASTING/ LOST WAX

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2.3 EXPENDABLE PATTERN MOLD CASTING PROCESSES

LOST WAX CASTING - INVESTMENT CASTING

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2.3 CASTING OF EXPENDABLE PATERN MOLDS

LOST WAX CASTING - INVESTMENT CASTING

CHARACTERISTICS.
− Costly process due to labor and mold materials
−   Melting point alloys
− Quality and precision products : tight tolerances and surface finish
− Finishing operations
− High added value: aeronautics, jewellery, ...

Case studies 11.2, 11.3

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CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE MOLDS

CLASSIFICATION
• Expendable moulds
• Mold: sand, ceramic, plaster, ... + binder (e.g.: 90% sand, 7% clay, 3% water)
• Reusable or expendable pattern

• Permanent moulds
• Metal Mold = Molding
• Cooling speed
• Remove the part from the mould

• Composite Molds
• At least two materials (sand, graphite, metal)
• It has an expendable part and a permanent part

MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS 41
2.3 PERMANENT MOLD CASTING

TYPES OF PERMANENT MOLD CASTING PROCESSES

− VACUUM CASTING
− SLUSH CASTING
− LOW PRESSURE DIE CASITNG
− HIGH PRESSURE DIE CASTING
− CENTRIFUGAL CASTING

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2.3 PERMANENT MOLD CASTING

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
• Two halves molded high-strength materials (cast iron, steel, bronze, graphite,
refractory metal alloys)
• Mould cavity (feed system) machined
• Metal cores or sand aggregates
• Mould coatings:
− Suspension of refractory material
− Graphite
− Separating agents and / or thermal barriers
• Preheating of the moulds (150 - 200°C)
• Assisted cooling
• Cast materials: Al, Mg, Cu, grey cast iron,... Steel*.
• Pieces obtained:
− Good surface finish and tight tolerances
− Good and uniform mechanical properties
− High production rates (expensive equipment)

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2.3 PERMANENT MOLD CASTING

1. VACUUM CASTING - COUNTERGRAVITY LOW-PRESSURE (CL)

• Uses vacuum to get the molten metal into the mold
• Complex shapes with thin walls and uniform properties
• Porosity and defects due to air-gas are reduced.

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2.3 PERMANENT MOLD CASTING

2. SLUSH CASTING
• Thin-walled hollow castings
• When the desired thickness of the wall is achieved, the mold is inverted.
• Small production runs, decorative objects.

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2.3 PERMANENT MOLD CASTING

3. LOW PRESSURE DIE CASTING (LPDC) (Video)

• Metal is pushed into the mold (low pressure) by pressurized air leading to parts
without porosity
• High yield achievable (typically over 90%)
• Reduction of machining costs, thanks to the absence of feeders
• Good metallurgical quality, thanks to a slow, non-turbulent filling and controlled
solidification dynamics
• Automotive applications include wheels, as well as suspension, steering and
engine components

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2.3 PERMANENT MOLD CASTING

4. HIGH PRESSURE DIE CASTING (HPDC)

a) Hot Chamber process. (Video1, Video2 )
• A piston injects the metal under pressure into the mould (heated plunger).
• The pressure is maintained until solidification (15 Mpa).
• Low melting point materials (Magnesium, Zinc, Lead)
• 200 -300 pieces/hour - 90g -25 kg
• Equipment , automation

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2.3 PERMANENT MOLD CASTING

4. HIGH PRESSURE DIE CASTING (HPDC)

b) Cold Chamber process.
• A plunger injects the metal under pressure into the mould (unheated plunger).
• The pressure is maintained until solidification (20-70 Mpa).
• Medium-high melting point materials (Al, Mg, Cu)
• 90g -25 kg

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2.3 PERMANENT MOLD CASTING

4. HIGH PRESSURE DIE CASTING (HPDC)

b) Cold Chamber process.

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2.3 PERMANENT MOULD CASTING

5. CENTRIFUGAL CASTING (Video1, Video2)

• Uses inertia (rotation) to force material into the mold

True centrifugal casting

Semicentrifugal casting Centrifuge casting

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2.4 CASTING OF MONOCRYSTALLINE COMPONENTS

a) Conventional Casting
b) Directionally solidified blades
c) Monocrystalline Blades

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2.4 CASTING OF MONOCRYSTALLINE COMPONENTS

a) Conventional Casting
b) Directionally solidified blades
c) Monocrystalline Blades

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2.5 MELTING FURNACES

1. Electric Arc Furnace

• High production rate
• Low pollutant
• Maintain the temperature (alloys)
2. Induction Oven
• Smaller melters
• Composition control
3. Crucible Oven
• Burn a fuel
4. Levitation Melting
• Magnetic suspension of molten metal
• The molten metal flows into a mould for investment casting.
• No crucible, reduces pollutants

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