MUSHIKA RAJU 1

Essence of Indian Knowledge Tradition

UNIT –I

Basic Structure of Indian Knowledge System:

Veda: Definition & Kinds

Upavedas (Ayurveda, Gandhra veda, Shilpa veda, Artha veda)-

Vedangas (Shiksha, Kalapa, Chhanda, Niruktha, Vyakarana, Jyothishya),

Dharma Shastra, Mimansa, Purana, Tarka Shastra

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The structure of Knowledge in India

• Indian civilization has always attached great value to knowledge.

• India's knowledge tradition is ancient and uninterrupted like the flow of the river Ganga,
from the Vedas (Upanisads) to Sri Aurobindo.

• Knowledge has been at the centre of all rational and speculative inquiry in India.

• Three terms are closely connected in all discussions of knowledge — darsana, gnyana
and vidya.

• Darsana, (philosophy) is the "system," the point of view, which yields/leads to gnyana
(knowledge).

• When knowledge gathered about a particular domain is organized and systematized for
purposes of, say, reflection and pedagogy, it is called vidya, "discipline."

Body of Organized Knowledge

• The entire body of organized knowledge is divided into two sets in the Mundakopanisad
— para vidya and apara vidya.

• Para Vidya/jnana/Bairmukhi(outer world) is kind of knowledge is observational and is

gained by the eyes, etc. To acquire it, only the sensory apparatus, including the mind, has
to be prepared.

• Apara Vidya/vijnana/Antarmukti(drasta or inner self) is experiential and is gained by the

inner self, to acquire this kind of knowledge the knower has to go through a process of
preparation, sadhana, (for knowledge-acquisition).

• The Jaina thought also makes a distinction between pratyaksa gnana which is knowledge
present to the self (Atma sapeksa) and paroksa gnana which is present to the senses and
the mind (indriya-mana sapeksa).

• Knowledge of ultimate principle is Paramatma or Brahman (knowledge is divine)

Indian knowledge Traditions (IKT) in Oral Culture

• In the tradition, knowledge has been constituted, stored and maintained in the
framework of the oral culture.
• knowledge is constituted in our inner self. There is the antargnyana, constituted by
the input of the senses {indriya), processed by the mind {mana) and the intellect
(buddhi), and finally constituted knowledge exists as our transformed, alert self,
citta.
• Therefore, while both perception and inference are given primacy as
epistemologies, tarka (argumentation) is also accorded an important place; the
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Indian mind has not relied completely on mind and senses and has accorded the
central role in knowledge formation to meditation and deep reflection, cintana and
manana. Also Sabda-pramana (verbal testimony) has always enjoyed authority with
major systems of thought. Seeing with "mind's eye" is the typical epistemology of
Indian thought.
• Indian mind has depended more on hypothetico-deductive methodology than on
observational inductive methodology.

Guru-Sisya Mode in Oral Culture

• The oral texts, they are constituted to facilitate memorization as they have to be held in
the mind and transmitted orally in the guru-shisya mode.

• Knowledge in this mode is simultaneous, not sequential/ linear — as is the case in the
scriptal traditions. It is important to note that oral culture is an alternative culture of
knowledge and not a default culture, one that is there because writing systems are
unknown as is often alleged.

• In the oral culture of knowledge, the scholar has a library in his mind and the speed of
information processing is very high, much higher than in the scriptal mode where the
information is first transferred to the mind through senses.

• This explains the puzzling requirement in the scholastic tradition for a scholar to be the
master of fourteen disciplines, puzzling—because how can one master so many
disciplines? It is not possible in the time consuming, linear mode of written texts that can
be of inordinate length. But it certainly appears possible in the mode in which the texts
are highly abbreviated and are capable of being stored in the mind. Orality thus as
specific mode of knowledge formation and knowledge storage determines both the
structure and the use of the texts.

Indian knowledge system (IKS)

• Knowledge of different domains over a period of time has been institutionalized as so

many disciplines, vidya and crafts, kala. Indian disciplinary formations include fields as
diverse as philosophy, architecture, grammar, mathematics, astronomy, metrics,
sociology (dharma-sastra), economy and polity (arthasastra), ethics (nitisastra),
geography, logic, military science, weaponry, agriculture, mining, trade and commerce,
metallurgy, mining, shipbuilding, medicine, poetics, biology and veterinary science. In
each of these a continuous and cumulative series of texts continues to be available in
spite of widespread loss and historically recorded destruction.
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Vidya

 The tradition talks of 18 major vidyas, theoretical disciplines, and 64 kalas, applied or
vocational disciplines, crafts.

• The 18 vidyas are: the four Vedas, the four subsidiary Vedas (Ayurveda, medicine,
Dhanurveda, weaponry, Gandharvaveda, music and Silpa, architecture), Purana, Nyaya,
Mimamsa, DharmaSastra and Vedanga, the six auxiliary sciences, phonetics, grammar,
metre, astronomy, ritual and philology — these constituted the 18 sciences in ancient
India.

Crafts or Arts (Kala)

• These "crafts" have a direct bearing on day-to-day life of the people and most of them are
still a part of the Indian life. For the craftsmen, the craft is not only their profession, it is
also their worship. These crafts were taught, are still taught, by a teacher to his disciples,
for the learning of a craft requires watching the teacher at work, starting by doing odd,
little jobs assigned by the teacher and then the long practice, abhyasa, on one's own. Only
after considerable experience the learner refines his art and then may set-up on his own.
We can see this even today in Indian dance, music and even automobile-repair, which
must now be counted among the crafts.

• It is significant that no opposition is set-up in the Indian tradition between "art" and
"craft." The craftsman is held in high esteem as a sadhaka, a devotee whose mind
attaches with great reverence to his object. His training is a form of tapa, a dedication and
the primary virtue he has to acquire is concentration, ekagrata.

• Even for the crafts, which are "practical" disciplines there are basic texts, for example,
the popular prosody text, Pingala. But it is true in the case of crafts just as it is true in the
case of vidyas that the knowledge resides in the teacher, the guru or the ustad, the term a
man in the street uses these days. This is the root of the great reverence attached to the
gurus in the Indian tradition as he is the source and the ultimate authority in the given
domain of knowledge.

Indian Oral Literature

In the Indian context of orality, literature has been an act of public communication, a
performance. The word used for literature, Vanmaya, underlines the orality of all
compositions. India has the world's earliest poetry ( Rigveda) and the earliest prose
(Brahmanas) and the largest body of literature ranging from lyrics to philosophy, astronomy,
mathematics and myths. This massive body of literature has in turn generated considerable
theoretical thinking about verbal discourse. Several typologies were set-up to characterize
different discourses, to classify all verbal discourse into a cline of reliability, as discourses of
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knowledge and to establish a mutual order among them. To begin with, a basic opposition is
made between a Sastra, a technical composition/treatise to be used for teaching a discipline
and Kavya, an imaginative composition.

As a broad division based on the overall purpose, of education as against entertainment, it is

a useful division — philosophical systems which come under Sastra are certainly studied
differently. There is then another typology, an opposition between apauruseya and
pauruseya. This separates the Vedic compositions from all the rest. It is a knowledge
typology — apauruseya discourse is non-contingent and its assertions like those of science
are not dependent on an individual for their truth. Yet another typology, Sruti-smrti, kavya is
based in the sources of knowledge — knowledge contained in the Sruti has been
apprehended directly. These are autonomous compositions. Smrti literally means memory.
Smrti texts are products of recall — the knowledge contained in them was already available
and it has been put down in an organized manner by some thinker. Kavya texts construct
meanings in an individual's understanding. Panini, the grammarian, modifies and extends this
typology into a refined five-fold system: drsta-prokta-upajnata-krta-vyakhyana.

The first category corresponds to apauruseya and Sruti except that it renders its
knowledge still more authentic by replacing the epistemological parameter of "heard,"

sruta, by the stronger epistemology of "seen," drsta.

Prokta discourse renounces a body of knowledge constituted earlier by someone else.

Upanisads, etc., belong here.

Upajnta texts are systematizations of existing knowledge by another known thinker who
however is not the source of this knowledge.

Krta literally means "composed" and Panini mentions as examples some imaginative
compositions such as Mahabharata and Yayati.

Panini adds another new class of literature — the commentary literature vyakhyana

The Vedas

The Vedas (Sanskrit: वेदः vedaḥ, "knowledge") are a large body of religious texts originating in
ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit
literature and the oldest scriptures of Hinduism.

Vedas are śruti ("what is heard"), distinguishing them from other religious texts, which are called
smṛti ("what is remembered"). Hindus consider the Vedas to be apauruṣeya, which means "not of
a man, superhuman" and "impersonal, authorless," revelations of sacred sounds and texts heard
by ancient sages after intense meditation
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There are four Vedas: the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda and the Atharvaveda. Each
Veda has four subdivisions – the Samhitas (mantras and benedictions), the Aranyakas (text on
rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices), the Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals,
ceremonies and sacrifices), and the Upanishads (texts discussing meditation, philosophy and
spiritual knowledge). Some scholars add a fifth category – the Upasanas (worship). The texts of
the Upanishads discuss ideas akin to the heterodox sramana-traditions.

Origin of Vedas

It is believed that the Vedas or the universe began with ‘om’ the first eternal sound or syllable.
The syllable Om is also referred to as Onkara/Omkara and Pranava.

It was uttered first by the creator of the universe, the supreme Brahman. The lord Brahma, the
first born of god, one of the Trimurties hears the sacred sound and recites it. This was beginning
of Veda and very beginning of universe. Various puranas state that the Vedas have originated
from omkar:

The shiva puranam (7.6.27) says that all the Four Vedas have originated from the letters a (अ),
(U) उ, m(म). The bhagavadgita (7.8) says that entire literature itself has originated from Omkara
According to the mahabharatha initially there was only one veda in the form of om.

Thus began the veda, vast collection of knowledge in God’s own words

Many manifestations one by one, came forth, in the form of letters and sounds

These letters received by brahma who became the seed of the knowledge and thought process.
That is why Vedas are called Apourusheya.

In Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism, the sacred spiritual sound ‘Om’ signifies the
essence of the Ultimate Reality (parabrahman) which is consciousness (paramatman), Om is one
of the most important spiritual symbols. It refers to Atman (Self within) and Brahman (ultimate
reality, entirety of the universe, truth, divine, supreme spirit, cosmic principles, knowledge).
Omkar is often found at the beginning and the end of chapters in the Vedas, the Upanishads, and
other Hindu texts. It is a sacred spiritual incantation made before and during the recitation of
spiritual texts, during puja and private prayers, in ceremonies of rites of passage (sanskara) such
as weddings, and during meditative and spiritual activities such as Pranava yoga.

Prof. V. Kannan explains in his one of lectures, Our Rishis are called Mantra Drashtas rather
than Mantra Kartas. Vedas are records of the rihis’s direct personal experiences or their super
conscious perceptions during their deep meditations which they performed for long years.

He explains why Rishiss are called Mantra Drashtas It can be explained in analogy to modern
scientists newton, Einstein who discovered the respective laws. Gravitational force was there
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even before newton was born but he was given credit of discovery to make his realization in the
same way rishis recognized the mantras that already existed and made it available for everyone

The traditional view is that even the order of the letters in the Vedas (varna krama)is not man-
made.There are around 300 rishis including 32 Vedinis (women rishis) who directly or indirectly
revealed the mantras form the supreme being

Before reciting every veda mantra, it is customary to mention three things

1. The name of the rishi or sage concerned.

2. Meter (chandas) in which it should be recited

3. Devatha the presiding deity of that mantra

Vedic Literature: Sruthis

Vedas Vedangas Upa vedas

i) Rigveda i) Shiksha (Phonetics) i) Ayurveda (Medicine), the Ṛgveda

ii) Yajurveda ii) Chandas (Prosody) ii) Dhanurveda (Archery), the Yajurveda

iii) Sama veda iii) Vyakarana (Grammar) iii) Gāndharvaveda (Music & dance), Samaveda,

iv) Atharva veda iv) Nirukta (Etymology) iv) Arthaśāstra (Economics), the Atharvaveda

v) Kalpa (Ritual)

vi) Jyotisha

Each Veda has Four Subdivisions:

– the SAMHITAS (mantras and benedictions),

– the ARANYAKAS (text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-

sacrifices),

– the BRAHMANAS (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and

– the UPANISHADS (texts discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual

knowledge).

• Some scholars add a Fifth Category –

– the UPASANAS (worship). The texts of the Upanishads discuss ideas akin to the
heterodox sramana-traditions. (not conforming with accepted or orthodox
standards or beliefs.)
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THE FOUR VEDAS

1. THE RIGVEDA (The Book of Mantra)

• The Rig Veda is the largest and considered the most important of the collection,
containing 1,028 hymns divided into ten books, called mandalas.

• The Aryan pantheon of gods is described in great detail in the Rig Veda. However, the
religious practices and deities are not uniformly consistent in these sacred texts, probably
because the Aryans themselves were not a homogenous group. While spreading through
the Indian subcontinent, it is probable their initial religious beliefs and practices were
shaped by the absorption of local religious traditions.

• According to the hymns of the Rig Veda, the most important deities were Agni, the god
of Fire, and the intermediary between the gods and humans; Indra, the god of Heavens
and War, protector of the Aryans against their enemies; Surya, the Sun god; Vayu, the
god of Wind; and Prthivi, the goddess of Earth.

2. THE SAMA VEDA (THE BOOK OF CHANT)

• The Sama Veda is purely a collection of 'samans' (chants) derived from the eighth and
ninth books of the 'original Veda', the Rig-Veda. The hymns in the Sama Veda, used as
musical notes have no distinctive lessons of

• their own. Hence, its text is a reduced version of the Rig Veda. Vedic Scholar David
Frawley says that if the Rig Veda is the word, Sama Veda is the song or the meaning, if
Rig Veda is the knowledge, Sama Veda is its realization, if Rig Veda is the wife, the
Sama Veda is her husband. Sama Veda was meant for the priests who performed the
rituals of the soma ceremonies [rituals of the threefold realm of life & death (samsara)].
As time went on rituals and ceremonies of worship became increasingly complex and so
a need arose to compile all the rituals and their chants in a book, as a sort of reference
point for the priests. The emphasis was on the specific style of its poetry and its literary
content had no relevance. There are also very strict instructions in SamaVeda as to how
particular hymns must be sung. Great emphasis was put upon sounds of the words of the
mantras so that they could have accomplished effects on the environment and the person
who pronounced them.

3. THE YAJUR VEDA (The Book of Ritual)

• The Yajur-Veda or the wisdom of sacrifices is also a liturgical collection and was made
to meet the demands of a ceremonial religion. It lays down various "yajurs" (sacred
incantations) which were chanted by a particular sect of priests called adhvaryu. They
performed the sacrificial rites. The Yajur Veda practically served as a guidebook for the
priests who execute sacrificial acts and at the same time uttering the prayers and the
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sacrificial yajurs. Few hymns are also attributed to various Gods. However, the core of
the Veda is dedicated to the theory of the rituals thereby making it very much ritual
based. Many chants for the purpose of praying and paying respect to the various
instruments that are involved in the sacrifices could also be seen the Veda. Not less than
six complete recessions of Yajur Veda, viz. Madyandina, Kanva, Taittiriya, Kathaka,
Maitrayani and Kapishthala are available now.

4. THE ATHARVA VEDA (The Book of Spell)

• The Atharva-Veda (the wisdom of the Atharvans) is called so because the families of the
atharvan sect of the Brahmins have traditionally been credited with the composition of
the hymns of the Veda. This is the last of the four Vedas and is completely different from
the other Vedas. It is considered next only to Rig-Veda with regard to history and
sociology because its compilation of hymns lacks the remarkable spiritual experience that
the Rig-Veda offers. Its hymns are of a more diverse nature than the Rig Veda and are
also simpler in language and therefore it infuses a different experience. In fact, many
scholars do not consider it part of the Vedas at all. The Atharva Veda consists of spells
and charms prevalent at its time, and portrays a clearer picture of the Vedic society. It has
incantations for everything, from success in love to the realization of otherworldly
objectives.

FOUR SUBDIVISIONS OF VEDAS

1. Samhita

• Samhita is a Sanskrit word from the prefix sam (सम ्), 'together', and hita (हित), the past
participle of the verbal root dha (धा) 'put'. The combination word thus means "put
together, joined, compose, arrangement, place together, union", something that agrees or
conforms to a principle such as dharma or in accordance with justice, and "connected
with".

• Samhita, however, in contemporary literature typically implies the earliest, archaic part of
the Vedas.

• These contain mantras – sacred sounds with or without literal meaning, as well as
panegyrics (a public speech or published text in praise of someone or something),
prayers, litanies and benedictions petitioning nature or Vedic deities.

• Vedic Samhita refer to mathematically precise metrical archaic text of each of

the Vedas (Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda).
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• The Samhitas are sometimes identified as karma-khanda (कमम खण्ड, action / ritual-related
section), while the Upanishads are identified as jnana-khanda (ज्ञान खण्ड, knowledge /
spirituality-related section)

• The Vedic Samhitas were chanted during ceremonies and rituals, and parts of it remain
the oldest living part of Hindu tradition.

2. Aranyaka

• The Aranyakas are the part of the ancient Indian Vedas concerned with the meaning of
ritual sacrifice.

• Aranyakas describe and discuss rituals from various perspectives; some include
philosophical speculations. For example, the Katha Aranyaka discusses rituals connected
with the Pravargya. The Aitareya Aranyaka includes explanation of the Mahavrata ritual
from ritualisitic to symbolic meta-ritualistic points of view. Aranyakas, however, neither
are homogeneous in content nor in structure.

3. Brahmana

• Vedic śruti works attached to the Samhitas (hymns and mantras) of the Rig, Sama, Yajur,
and Atharva Vedas.

• The Brahmanas are particularly noted for their instructions on the proper performance of
rituals, as well as explanations on the symbolic importance of sacred words and ritual
actions.

• In addition to explaining the symbolism and meaning of the Samhitas, Brahmana

literature also expounds scientific knowledge of the Vedic Period,
including observational astronomy and, particularly in relation to altar
construction, geometry. Divergent in nature, some Brahmanas also contain mystical and
philosophical material that constitutes Aranyakas and Upanishads.

4. Upanishads

• The Upanishads are a collection of Vedic texts that contain the earliest emergence of
some of the central religious concepts of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. Also known
as Vedanta, “the end of the Veda,” the collection is one of the sacred texts of Hinduism
thought to contain revealed truths concerning the nature of ultimate reality, or brahman,
and describing the character and form of human salvation, called moksha. The
Upanishads are found in the conclusion of the commentaries on the Vedas, and have been
passed down by oral tradition
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• The concepts of Brahman (ultimate reality) and Ātman (soul, self) are central ideas in all
of the Upanishads, and "know that you are the Ātman" is their thematic focus.

UPASANAS

• In one contemporary context, Upasana means methods of worship (Bhakti), usually of

meditative kind.

• In the Vedas, some Upasanas are prescribed method of worship for pleasing and winning
the attention of the deity or it can be a deity-less practice of austerities involving
meditating upon some aspect of nature as told in specific Vedic Upasanas

UPAVEDAS

• In Hinduism the term UPAVEDA OR UPVED refers to traditional sciences / technical

literature which have no connection whatever with the Sruti or revealed Veda. Upavedas,
meaning "applied knowledge," are specific applications of Vedic teachings.

• The four upavedas:

1. Dhanurveda 2. Gandharvaveda

3. Ayurveda 4. Arthashastra

Some schools hold Sthapatyaveda as fourth Upaveda in place of Arthashastra.

1. Dhanurveda refers to the science of warfare and is associated with Yajur Veda.

2. Gandharvaveda deals with various aspects of aesthetics including art-forms like music,
dance, poetry, sculpture, erotica etc. It is associated with Samaveda.

3. Ayurveda is the science of health and life and is associated with Atharvaveda.

4. Arthasastra deals with public administration, governance, economy and polity. It is

associated with Atharvaveda.

• Sthapatyaveda relates with engineering and architecture. It is also associated with Yajur
Veda.

Dhanurveda

• Science of archery / Knowledge of archery. It is a Sanskrit treatise on warfare

and archery, traditionally regarded as an upaveda attached to Yajurveda (1100 – 800
BCE) and attributed either to Bhrigu or Vishvamitra.
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• Explains Spiritual sciences like Purushartha, Duties, Deeds, etc and also Material
sciences like Civil And Military Defense, War and Politics.

• The Ramayana and Mahabharata a good deal of light is thrown upon this science and art,
particularly in the descriptions of battles.

• The most ancient books of Dhanurveda are not available, but some of the known books
are Dhanurvidhi, Drauna Vidya, Kodanda Mandana and Dhanurveda Samhita.

• It is a military science, which is mentioned in the Rig Veda and Aitareya Brahmana. It is
also known as shastravidya and it originates from the Yajur Veda. It deals with shastra
and astra Shastra” means weapons which are used with one’s hands in war, such as
swords and maces, and astra means weapons that are shot like arrows. Dhanurveda also
deals with the manufacturing of and training with weapons. Although there is no ancient
scientific work by the name of Dhanurveda, a text called Dhanurveda Sarnhira, belonging
to a later period, is still extent.

Gandharva Veda

• Gandharva veda, the upaveda of the "Sama Veda," is the study of all art forms including
Music, Dance and Poetry. Gandharva veda is a Vedic science on the influence of sound
and music in all, including the body and soul of the yogi.

• This Vedic text contains information about the laws and ways to practice music as well as
how music works as a therapy to heal the body and soul.

• Gandharva veda uses the music of nature to restore balance of body and mind.

• According to tradition Gandharvas are expert musicians of swarga (the abode of the
devas).

• Traditionally, Indians have just seven svaras/notes with short names, e.g. saa, re/ri, ga,
ma, pa, dha, ni which Indian musicians collectively designate as saptak or saptaka. It is
one of the reasons why svara is considered a symbolic expression for the number seven.

• The ragas create astonishingly powerful physical, psychological and spiritual effects.
While Western music has only two modes – major and minor scales – Indian music uses
dozens of different modes. Bharatha Muni’s Natyasastra, available today, is an
extraordinary text on music, dance and drama.

Ayurveda

• Ayurveda is a science that deals with ‘knowledge of life’ and longevity. It is heavily
practiced in India and Nepal, where around 80% of the population report using it.
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• Ayurveda therapies include: medicines, special diets, meditation, yoga, massage,

laxatives (promotes emptying of the bowels), enemas (the injection of liquid into the
rectum, a part of the lower gastrointestinal tract), and medical oils.

• Medicines are typically based on complex herbal compounds, minerals, and metal
substances

• Ancient Ayurveda texts also taught surgical techniques, including rhinoplasty ( changes
the shape of the nose), kidney stone extractions, and sutures (/ˈsuːtʃə/ Thread-like
material used to sew tissue together).

Ayurveda: Eight components

• The earliest classical Sanskrit works on Ayurveda describe medicine as being divided
into eight components.

1. Kāyachikitsā: general medicine, medicine of the body

2. Kaumāra-bhṛtya (Pediatrics): Discussions about prenatal and postnatal care of baby and
mother, methods of conception; choosing the child's gender, intelligence, and
constitution; and childhood diseases and midwifery.

3. Śalyatantra: surgical techniques and the extraction of foreign objects

4. Śhālākyatantra: treatment of ailments affecting ears, eyes, nose, mouth, etc. ("ENT")

5. Bhūtavidyā: pacification of possessing spirits, and the people whose minds are affected
by such possession

6. Agadatantra/Vishagara-vairodh Tantra (Toxicology): It includes subjects about

epidemics, toxins in animals, vegetables and minerals. It as well contain keys for
recognizing those anomalies and their antidotes.

7. Rasāyantantra: rejuvenation and tonics for increasing lifespan, intellect and strength

8. Vājīkaraṇatantra: aphrodisiacs and treatments for increasing the volume and viability of
semen and sexual pleasure. It also deals with infertility problems (for those hoping to
conceive) and spiritual development (transmutation of sexual energy into spiritual
energy).

Arthashastra

• The Arthaśāstra is an ancient Indian Sanskrit treatise on Statecraft, Economic

Policy and Military Strategy.
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• Kautilya, also identified as Vishnugupta and Chanakya, is traditionally credited as the

author of the text. He was a scholar at Takshashila, the teacher and guardian of
Emperor Chandragupta Maurya.

• It includes books on the nature of government, law, civil and criminal court
systems, ethics, economics, markets and trade, the methods for screening ministers,
diplomacy, theories on war, nature of peace, and the duties and obligations of a king.

• The text incorporates Hindu philosophy, includes ancient economic and cultural details
on agriculture, mineralogy, mining and metals, animal husbandry, medicine, forests and
wildlife.

• The Arthashastra explores issues of social welfare, the collective ethics that hold a
society together, advising the king that in times and in areas devastated by famine,
epidemic and such acts of nature, or by war, he should initiate public projects such as
creating irrigation waterways and building forts around major strategic holdings and
towns and exempt taxes on those affected.

VEDANGAS

• The Vedanga (Sanskrit: वेदाङ्ग vedāṅga, "limbs of the Veda") are six auxiliary
disciplines of Hinduism that developed in ancient times and have been connected with
the study of the Vedas.

• Vedangas developed as ancillary studies for the Vedas, but its insights into meters,
structure of sound and language, grammar, linguistic analysis and other subjects
influenced post-Vedic studies, arts, culture and various schools of Hindu philosophy.

• The Kalpa Vedanga studies, for example, gave rise to the Dharma-sutras, which later
expanded into Dharma-shastras.
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Shiksha

• Shiksha (śikṣā): phonetics, phonology, pronunciation. This auxiliary discipline has

focused on the letters of the Sanskrit alphabet, accent, quantity, stress, melody and rules
of euphonic combination of words during a Vedic recitation.

• It intends to train the students in the art and science of articulation of words and syllables
so that they can chant the vedic hymns perfectly, producing the desired sound vibrations
and maintain the ritual purity and efficacy of the ceremonies they perform.

• A lot of importance was attached in ancient India to correct pronunciation of the Vedic
hymns because of the belief that the Vedas were inviolable and divine in origin. The
scriptures proclaimed that a Sanskrit syllable was God in the form of a syllable (askhara
Brahman), an imperishable entity (a + kshara), revealed to the mortals for the sake of
dharma and welfare of the world.

• Veda has its own peculiar pronunciation of certain letters, and each one of them has its
specific modes and speed of recitation. A book called Siksha Sangraha contains a
collection of 32 systems of siksha. These systems relate to different sakhas of the four
Vedas. The most important among the books relating to siksha is the famous Paniniya
Siksha. Another important book is Yaajnavalkya Siksha.

Chandas

• Chandas (chandas): prosody. This auxiliary discipline has focused on the poetic meters,
including those based on fixed number of syllables per verse, and those based on fixed
number of morale per verse.

• Chhanda deals with the analysis of the types of meter used in the construction of various
Vedic hymns. Chhandashastra of Pingalanaga is considered to be the oldest text available
on the subject. It was probably composed between 6th and 5th Century BC. In Sanskrit,
the metrical unit is known as pada (foot). Depending upon the number of syllables used, a
pada may be of the length of eight, eleven or twelve syllables, known as gayatri, tristubh
and jagati respectively. There are other metrical schemes and further variations in the
classification of the padas (meters) depending upon different criteria. The knowledge of
the Chhanda proved useful in the composition of the smriti literature. It also played an
important role in the emergence of classical Indian music and Sanskrit poetry besides
providing a frame work of reference for compositions in other languages.

Vyakarana

• Vyakarna deals with Sanskrit grammar, the linguistic analysis and decomposition of
words, word formation, root words and complex sentence structures, providing useful
insights into the usage of words and sentences leading to the mastery of the language.
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• The most authoritative work on the subject is considered to be the Ashtadhyayi of Panini,
who lived probably between the 5th and 6th Century BC. Considered to be a milestone in
the historical development of Sanskrit language, the Ashtadhyayi is probably a
representative work summarizing the prevailing traditions and preserving them for
posterity.

• The Ashtadhyayi contains about 4000 sutras or aphorisms divided into four parts.

• Siva Sutras deal with phonetics or the accent and intonation of distinctive units of sound
that form part of the word and letter sounds.

• Ashtadhyayi deal with the structure of words and sentences and their construction.

• Dhatupata deals with list of root words (words that give rise to other words)

• Ganapatha deals with groups of nominal words (nouns or noun phrases)

Nirukta

 Nirukta (nirukta): etymology, explanation of words, particularly those that are archaic
and have ancient uses with unclear meaning.This auxiliary discipline has focused on
linguistic analysis to help establish the proper meaning of the words, given the context
they are used in.
 Nirutka deals with the etymological interpretations or explanations of obscure words
especially those found in the Vedas. Technically it deals with the difficult and obscure
words of a dictionary, whose analysis and interpretation is vital to the study and
understanding of the Vedas which are replete with mysterious symbolism not usually
understood by all. The most authoritative exponent of this branch of study is Yaksha, a
Sanskrit grammarian and master of Sanskrit etymology, who lived before Panini. He is
remembered for his monumental work called Nirukta, which is an excellent commentary
of the obscure words found in the Nighantu (dictionary) of his time. Nirukta deals with
the interpretation and analysis of difficult words and provides insight into the hidden
content of the Vedas. Since many Sanskrit words can be split into more than one way and
the Vedas contain many obscure and unknown words, an in-depth study of Nirkuta will
help students discover the latent or hidden meaning of the Vedas and understand their
linguistic and philosophic significance.

Kalpa

• Kalpa literally means sacred rule or law or ordinance and sutra means a thread. Sutras
are threads of knowledge or short statements used as memorial rules. In the absence of
written language, the sutras acted as mental hooks and helped the students remember the
intricacies of performing vedic sacrifices and observing the daily rituals. They also
facilitated easy transmission of complex vedic wisdom from one person to another.
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• Technically it is the applied science of the Vedas.

• Kalpa (kalpa): ritual instructions. This field focused on standardizing procedures for
Vedic rituals, rites of passage rituals associated with major life events such as birth,
wedding and death in family, as well as discussing the personal conduct and proper duties
of an individual in different stages of his life.

Jyotisha

• Jyotisha deals with the astronomical and astrological aspects of fixing auspicious date
and time to perform various vedic rites and rituals including the sacraments or rites of
passage.

• The auspicious time is usually determined based on the position of the luminous bodies
(jyotis) namely the sun, the moon, the stars and other heavenly bodies.

• According to tradition, sage Bhrigu is said to be the first person who perfected the
knowledge of Jyotisha and built a record of the natal charts of every human being who
was to be born on earth. Some of the earliest works on the subject are considered to be
Jyotishyavedanga (400 BC) and the Siddhanta. The treatise of Aryabhata, known as
Aryabhatiya, (600 AD) and the Panchasiddhantika of Varahamihira are other important
works.

• Study of the movement of the sun, the moon, the star and planets helped determine the
time of the day and night, the day of the week and fortnight, the period of the seasons, the
month and the year, besides the influence of each heavenly object on the events of the
world and the lives of the people.

• According to some historians, much of our knowledge of Jyotisha came from

Mesopotamia, Egypt, Persia and Greece through traders, sailors and travelers and
subsequently from the Islamic world through contact and conquest. The Jyotisha of today
is wider in scope and purpose than the original Jyotisha of Vedic period. It is now divided
into several branches and sub branches and cater to a wider audience for purposes other
than performing vedic ceremonies. Once considered to be an ancillary subject, the
astrology of today is a profession by itself often practiced by people having little
understanding of the Vedas and the Vedangas.

Dharma Shastra

• Dharmaśāstra (Sanskrit: धममशास्त्र) is a genre of Sanskrit theological texts, and refers to

the treatises (śāstras) of early Hinduism on dharma.

• The textual corpus of Dharmaśāstra were composed in poetic verses, are part of the
Hindu Smritis, constituting divergent commentaries and treatises on duties,
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responsibilities and ethics to oneself, to family and as a member of society. The texts
include discussion of ashrama (stages of life), varna (social classes), purushartha (proper
goals of life), personal virtues and duties such as ahimsa (non-violence) against all living
beings, rules of just war, and other topics.

Mimansa

Mīmāṃsā (Sanskrit: मीमाांसा[1]) is a Sanskrit word that means "reflection" or "critical

investigation" and thus refers to a tradition of contemplation which reflected on the meanings of
certain Vedic texts. This tradition is also known as Pūrva-Mīmāṃsā because of its focus on the
earlier (pūrva) Vedic texts dealing with ritual actions, and similarly as Karma-Mīmāṃsā due to
its focus on ritual action (karma). It is one of six Vedic "affirming" (āstika) schools of Hinduism.
This particular school is known for its philosophical theories on the nature of dharma, based
on hermeneutics of the Vedas, especially the Brāḥmanas and Saṃhitas.

Purana

Purana (/pʊˈrɑːnə/; Sanskrit: परु ाण, purāṇa; literally meaning "ancient, old" is a vast
genre of Indian literature about a wide range of topics, particularly about legends and other
traditional lore. The Puranas are known for the intricate layers of symbolism depicted within
their stories. Composed primarily in Sanskrit and Tamil but also in other Indian
languages, several of these texts are named after major Hindu deities such as Vishnu, Shiva,
Brahma and Shakti. The Puranic genre of literature is found in both Hinduism and Jainism.

Tarka Shastra

• Tarka sastra (तकमशास्त्र, IAST: tarkaśāstra, IPA: [taɽkɐʃaːstrə]) is a Sanskrit term for the
philosophy of dialectics, logic and reasoning, and art of debate that analyzes the nature
and source of knowledge and its validity. Shastra in Sanskrit means that which gives
teaching, instruction or command. Tarka means debate or an argument. According to one
reckoning, there are six shastras. Vyākaraṇa is one of them. Four of the shastras are
particularly important: Vyākaraṇa, Mīmāṃsā, Tarka, and Vedanta.

• Tarka shastra has concepts called purva paksha and apara paksha. When one raises a
point (purva paksha) the other party criticizes it (apara paksha). Then the debate starts.
Each one tries to support his point of view by getting various references. The meaning of
the word tarka also is specific, in that it does not imply a pure logical analysis but a
complex activity of discourse guided by strict definitions and goals.

• There are several scholars renowned as well-versed in Tarka shastra: Adi

Shankara Udyotakara Ramanujacharya (9thcentury), Udayanacharya Jayanta
Bhatta Madhvacharya Visvanatha Chakravarti.