AgWater Solutions Project

Case Study

Agricultural Use of Ground Water in

Ethiopia: Assessment of Potential and
Analysis of Economics, Policies, Constraints
and Opportunities

Semu Moges
Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia

September, 2012
Acknowledgment
The authors and project partners wish to thank the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation for the
generous grant that made this project possible.

The AWM Project

The AgWater Solutions project was implemented in five countries in Africa and two states in
India between 2008 and 2012. The objective of the project was to identify investment
options and opportunities in agricultural water management with the greatest potential to
improve incomes and food security for poor farmers, and to develop tools and
recommendations for stakeholders in the sector including policymakers, investors, NGOs
and small-scale farmers.

The leading implementing institutions were the International Water Management Institute
(IWMI), the Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI), the Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations (FAO), the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI),
International Development Enterprises (iDE) and CH2MHill.

For more information on the project or detailed reports please visit the project website
http://awm-solutions.iwmi.org/home-page.aspx.

Disclaimers
This report is based on research funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. The
findings and conclusions contained within are those of the authors and do not necessarily
reflect positions or policies of the project, its partners or the Bill & Melinda Gates
Foundation.

Copyright © 2012, by IWMI. All rights reserved. IWMI encourages the use of its material
provided that the organization is acknowledged and kept informed in all such instances.

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Contents
Abbreviations ....................................................................................................................... iii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .......................................................................................................... 1
1. GROUNDWATER WATER OCCURRENCE IN ETHIOPIA ..................................................... 4
1.1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 4
1.2 GEOLOGIC SUCCESSION IN ETHIOPIA .................................................................................... 4
1.3 AQUIFERS AND AQUIFER CLASSIFICATION. ............................................................................ 6
2. PREVIOUS STUDIES OF GROUNDWATER IN ETHIOPIA .................................................. 11
2.1. REVIEW OF PAST STUDIES................................................................................................ 11
2.2 CURRENT GROUND WATER STUDIES ................................................................................. 13
3. GROUNDWATER POTENTIAL OF ETHIOPIA................................................................... 15
3.1 BASIN GROUND WATER ESTIMATION – WAPCOS (1990) .................................................... 15
3.2 NATIONAL GROUND WATER RECHARGE ESTIMATE – AYENEW AND ALEMAYEHU (2001)............... 20
3.3 GROUNDWATER POTENTIAL AND METHODOLOGY SHIFT ......................................................... 21
4. GROUNDWATER DEVELOPMENT AND USE .................................................................. 23
4.1. EXPERIENCE OF GROUND WATER DEVELOPMENT AND UTILIZATION IN THE COUNTRY: ................... 23
BOREHOLE INFORMATION ............................................................................................... 23
4.2 EXPERIENCE OF GROUND WATER DEVELOPMENT AND UTILIZATION FOR AGRICULTURE ................. 25
4.2.1 Ground Water potential of Kobo Girana Valley ................................................ 26
4.2.2 Groundwater potential of Raya Valley ............................................................. 27
4.2.3 Groundwater potential of Ada’a Becho ............................................................ 30
4.4 FUTURE DEVELOPMENT PLAN OF GROUND WATER FOR AGRICULTURE ......................................... 32
5 GROUNDWATER POLICY AND INSTITUTIONS ............................................................... 34
5.1 POLICIES AND STRATEGIES ............................................................................................... 34
5.2 INSTITUTIONS .............................................................................................................. 34
6. KNOWLEDGE AND CAPACITY GAPS IN GROUND WATER DEVELOPMENT AND
MANAGEMENT ............................................................................................................ 34
6.1 KNOWLEDGE AND INFORMATION GAPS .............................................................................. 34
6.2 PROFESSIONAL CAPACITY GAP .......................................................................................... 35
6.3 TECHNICIAN SKILL CAPACITY GAP ...................................................................................... 35
6.4 CAPACITY BUILDING – EDUCATION AND TRAINING ................................................................. 38
7. DRILLING TECHNOLOGY SND COSTS ............................................................................ 39
7.1. DRILLING TECHNOLOGY AND EQUIPMENT ........................................................................... 39
7.2 WELL DRILLING COST AND FUTURE TRENDS IN ETHIOPIA ......................................................... 42
8. Summary and Conclusion ............................................................................................ 43
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................ 45

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Abbreviations

AAU Addis Ababa University

EGRAP Ethiopian Groundwater resources Assessment Programme
EIGS Ethiopian Institute of Geological Survey
ENGDA Ethiopian National Ground Water Database
IAEA International Atomic and Energy Agency
MOWE Ministry of Water and Energy
PASDEP II Poverty Alleviation and Sustainable Development Programme II
UNDP United Nations Development Program
WWDSE Water Works, Design and Supervision Enterprise
WWCE Water Works and Construction Enterprise

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Ethiopia is a country of great geographical diversity and geological complexity. High rugged
mountains, flat-topped plateaus, deep gorges, incised rivers and rolling plains are the pre-
dominant physiographical features. Since the country is located in the tropics, the physical
conditions and variations in altitude have resulted in a great diversity of climate, soil and
vegetation. The highlands on each side give way to vast semi-arid lowland areas the east
and west and south. The ground water potential of the country is shaped by two complex
phenomena of geological formation and the diversity of the topography, climate and soil.

Several studies and ground water potential assessments indicate the rechargeable or
replenishable ground water potential of the country is in the order of 2.6 billion cubic
meters (BCM). More recent emerging studies and implementations like that of Addis Ababa,
Kobo and Raya well field indicate the potential is far greater. Estimations of the ground
water require a good understanding of the regional geology, hydrology, hydrogeology,
hydraulics of ground water flow.

Recent project studies for irrigated agriculture at Kobo, Raya, and Adaa Bechoo indicate the
regional ground water aquifers are deeper; water movement crosses surface basin
boundaries (basin transfer) and contains large reserves of groundwater. It is estimated that
the ground water reserve of the Kobo Girana Valley is in the order of 2.5 BCM, while the
reserve of Raya contains 7.2 BCM. The Estimated annual recharge at Adda Bechoo is in the
order of 965 million cubic meters (MCM) of which the majority comes from Abbay Basin.
This emphasizes the importance of understanding the regional groundwater aquifers and
movement when considering ground water assessment and development for highly water
consuming agricultural use.

The use of groundwater for agriculture in the country is low. Assessment of data from 8,000
boreholes from federal sources and the regional water bureaus indicate over 80% of the
groundwater use is for domestic water supply. The depth range of assessed wells indicates
most wells are shallow (most 83%) and have low yield in the order of less than 10 lps
(>60%).

Given the emerging regional approach to groundwater assessment and evaluation, the
majority of the shallow wells in the country may not provide adequate scientific information
for understanding deep groundwater aquifers. Therefore, as seen from the studies of Kobo,
Raya and Adaa Becho groundwater, deep monitoring and production wells are providing
essential data over two to three year observation periods.

Currently, groundwater use for agriculture is emerging as an important water resource for
agriculture in rainfall deficit areas. The Directorate of Groundwater Development Studies
and Management of the Ministry of Water and Energy plan to develop 9 irrigation projects
in the country. These are at different phases of study. According to this implementation
plan, over 8,000 ha of land will be developed as a pilot study using groundwater in the
coming five years (2010/11 to 2014/15). MoWE also plan to drill more than 90, 000 test
wells, 28,000 monitoring wells and over 370,000 meters of production wells (not given in

1
terms of number of wells). This will require additional institutional and human capacity
development, technology procurement and transfer. The knowledge and capacity gap in the
country is believed to be high at both professional and technician levels. Without such
capacity, it will be difficult to develop and sustain ground water study and development.

The coverage and scale of the available geological and hydrogeological maps over the
country is not favorable for understanding regional groundwater. Only 50% and 39% of the
country is covered with geological hydrogeological maps at a scale of 1:250,000. The
available groundwater database is not well known and not much used by experts and
institutions. This software, known as Ethiopian National Ground Water Information
Database (ENGDA) contains information on more than 3,000 boreholes and is available at
the Department of Hydrology (MoWE). New ground water software known as ENGWIS,
believed to be more flexible, is under development and will be launched soon.

The current human resource situation in the management and development of groundwater
in the Regional State Water Bureaus is generally characterized as insufficient. A minimum of
31% (281 out of 895) of all job positions are currently vacant. The capacity gap in the
country shows a dire shortage as we go down to the lower levels of administration. The
current human resource situation in the Zonal Water Resources Office shows a shortage of
54% (579 out of 1076), while the district situation is the worst with a human resources
shortfall of 61% (7,447 out of 12,140). When it comes to town water supply service areas
and public enterprises, the situation is similar with relatively better coverage. In the same
year, the Town Water Supply Service offices stand at a shortfall of most 25 % (1002 out of
3740), while the public enterprises such as Water Works and Construction Enterprise
(WWCE), Water Works Design and Supervision and Enterprise (WWDSE), and Water Works
Development Enterprise (WWDE) shows a shortfall of 34% (512 out of 1503). In almost all
the water bureaus, public enterprises and private consulting firms, the required
professionals are mainly hydrogeologists and water supply engineers.

There is no recorded data on drilling costs over time and it is difficult to analyze any trend.
However, based on the information available from private drilling companies
(Hailemichaeel, 2004), the cost of well drilling has been decreasing. As indicated in section
2.2 of this report, drilling costs were reported (in ESRDF projects) to be falling in Tigray
between 1998/1999 (Birr 1,400/m equivalent to USD 84 USD1). This was due to the
establishment of regional enterprises and increasing competition from the private sector.
However, in the remote region of Benishangul-Gumuz, the costs of contracted drilling were
still around Birr 1,350/m.

In general, the cost of deep well drilling has decreased from Birr 2,000/m to Birr 1,200/m.
For shallow wells, normally below 30 m, the cost is reduced from birr 1,500/m to Birr
900/m. Well construction quality has deteriorated due to the high competition. Steel casings
of poor quality have been used by some contractors. As there are no standardized designs
and specifications, competition in prices has greatly affected quality (Hailemichael, 2004).
The cost of drilling after the recent devaluation of the Ethiopian Birr has increased the cost
from 2,000 to 3,000 Birr/meter depending on the distance and type of rock formation.

1
All exchange rates are expressed in terms of current rates of 1USD=16.5 Birr

2
Generally, the cost of drilling machines is over 800,000 USD (T3W rigs). The initial capital
cost is very expensive, but companies are encouraged by the government to import tax free.

The planning and implementation of irrigated agriculture using ground water sources is
highly encouraging. There are robust planning documents and ongoing studies at federal
well as regional state government levels. There are, however, valid concerns that may
impede development efforts. The most important concern is the limitation of knowledge
and information available on the extent of the potential ground water. Secondly, the
available human and institutional capacity to plan, develop and manage is limited in
quantity and quality. Thirdly, drilling equipment and associated spare parts are hard to get
and limited in number. It is suggested that the government of Ethiopia should invest in
developing institutional and human capacity. The most important areas of human capacity
development are hydrogeology, water supply engineers, geologists and drilling technologies
and associated technician skill development.

The initial capital cost of drilling rigs and spare parts are discouraging private companies. It
is important to provide some kind of long-term loan schemes for private companies for
importing deep drilling rigs and to establish spare part distributors within the country.
Alternatively, private public partnership schemes can be forged between public agencies
and private companies. This will expand the coverage of ground water drilling activity and
guarantee availability of spare parts, which will contribute to ongoing efforts on irrigated
agriculture development.

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1. GROUNDWATER WATER OCCURRENCE IN ETHIOPIA
1.1. Introduction
Ethiopia has a complicated hydrogeologic environment and complex groundwater regime.
Until recently, many experts believed that extensive aquifers usable for large-scale
exploitation of groundwater were unlikely to exist. This claim, which was almost a
consensus, has recently been disputed due to a paradigm shift in methodology. There are
indications that some aquifers in the count have large deposits of groundwater . This paper
provides an overview of the potential groundwater availability from past papers and recent
approaches and studies. The paper will present the status of the groundwater use focusing
on agricultural water use. The available groundwater technologies, institutions and the
direction of future groundwater use for agriculture are discussed. The report draws on the
literature from within the country and groundwater well information collected from
Regional State Water Bureaus.

1.2 Geologic succession in Ethiopia

Ethiopia forms a part of the major structural unit of the earth’s crust referred to as the
“Horn of Africa”. This unit comprises the Arabian Peninsula, the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden,
Djibouti, Somalia and the northern part of Kenya. The geological history of the Horn of
Africa is closely related to the rest of the African Continent but does differ significantly in
some respects.

The geology of Ethiopia is strongly influenced by two major episodes.

a) The Arebo-Ethiopian swell in the Eocene to early Oligocene,

b) The major rift faulting movements throughout the African Rift system from
Miocene to quaternary.

The Great Rift System of Africa bifurcates the Africa lowlands of Ethiopia with major
escarpments trending north and east respectively. The original land mass thus divided into
two plateau units by the rift system: the western and eastern plateau.

Much of the plateau region in Ethiopia lies above 2000 m altitude and comprises areas with
structurally horizontal table land. The Rift Valley itself is an extensive graben with evidence
of recent volcanism in the north and bounded by impressive steeped horsts of the plateau
on the west and southeast margins. The Rift Valley widens at the intersection of the East
African Rift, the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden where it is called the Afar Triangle.

A brief Summary of Geological Succession in Ethiopia (V. Kazmin, 1973) is presented below
(Table 1.1).

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Table 1.1. Geological succession in Ethiopia

Epoch Age Rock Formation

Paleozoic Pre-Cambrian Post–tectonic granitoids, syntectonic granitoids, various
grades and types of schist, gneiss, unaltered
sedimentary rocks and igneous intrusions referred to as
basement complex.
Upper Paleozoic Triassic sandstone, shale, glacial
deposits.
Mesozoic 1.Southern Sidamo Mount Fikkyu formation, Dibigia & Ganale Doria
sediments formation
2. Eastern and Western Hamanlei series, Urandab series, Gabredere series, main
Ogaden Sediments gypsum
3. Central plateau Amba Aradam Formation, Antalo Group. Adgirat
sediments Sandstone, Gumburo series
Cenozoic 1.Tertiary Volcanics Alkaline granite and syenite, Megdala group, trap series
2. Tertiary Sediments Dogali formation, desert formation. Dunishub
Formation, Red sea series, Jessoma sandstone, Auradu
series, Teleh series, kalakah series
3. Quaternary Volcanics Basaltic flows and related spatter cones. Basaltic
intermediate and flesic Volcanics. Quaternary
sediments.
Source: WAPCOS, 1990 P.AII-3

Figure 1.1. Geological map of Ethiopia (includes both Ethiopia and Eretria)

5
Major portion of Ethiopia is a high plateau consisting of massive non-porous volcanic rocks
with escarpments of sedimentary rocks. The geological areas of the highlands (>1500 m
altitude) is approximately 445,000 km2. The basement metamorphic and igneous rocks, with
no primary porosity, cover the lowland plains and the valleys. The availability of
groundwater in non-porous rocks is localized within joints, fissures and weathered portions.
The depths are highly restricted. The movement of groundwater is compartmentalized and
the yield from wells is highly variable (WAPCOS, 1990).

1.3 Aquifers and Aquifer Classification.

The distribution of groundwater is mainly shaped by two factors, rechargeable rainfall and
the nature of geological formations shown in Figure 1.1. The geological formations that
store and transmit groundwater (the recharge) are called aquifers. According to WAPCOS
(1990), the aquifers of Ethiopia are grouped into three categories based on their regional
extent, lithological homogeneity and hydrologic properties. The three categories are hard
rock aquifers, consolidated sedimentary rock aquifers, and unconsolidated aquifers.

a) Hard Rock aquifers

These aquifers with no primary porosity are capable of storing water within their
weathered, jointed and fractured zones. They are often recharged from
overlaying alluvium and weathered zones. The groundwater occurs in free
dynamic condition (water table aquifers). Hydraulic conductivity is in the range
of 1 to 40 meters per day. The yield is limited. Approximate area of such aquifers
is 358,000 km2.

b) Consolidated Sedimentary rock aquifers

Consolidated sedimentary rock aquifers have moderate primary porosity and
interangular permeability. The aquifers are regionally extensive and capable of
yielding considerable discharge. The exploitation of aquifers is constrained by
the recharge rate and chemical quality of the water. Generally, the rock types
are limestone (karstic type) and sandstone. The hydraulic conductivity is less
than 100 m/day. These aquifers occupy an area of most 456,000 km2.

c) Unconsolidated Aquifers
Unconsolidated aquifers are comprised of valley sediments with unconsolidated
sand, gravel and river alluvium. They are fairly extensive in river valleys and flood
plains along abandoned river channels, river terraces and delta regions. The
groundwater is partly under pressure and their recharge is associated with
stream flows. The river valleys of Awash, Barka, Mereb Gash and Tekeze Angereb
have considerable flood deposits consisting of sand, gravel and silt. The area
occupied by such aquifers is 432,000 km2. The hydraulic conductivity is greater
than 100 m/day.

Hailemariam (2004) presented the above aquifer types in some detail indicating the
groundwater condition in terms of depths and safe yields. The information is extracted from
an inventory of boreholes and water supply schemes and supports the findings of other
studies that the aquifer systems of Ethiopia are mainly discontinuous and isolated. The

6
temporal and spatial variation of groundwater occurrence is very high and disparity of
depths and yields is very high between wells located within short distances as well.

Table 1.2. Aquifer and aquifer classification

Average
Average
specific
Aquifer system depth to Location Aquifer description
yield
tap water
(lit/sec)
Weathered and 30-60 1-2 Western, south- These types of rocks have very low fracture
fractures western permeability while the depth of fracturing is
intrusive and shallow and accordingly groundwater in this
old type of aquifer is also shallow. However, if thick
Precambrian layer of weathered over burden exists,
rocks (granite, relatively good potential of groundwater
metamorphose occurs. In general the depth of groundwater
rocks, etc.) tapping this aquifer system is between 15 to 60
meters and most wells drilled in this aquifer do
have an average yield of 1-2 lit/sec whenever
thick weathered part exists on a fractured
mother rock.
Sedimentary 200-300 2-5 Eastern, south- These are thick layers of Mesozoic sedimentary
rocks eastern rocks (only in some areas Palaeozoic rocks
(Mesozoic sand exist) that have different layers of sand stone,
stone, karstic marl, limestone, shale and conglomerate2. The
limestone, )etc primary porosity developed is very poor for
some of the layers (limestone) while secondary
porosity and karistification is very common in
the limestone. Therefore, good yield of water is
extracted from the karstified limestone and the
sand stone. However, due to the location of
these layers deep underground, wells striking
these aquifers are very deep to as much as 400
meters while the average depth being 250
meters.
The tertiary 50-250 2-6 Central, eastern These types of aquifers have both primary and
volcanics and western secondary porosity with a well tapping
(having highlands groundwater to a depth extending to 250
primary and meters. There are successive layers of aquifer
secondary systems and the upper most part, if tapped, is
porosity) yielding smaller amount of water (0.5 to 1
lit/sec). If drilled deeper, the occurrence of
groundwater increases. These aquifers exist
extensively throughout the country especially
in the western, central and eastern highlands.
The water quality in this type of aquifers is
generally good.
Quaternary 100-250 2-5 Rift valley These are young volcanics of the rift floor
volcanics where high tectonic activity is occurring which
has resulted highly fractured rocks and as a
result a favorable situation for groundwater
recharge and occurrence exist.

2
The Palaeozoic rocks cover an insignificant part of the country and their importance as aquifers is unknown.

7
Unconsolidated 20-100 1-5 Mostly in the These are lacustrine and alluvium deposits of
sediments Rift Valley, the flood plains and valley fills. They are very
(alluvial, western low important hydrogeologic formations that are
colluvial, in situ lands, river used to be very good sources of groundwater
developed valleys, isolated in Ethiopia. The grain sizes of the alluvial
soils, lacustrine depressions deposits vary from fine grains of clay to gravel
sediments) throughout the with horizontal and vertical variation in grain
country sizes. As they are located exposed to the
surface seasonal recharge by direct rainfall is
occurring and as a result they are good sources
of groundwater.
Due to their nature of deposit, these sediments
are not homogenous and isotropic. Besides,
the extent and depth varies within a short
distance as they are deposited on the existing
irregular surfaces of an old topography. The
average yield of the wells dug or drilled in
these formations have a yield of 1-5 liters/sec
and the depth to abstract groundwater is
between 20 to 100 meters. These types of
aquifers exist in the rift valley, in the river
valleys and isolated grabens.
In situ 5-20 0.1-1 Throughout the These are soils developed within micro
developed soils country but catchments where the rainfall directly
especially in the infiltrates and stores in the saturated zone.
highlands and These types of soils are found to be useful
midands sources of water especially in the highlands of
Ethiopia where traditional and improved HDWs
are the major sources of water supply. Seepage
springs are also common whenever there is a
break in slope and/or a lower contact of the
soil is exposed to the surface. Springs from
these types of soils have an average yield of
most 0.1 lit/sec.

Both WAPCOS and Hailemariam aquifer classifications originate from the hydrogeological
map of Ethiopia produced by the Ethiopian Institute of Geological Survey (EIGS, 1988). This
map is one of the comprehensive works in the hydrogeology of Ethiopia with a scale of
1:2,000,000.

8
Figure 1.2. Hydrogeological map of Ethiopia

Currently, Geological Survey of Ethiopia has patches of hydrogeological maps (Figure 1.2) of
the country with a scale of 1:250,000.

9
Figure 1.3. Hydrogeological map of the regions

An attempt to describe the groundwater regions in Ethiopia based on geologic formations

supplemented by hydrologic and meteorological data is given. According to WAPCOS (1990),
five groundwater regions can be identified:

1. Western Highlands – Region 1

2. South-eastern Highlands – Region 2
3. Central Lowlands Including Gulf of Aden – Region 3
4. Lower Rift Valley and Afar Regions – Region 4
5. Outer Lowlands – Region 5

The existing hydro-geological map provides preliminary qualitative information on the type
and formation of aquifers in general. Currently, relatively large numbers of boreholes are
available in the country through several water supply and irrigation projects. The experience
and capacity of groundwater study, exploration and conceptualization is also growing. It is
essential to produce an up-to-date comprehensive hydro-geological map. Given the limited
information and the small-scale nature of the previous maps, we cannot discern adequate
information or accurately convey our findings to decision makers as to where and how much
groundwater is available. That is why the current assessment by WWDSE produces
significant variation in its study for specific projects in Kobo, and Raya (discussion with
WWDSE groundwater expert).

10
Figure 1.4. Ground water regions of Ethiopia

2. PREVIOUS STUDIES OF GROUNDWATER IN ETHIOPIA

2.1. Review of past studies
Several organizations and researchers studied the hydro-geological condition of Ethiopia.
Among them are the studies of the Ethiopian Institute of Geological survey (EIGS), the
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Halcraw, Electroconsult and others.

From 1974 to 1976, a hydro- geological survey was carried out by the Ethiopian Institute of
Geological Survey (EIGS) in Mekele Area covering an area of 18,000 km2 between 130–140
north latitude and 390–40.30 east longitude. From this, a Hydrological Map of Mekele Area
(1:250,000) was prepared (WAPCOS, 1990). Geologically, this area consists of metamorphic,
sedimentary and igneous rocks. The transmissivity of the rock fractures was found to range
from high (875 m2/day) in alluvial terraces to very low (<1 m2/day) in fresh unfractured
metamorphic rocks and intrusive rocks. Groundwater in the area was found to pre-
dominantly contain bi-carbonates and sulphates.

In January 1982, the EIGS and UNDP conducted a study on the Lakes Region (Ziway, Abijata,
Shalla and Awassa). The Lakes Region is covered by volcanic rocks, such as basalts,
ignimbrites, trachutes, rhyolites and pyroclastics. In the lowland areas, extensive areas of
11
lucastrine sediments are found overlying the ignimbrites of the rift floor having variable
hydraulic conductivity. The groundwater movement is established as moving north towards
Lake Shalla (the deepest lake in Ethiopia). Some groundwater from adjacent areas of Lake
Awassa and Bilate River Basin also move towards the lake. High fluoride concentrations in
surface and groundwater were encountered in large parts of the area. Due to high salinity,
alkalinity and fluoride content, waters of Lake Langano, Abijata and Shalla were considered
as neither fit for drinking nor for irrigation. The reports also show that the groundwater in
the lowlands of these areas was similar.

The hydrogeology of Nazareth area carried out by EIGS (1974 – 1980) shows the area
consists of Nazareth group of rocks with Mesozoic sedimentary formations. Some alluvial
and lucastrine sediments were also identified. The problem of groundwater quality is not
acute (fluoride content less than 1.5 ppm) except some isolated pockets with fluoride
contents greater than 5 ppm around Wonji, Methahara and Wolenchiti areas. The
permeability and yield in these areas are highly variable.

The UNDP, in collaboration with the Government of Ethiopia, also conducted a study during
the period 1972 to 1974 in Awash Basin with the objective of assessing groundwater,
reviewing groundwater and surface water potential, and offering suggestions for delineating
potential groundwater areas. Investigations in the Aledeghi Plain showed that there were
adequate groundwater supplies estimated to be available for domestic and livestock needs.
The extent of groundwater resources was not assessed in the study. The study concluded
that in Erer-Gota area, limestone beds below the base of the major uplifted area could
contain potable water and WAPCOS recommends drilling boreholes in these areas.

The flood plain and delta of the lower Awash Valley has been recommended as a potential
groundwater area from the delineated groundwater areas. And this delineation report
suggested three areas for future groundwater studies:

• Tendaho – Assayta segment;

• Lower delta from Hedaitole to lower Gamari in E-W direction and from
Amadugora to Lake Bario in a N-S direction; and
• Inter-montanne valley – in the south eastern corner of Dit Bahri, Kutubala
and across the mouth of the valley, south east of Kutubala.

The study also contained valuable information regarding the hot springs of Ethiopia.

In Melka-Sedi Amibara area, groundwater studies were stated by Ital Consultants in 1970.
Since then, groundwater levels in the area were recorded intermittently. The data are
incomplete and boreholes have been abandoned. It is stated in the report that a possibility
exists of identifying two sets of aquifers below the Amibara Plain.

Another extensive study by EIGS since 1970 to 1984 reviewed by WAPCOS shows the
following:

12
 i. The regional geologic mapping of sedimentary rocks in the Harar. Awash
Valley region indicated that the prospects for groundwater appear to be
good in the area.
ii. The hydro-geological information, including borehole logs, water analysis,
was documented.
iii. A borehole at Hagere Mariam drilled to a depth of 38.3 m produced a yield
of 5 m3/hr. The productive zone was found to be 4.5 m. The lower part of
the basalt proved unexpectedly compact and impermeable. Another
borehole located a few kilometers southwest of Suropa found water in the
decomposed fractured granite gneiss underlying and alluvium filled valley.
The yield varied from 18 l/min to 45 lit/min.
iv. In the Dire Dawa area, 185 springs with discharges varying from 1 to 50
l/min have been identified.
v. During the year 1983-84 a hydro-geophysical survey for groundwater was
carried out in Gelana and Gidabo Basins which helped in determining the
geological structure and aquifer characteristics of the area.
vi. Up to 1984, a total area of 253,000 km2 has been hydro-geologically
investigated in Ethiopia.

It was WAPCOS (1990) that first employed various approaches for the estimation of
groundwater resources for almost the entire part of Ethiopia. Five assessment approaches
were implemented to quantify the potential annual rechargeable ground water.
Accordingly, an estimated 21 to 27.5 MCM is the total replenishable annual ground water
volume. This estimate by WAPCOS is believed by many professionals and academics to be
underestimated.

2.2 Current Ground Water Studies

International Ground Water Conference, Addis Ababa (2004)
A recent international groundwater conference in Addis Ababa (2004) brought forward
many challenges and issues. One important achievement of the conference was it brought
together hydrogeologists and other groundwater specialists from all over Ethiopia and
beyond. A total of 94 papers and posters were presented from different regions across the
country, notably from Tigray, Amhara, Benishangul, and SNNPRS. Comparison of drilling
success rates in the regional state government shows high success rates in Tigray and
Amhara States (70-75% in Tigray and 84% in Amhara), lower success rates in Benishangul
(31%). Drilling costs were reported (in ESRDF projects) to be falling in Tigray between
1998/90 and 2004. This was due to the establishment of the Regional Enterprise and
increasing competition from the private sector. However, in the remote region of
Benishangul-Gumuz, the costs of contracted-out drilling were still around Birr 1,350/m.
Several regions were said to be experimenting with shallower depths and smaller diameters
than before, packaging and clustering of drilling contracts, use of PVC casings rather than
steel where possible, and other cost reduction measures. In one case, it was argued that
test pumping should not be carried out on shallow (hand pump) boreholes. In Amhara,
although 75% of drilling is carried out using DTH, it was suggested that rig versatility (DTH
combined with mud rotary) and capital cost and ease of maintenance should be important
considerations in choice of technology.

13
The Geological Survey of Ethiopia presented the current status of hydrogeological mapping
as is shown in Figure 4. The ambitious Ethiopian Groundwater Resources Assessment
Programme (EGRAP) was described, together with various contributions made by IAEA,
USGS, UNDP and Norad in partnership with GSE and MoWR. The Ethiopian National
Groundwater Database (ENGDA), a Microsoft Access-based system, was installed in GSE,
MoWR and AAU in 2004. Currently, the database, which was installed at least in the then
Ministry of Water Resources, has been abandoned and another ground water information
system is underway.

Some presenters focused on ways of surmounting the challenges posed by drilling in Africa
by emphasizing high safety factors in rig specifications (especially pull-back), and techniques
such as simultaneous casing for heterogeneous formations. Others argued for a relaxation
of borehole designs and specifications, and simpler equipment. In the latter case, the now
often-repeated call is for small diameters, shallow depths, PVC casings instead of steel, or
no casing at all in hard rock, limited development and test pumping; all aimed at driving
down the costs of hand pump boreholes. Unfortunately, the assumptions behind some of
these arguments are that Sub-Saharan Africa is essentially crystalline rock, and that we are
drilling exclusively for hand pumps; neither of which hold true in Ethiopia. Nevertheless,
many of the points made were helpful in those situations where shallow boreholes for rural
hand pump water supplies are possible. The combination of hard-rock drilling technology
(DTH) with the development the India Mark II hand pump achieved this “revolution”, the
ingredients for success being listed as:

• Political will;
• Continuous support by external support agencies;
• A strong industrial base;
• Skilled human resources;
• The involvement of the private sector;
• An extensive program of work;
• Informed technical choice;
• Good logistical control;
• Standardization;
• Good communications and infrastructure; and
• Effective monitoring and evaluation.

Some of the ingredients are present, or potentially so, in Ethiopia, many are not.
Furthermore, Ethiopia’s geology generally presents more challenging drilling.

ENGDA -Ethiopian National Groundwater Database

The Ministry of Water Resources (now called the Ministry of Water and Energy),
developed a national groundwater database to capture the ground water characteristics of
the country. The first National ground water database, known as Ethiopian National
Groundwater Database (ENGDA) was established. ENGDA was started in 2003 by USGS
experts in collaboration with the Ministry of Water Resources (Hydrology Department)
under the project ETH/8/007 which was supported by the International Atomic Energy
Agency (IAEA) and finalized in January 2005.

14
 ENGDA is implemented jointly by the Ministry of Water Resources, Addis Ababa
University, and the Geological Survey of Ethiopia in close collaboration with the Regional
Water Resources Development Bureaus, Water Works Enterprises and NGOs. The success
of ENGDA is due to the on-going studies and sustaining the capabilities built through
technical cooperation with the IAEA in the past several years. The success of these
technical cooperation projects depends on the capability to collect, process, interpret and
archive the relevant hydrogeological and hydrological data. ENGDA is a necessary tool
critical to the successful implementation of the proposed Ethiopian Groundwater
Resources Assessment Program (EGRAP) that has been submitted to the Government for
approval. This project is aimed at mapping and investigating the groundwater resources of
the entire nation within a period of 12-15 years.

ENGDA is implemented in Microsoft Access and is designed to input, store, analyze and
report ground-water information. Ground water data stored in ENGDA includes site
information, borehole details, water-level and water quality. The Ministry of Water
Resources, Hydrology Department has a plan to train all regional water bureaus' and
ground water related professionals so that all ground water data can be stored and
managed systematically.

Currently, the sustainability of ENGDA’s is a question mark. There is little news of the
implementation of the database in the Ministry of Water and Energy. Currently, there is
ongoing project to develop a new database system known as Ethiopian National Ground
Water Information System(ENGWIS) under the directorate of Ground Water Development
Study and Management of Ministry of Water and Energy, which may explain the near
extinction of ENGDA. It was possible to access ENGDA which is currently available only at
the hydrology department of the MoWE and waiting to be replaced by ENGWIS.

Additional ground water studies: ground water for agriculture

The government embarked on enhanced development of groundwater for agricultural
mostly in drought prone areas (PASDEP II, 2010). In the last five years, studies of four
selected ground water studies covering a total of 35,261 km2 have been completed (Kobo
Girana: 2,850 km2; Raya Valley: 1,411 km2; Adaa Becho: 17,000 km2; and Aladage; 14,000
km2). According to the five year PASDEP II plan for groundwater, more than nine projects
are being considered for development (MoWE, 2010). The first phase of the study in the
coming five years has put 8,000 ha to be developed as a pilot (MoWE, 2010).

3. GROUNDWATER POTENTIAL OF ETHIOPIA

Ground water potential of Ethiopia is controversial and there is no consensus so far as to the
estimated exploitable groundwater potential. It varies from WAPCOS estimate of around 2.5
BCM to preliminary national estimates of Ayenew and Alemayehu (2001) to 185 BCM. This
extremely high discrepancy in the potential is a challenge to the experts and decision
makers. Some of the studies are presented in the preceding section.

3.1 Basin Ground Water Estimation – WAPCOS (1990)

It was WAPCOS (1990) that first time employed new approaches for the estimation of
groundwater resources. Usually indirect methods are used due to the scarcity of data in
almost all the potential areas of development. The methods seen are:

15
 a) Base flow separation approach;
b) Subsurface drainage approach;
c) Recharge area approach;
d) Water balance simulation techniques; and
a) Base flow separation method.

a) Base flow separation approach

Stream flow originating from stored groundwater is referred to as groundwater runoff or
base flow. The mean monthly stream flows are plotted for a gauging station selected as near
the end of a basin or sub-basin as possible. The plotting is made in such a manner that two
minimum points are reached during the year. These points are joined by a straight line and
the volume below this line is computed as base flow or ‘B’ in Mm3.

Such an approach adopted by WAPCOS (1990) and the base flow volumes for different river
basins is shown in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1. Base flow volumes of river basins

Stream flow data used Base flow Volume: B

Basin
(No. of years (Mm3)
Abbay 19 10,200
Rift Valley Lakes 4 to 20 2,217
Awash 15 2,240
Omo-Ghibe 21 2,785
Genale-Dewa-Weyib 5 to 6 454
Wabi-Shebele 6 1,108
Baro-Okobo 3 to 9 1,211
Tekeze-Angereb-Goang 9 1,791
Total 22,006
Source: WAPCOS 1990, P.AII -27

b) Subsurface Drainage Approach

Groundwater runoff contours for Ethiopia have been drawn by Karasic (1982). This map was
superimposed on the river basins of Ethiopia and assuming groundwater representing the
replenishable recharge (QG) in any basin, the value of QG for each basin has been computed
and a map was produced (Figure 6.2)

16
Table 3.2. Basin-wise replenishable recharge (sub-surface drainage approach)

Annual
Groundwater runoff
Basin Area (Km2) recharge, QG
(l/sec/Km2)
(Mm3)
Abbay 201,300 2.05 13,014
Rift Valley Lakes 52,700 0.77 1,280
Awash 112,700 0.52 1,848
Omo-Ghibe 78,200 1.35 3,329
Genale-Dawa 171,000 0.33 1,780
Wabi-Shebele 202,700 0.32 2,046
Baro-Okobo 74,000 0.90 2,100
Tekeze-Angereb-Goang 90,000 0.74 2,100
982,600 27,497
Source: WAPCOS 1990, P.AII -29

C) Recharge Area Approach

Groundwater storage is mainly due to infiltration of precipitation of seepage from streams
and other water bodies. Major groundwater replenishment takes place through direct
precipitation over the upland areas of the watershed. The seasonal fluctuations of water
level depend on the rate of replenishment of the saturated zone. This rate is a function of
precipitation, surface run-off, permeability of soil, drainage network, and antecedent
moisture content of the soil and the slope of the land surface.
In recharge areas, gentle slopes seem to offer more favorable conditions. Moderate rainfall
over an extended period of time accelerates infiltration. During heavy rains for short
periods, the recharge is minimal. Thus WAPCOS (1990) suggests two factors which control
the infiltration of precipitation and recharge to groundwater.

1. Physical factors, such the size, slope and geologic conditions of water
shed, and
2. Climatic conditions which vary from season to season and year to
year.

17
Figure 3.1. Recharge areas

Using the concepts above, WAPCOS tried to identify broad groundwater recharge and
discharge areas in each basin. However, precise delineation of such areas could not be
determined due to lack of information on seasonal water level changes. The basinwide
extent of the recharge area and amount of recharge to groundwater expressed as percent
of mean annual rainfall are given below (WAPCOS, 1990)

Table 3.3. Basin wise replenishable recharge (recharge area approach)

Extent of % of rainfall Replenishabl

Mean annual
Basin recharge recharging e recharge
rainfall (mm)
area GW QG (Mm3)
Abbay 1,420 89,760 10 12,745
Rift Valley Lakes 1,135 15,840 5 898
Awash 850 22,400 7 1,332
Omo-Ghibe 1,469 35,811 8 4,208
Genale-Dawa 550 19,675 4 433
Wabi-Shebele 450 29,085 3 393
Baro-Okobo 1,590 10,581 4 673
Tekeze-Angereb-Goang 819 35,816 3 870
Danakil 455 4,316 2 39
21,591
Source: WAPCOS 1990, P.AII -32

18
Judging from significant recharge estimate variations provided from several of the studies,
the potential groundwater of the country varies significantly and it is difficult to establish
the facts. However, it is widely reported that Ethiopia possesses usable groundwater
potential in the order of 2.6 BCM. Not only are the yield levels of water wells too low (less
than 5 liters per second), but wells are generally too deep to justify economic exploitation of
groundwater resources for irrigation purposes in Ethiopia (WAPCOS, 1990).

Various studies have been done to explore the hydrogeological condition of different places
in the country with a view to quantifying the groundwater potential of each place selected
by the study team (EIGS, UNDP, Halcrow, Electro-consult: cited in WAPCOS, 1990). Most
studies were carried out in the 1970’s and 1980’s through bilateral cooperation and UNDP
support. The WAPCOS (1990) compilation and estimation of the groundwater potential of
the country is more comprehensive than any previous study.

While studying the national water master plan, WAPCOS (1990) made an effort to quantify
the total ground water potential using various direct and indirect empirical approaches that
include i) base flow separation approach, ii) subsurface drainage approach, iii) recharge area
approach, iv) water balance simulation techniques and iv) base flow separation method. As
shown in Table 3.4, all the techniques give fairly comparable estimates. The total estimated
ground water recharge locked in the sub surface may vary between 21.5 to 27.5 BCM. More
than 50% of the potential ground water is locked in the Blue Nile Basin. The western part of
the country has a total estimated potential of well above 75%, while the eastern highlands,
including Awash Basin, covers the other 25%. While the figure indicated as the usable
potential ground water may be arguable, the available studies suggest Ethiopia’s
groundwater potential is not easily used and the aquifer systems are not extensive. Table
3.3 (WAPCOS, 1990) gives usable groundwater potential.

19
Table 3.4. Usable groundwater potential

Annual replenishable recharge (BM3)* Usable groundwater potential

Sub Extractable %
Recharge Usable
Basin surface Base flow Adopted Extraction ground reduction
area GW
drainage approach value factor Water for saline
approach (BM3)*
approach (BM3)* areas
Blue Nile 13.01 12.7 10.2 12 0.15 1.8 0 1.8
Rift Valley
1.28 0.9 2.2 1.5 0.05 0.08 90 0.01
Lakes
Awash 1.85 1.3 2.2 2 0.1 0.2 30 0.14
Omo-Gibe 3.33 4.2 2.8 3.5 0.05 0.18 0 0.18
Genale-
1.78 0.43 0.5 1 0.05 0.05 35 0.03
Dawa
Wabi-
2.05 0.39 1.1 1.5 0.05 0.08 45 0.04
Shebele
Baro-
2.1 0.67 1.2 2 0.05 0.1 0 0.1
Okobo
Tekeze-
Angereb- 2.1 0.87 1.8 2 .1 0.2 0 0.2
Goang
27.5 21.46 22.0 25.5 2.69 2.5
*Billion cubic meters
Source: WAPCOS 1990 P. AII-35

14
Total Replenishable Recharge
12
Mean Annual Volume (BCM)

Utilizable Potential
10

0
Omo-Ghibe

Baro-Okobo
Blue Nile

Genale-

Shebele

Tekeze-
Angereb-
Rift Valley

Awash

Dawa

Goang
Wabi
Lakes

Major River Basins

Figure 3. 2: Replenishable discharge of Ethiopian River Basins

3.2 National Ground Water Recharge Estimate – Ayenew and Alemayehu (2001)
Ayenew and Alemayehu (2001) presented totally different figures for the amount of
groundwater recharge over the country on the basis of simplified assumptions. The general
coverage of the recharge mechanism based on the geological cover of the country as: I)
basement cover = 18%; ii) Paleozoic and Mesozoic cover = 25%; iii). tertiary volcanic = 40%;
iv). quaternary sediments and volcanic = 17%. On the basis of these proportions, the main

20
source of recharge for the groundwater system is generally the abundant rainfall over the
highlands. The major recharge occurs in the northeastern and southwestern plateau where
annual rainfall is high and rapid infiltration is facilitated by the occurrence of fractured
volcanic and to a lesser extent sedimentary rocks and thick permeable soils. The Ethiopian
Rift acts as a discharging zone, which contains numerous perennial rivers, fresh and salt
lakes, cold and thermal springs. With the exception of much of the Afar Depression, where
the annual recharge is close to zero, the overview of the recharge over Ethiopia is
summarized in Table 3.5 (Ayenew and Alemayehu, 2001).

Table 3.5. The overview of annual recharge in Ethiopia

Annual recharge Location

(mm)
250 - 400 Highlands of Illu-Ababora, Keffa and Wollega
150 - 250 Much of the Western and western and central Ethiopia and Arsi-Bale
highlands
50 - 150 Much of Northern and northwestern highlands, central Main Ethiopian rift,
southern and eastern regions between the Rift plain and the Arsi-Bale
Highlands
less than 50 Southern Afar and the extreme northern end of the western lowlands
Source: Ayenew and Alemayehu, 2001

On the basis of various simplifying assumptions and 200 mm average recharge over the
country, Ayenew and Alemayehu (2001) estimated the volume of groundwater reserve in
the order of 185 billion m3. This figure is far from many others estimates. It may be due to
methodological error. It is difficult to assume ground water estimation from a simple water
balance concept and the figure is not acceptable. It is estimated that the total surface water
generated from the country is in the order of 122 billion m3. It may be an exaggeration to
think the total groundwater recharge is even greater than the surface flow generated from
the country. Under normal circumstances, the proportion of the direct surface runoff is
greater than the total groundwater proportion of the total rainfall. Therefore, it is more
likely groundwater is higher than the WAPCOS estimate and lower than the 185 BCM.

3.3 Groundwater potential and methodology shift

The context of the groundwater studies in Ethiopia were generally based on the available
data. Apart from the known limitations of the data, many professional experts and
academics believe the past studies and exploration methods were constrained by two
conceptual deficiencies. First, most recharge estimates and groundwater potential
assessments used the base flow separation method as the principal assessment tool and
relied on the output of the separation. This method falls short of providing accurate
assessment of groundwater potential in cases of rivers contributing to groundwater (when
groundwater level is well below the river bed). For instance, in an analysis of Awash River
between Awash Falls to Melkasedi, the regional groundwater table is lower than the river
bed by almost 20 m (discussion with WWDSE expert). This is an indication that Awash looses
water from the river bed to regional groundwater aquifer. It is estimated that 50 to 200
MCM of water may be leaking to the regional groundwater aquifer from Awash River.
Several rivers in Ethiopia are believed to have similar characteristics.

21
Second, most groundwater studies and explorations in the past used socio-economic
approaches. The approach was simply to look for water around the socio-economic centers.
The studies usually fall short of regional understanding and the output usually falls on a
perched groundwater aquifer, which produces lower yields for shorter periods. The
approach hinders our understanding of the assessment of the availability of regional
groundwater systems on a larger scale. Therefore, the majority of the boreholes drilled
likely fall under such a category. Interpretation and conclusion of the groundwater potential
of the country or the region on the basis of such data sets is prone to misinterpretation of
the perched groundwater resources. Engda Zemedkun (WWDSE groundwater expert)
argues the approach and lack of appropriate data has limited our understanding of the
groundwater potential of the country. Most groundwater potential figures given by
WAPCOS and other studies are therefore incorrect and should be re-evaluated. Therefore, a
shift in methodologies is required in conceptualization and understanding of the
groundwater system in Ethiopia. Recent studies of groundwater of Kobo, Raya and Adaa
Becho, follow regional groundwater system understanding approaches and have produced
water yields far larger than initially thought. It is suggested that the following shifts are
recommended to evaluate the national potential of ground water resources.

• Groundwater studies should focus on conceptualization of the groundwater

system before estimating the potential groundwater resources based on
local groundwater information. Researchers should attempt to understand
the regional groundwater system considering larger areas of the hydrology,
flow hydraulics and the subsurface geological system.

• The attempt to study and understand the national groundwater potential

should be a process rather than a one-time study. We should begin our
understanding of individual groundwater systems on a project basis and
accumulate our knowledge of the national potential. While national
groundwater resources assessment from patchy data gives incorrect
understanding, generation of adequate data sets for the entire country is
expensive. For instance, the study of Raya, Kobo and Adaa Becho
groundwater potentials has established the extent of aquifer system, the
depth and direction of groundwater flow system and potential of exploitable
groundwater. Systematic study and exploration of groundwater becomes a
fruitful way of accumulating our understanding step by step. Excluding the
recharge from the Becho Plain due to the maximum exploitation of the
groundwater resource, the net available exploitable groundwater potential
from Adaa Plain alone is estimated to be 1,046 MCM/year or 2.9MCM/day,
which forms most 40 % of the national ground water estimate according to
WAPCOS.

22
4. GROUNDWATER DEVELOPMENT AND USE
4.1. Experience of Ground Water Development and Utilization in the Country:
Borehole Information
Data on over 7,000 boreholes were collected from the different regional offices and MoWE
including the ENGDA data sets. Over 50% of the wells do not have depth information (Figure
4.1.). Of the total wells having depth information, 80% are shallow wells and the remaining
20% deep wells. It is anticipated that over 90% of the wells lacking depth information could
likely be categorized as shallow wells as ground water development in the country was
mainly geared towards developing domestic water supply to fulfill the Millennium
Development Goals and the universal access to safe water. The depth distributions of the
wells are fairly evenly distributed over the country without including the peripheral districts
of the country.

Figure 4.1. Classification of wells according to depth

The classification of the wells according to the benefits they provide shows currently over
95% of these wells are intended for domestic water supply. Less than 4 % of the ground
water development is used for irrigation. As shown in Figure 4.1, the development of the
ground water for irrigation is mainly in Borena in the south (Oromiya Regional State), Kobe
(Amhara Regional State), and Raya (Tigray Regional State). These are the only implemented
ground water development schemes and are expected to expand to other parts of the
country such as Adaa Becho Plain, Teru, and Tana Beles sub-basins.

23
Figure 4.2. Distribution of ground water use
Source: Author’s data collection

24
Figure 4.3. Classification of borehole based on yield.

4.2 Experience of Ground Water Development and Utilization for Agriculture

Experience of exploiting groundwater in the country for irrigation is limited. As of 2004, the
total groundwater irrigated areas in the country did not exceed two hundred hectares of
horticulture and flower farms (Aytenffisu and Zemedagegnehu, 2004). Reviews of the
different studies on groundwater conditions indicate there is high potential for developing
groundwater sources for irrigation in specific areas. These include alluvial fan deposits along
the foot of the rift escarpments, flood plains and valley fills which are regularly recharged by
seasonal runoffs from the highlands. The western escarpments of the Rift Valley that stretch
from Showa Robit to Alamata (such as Shewa Robit, Raya-Kobo, Girana, Borkena, Mersa
valleys), the vast alluvial plain that extends from Alaydege near the Awash flood plain to
Dewele on the Djibouti border, the flood plains of the major and seasonal rivers and several
fan deposits along the foot of escarpments. Most areas are located in drought prone
regions. As it stands now, the used ground water is limited (Figure 3.3). Section 4.3 presents
some of large-scale ongoing and planned ground water irrigation schemes.

25
4.2.1 Ground Water potential of Kobo Girana Valley
The main aquifer in the valley is unconsolidated sediment. Three aquifers or recharge areas
are identified in the valley: the Waja-Golesha, the Hormat-Golina and Kobo-Gerbi recharge
areas. The following table provides a summary of aquifer characteristics. According to the
hydro-geological investigation report by Metaferia Consulting Engineers (2009), there is
little information to validate the promise of Girana as potential groundwater sources. As
shown in Table 4.1, a significant portion of the groundwater potential of the valley is the
reserved groundwater with exploitable groundwater in the order of 700 to 800 MCM.
However, the annual recharge remains within the range of 30 to 50 MCM. Therefore,
caution is needed to sustain use of the available groundwater.

Table 4.1. Ground water potential of Kobo Girana Valley

Waja-Golesha Hormat-Golina Kobo-Gerbi

No. Parameters
Range Average Range Average Range Average
1 Sediment thickness, m 60-277 156 18-210 129 42-268 149
2 Aquifer thickness, m No
20-160 100 20-150 90
aquifer
3 Transmissivity, m2/day 563
566
400*
4 Water Table depth, m 17 22 47
5 Electrical conductivity, ms/cm 650 1300 3000
6 Potential for GW Good Good Poor
7 Available Ground Water
Potential, km2
High 65.0 96.3 -
Moderate 20.6 30.7 -
Total 85.6 51.3
8 Average Saturated thickness, m 139 107
9 Ground water reserve, MCM 1189.84 1358.9 -
10 Exploitable GW , MCM (at 60%
713.90 815.34
Sat. thickness)
11 Annual Recharge, MCM 31.0 53.5
12* Annual Use, MCM (from reserve
48.0 55.0
for 15 yrs)

26
 5
5
5
0
0
0

5
6
0
0
0
0

5
6
5
0
0
0

5
7
0
0
0
0

5
7
5
0
0
0

5
8
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
5
3
6
HYDROGEOLOGICAL MAP OF KOBO VALLEY
6
3
5
1
0
0
0

To Alamata
0 B

13 90
0
0
1
0
3
6
6
3 ð K13
0
1
0
ð K12 0
0
Waja ð K11
ð K10

ð WG-2 N

14
ð K8 ð K9
ð K2

50
ð K7 ð K6
ð K4
0 ð K3
0 ðe rWG-1
0
1
5 Rivð K1 3
5 bu VES-6
G oÑ VES-1
5
Ñ VES-3 Ñ VES-4 Ñ VES-5 Ñ VES-6 Ñ VES-7
Ñ VES-37
3 15
5
ð K5
1
0
10 Golesha

90
0

13
ð K16 0
ð K15

13

70
15
50 ððK18
K17
15

30
Ñ VES-40
ð K14
Ñ VES-38

10
B ð K21 ðð K22
K23

14
ð K19
ð K20

1490
0
0 15 ela
0 30 lib 14
1
0 La ð10

Mendefra
3
5 To
K26 5
Ñ Ñ VES-39
ð K24 VES-41
3
0
1 13 90 0
0

Gara Lencha
0
ð K25
To Zobul
ð K27

Unconsolidated quaternary sediments 13

(Very high to low groundwater potential) Ñ VES-8VES-9
Ñ Ñ VES-10Ñ VES-11 Ñ VES-12 Ñ VES-13
Ñ VES-14 9 0
14
0 Teriary Basalt ( Moderate to 70
0
0
1
very low groundwater potential
5
3
4
4
fracture aquifer) 90
3
5
1 14
0
0
Acidic Tertiary volcanic rocks of 0

15
fracture aquifer (Very low to

10
ð K31 Ñ VES-20
ð K28
Ñ VES-15ð K29
practic ally impervious) ð K30 Ñ VES-16 Ñ VES-17 Ñ VES-18

Granites (Impervious)
Gedemeu

0 Water level elevation contour, masl

0
0
1
0
A
3
4
4
Fault Ñ VES-21 Ñ VES-22
3
0
1
0
ð K34 ð K35
Bore holes Index
0
ð ð HG-1 ð K36
0
ð HG-2
ð K37
Ñ VES Points
Ñ VES-23 Ñ VES-24 Ñ VES-25
Riv
Ground Water Divide er
Ho
rm
at

1 390
ð K38

0 Groundwaterflow direction Ñ VES-26 Ñ VES-27

0
0 Abware
1
5
3
ð K40
3
3
ð K42
3
5
1 Internal valley surface
0
ð K43 0
water drainage divide
0
River Golina

70
ves=32

13
Ñ VES-42 Ñ VES-28 Ñ VES-29 Ñ VES-30 Ñ VES-32
Rivers and streams
Ri
ve
r
A

141
l
ð K45 lke
Main K46 Ke

0
0 Ñ VES-33
0 1470
0
1
Secondary ð K44
0
3
3
3
3 1410
0
1 A A
0
X-section line A-A 0
10 0
0
Ñ VES-34
15 153 14 30
ð K47
1490
5 0
15 Ñ VES-35

0
0
0
5
FIG 2 1
3
2 30
2
Ñ VES-36
3
5
15
15

1
0
0
10

ð K48
0
149 1550
0

Scale 1:120000
GEO-ENGINEERING SERVICE
0 ADDIS ABABA, ETHIOPIA
0 2 0 2 4 Kilometers KOBO-GIRANA VALLEY
0
1
0 JANUARY 2003
3
2 DEVELOPMENT PROJECT
2
3
0
1
0
0
0
5
5
5
0
0
0

5
6
0
0
0
0

5
6
5
0
0
0

5
7
0
0
0
0

5
7
5
0
0
0

5
8
0
0
0
0

Figure 4.4. Hydrogeological Map of Kobo (Source: GES, 2003)

4.2.2 Groundwater potential of Raya Valley

Raya valley intermountain plain is found in the southern part of Tigray Regional State,
Southern Tigray Zone in Alamata and Mahoni Woredas. The surface water catchment of the
valley (Selen Wuha River basin) has an area of 2,576 km2. The altitude ranges between 3,600
masl in the mountain ranges and 1,400 masl in the intermountain valley plain (Raya Valley
alluvial aquifer). The Raya Valley alluvial aquifer is part of the Selen Wuha River surface
water catchment of an intermountain plain which is part of the interconnected valleys of
the Ethiopian rift system. It has a total area of 1,227 km2, a trough bounded by the Ethiopian
plateau and rift escarpment (western escarpment) at the west and Chercher Mountains in
the east. The Raya Valley alluvial aquifer is a graben of sedimentary fill elongated nearly in a
NNE-SSE direction along the Main Ethiopian Rift System which has a width of most 20 -25
kilometers and length of most 65 km (figure 1). The western plateau and escarpment which
comprises the largest portion of the surface catchment which drains to Raya Valley Plain

27
alluvial aquifer are mainly composed of tertiary volcanic rocks. These rocks are highly
disturbed by tectonic movements. The N-S faulting is responsible for tilting the rock
formations with a general strike NE-SW and dipping to the SE direction. The Raya Valley
alluvial aquifer is composed of loosely compacted sedimentary basin fill deposits. It has a
high potential for agricultural development but the main problem being scarcity of surface
water. The dominant type of agriculture is rainfed agriculture with supplementary irrigation
using the floods flowing from the western mountain chains.

Different studies have been conducted to evaluate the groundwater potential of Raya Valley
Plain aquifer. Among the most comprehensive studies conducted are 1) German Consult,
Kobo-Alamata Agricultural Development Program (German Consult 1977); 2) Raya Valley
Integrated Agricultural Development Study Project, Hydrogeology (REST 1999); and 3)
Review of REST 1998 (Dr. Gershanovich 2000). None of these have studied properly the
central and eastern part of the valley plain (which comprises more than 50% of the alluvial
aquifer of the valley plain) due to absence of boreholes that penetrate the alluvial aquifer to
calibrate the geophysical investigation and evaluate the groundwater potential of these
parts of the plain.

In the current study, a large number of borehole drilling and testing (aquifer test, profile
borehole drilling and testing and production well drilling and testing) was conducted, which
solved the problem of data gaps in the valley, especially in the central and eastern part of
the valley. Raya Valley Plain alluvial aquifer groundwater modeling was carried out to
determine the sustainable exploitable groundwater potential resources in the valley by
conducting different scenarios of abstraction of groundwater in the valley plain.

The main previous studies are REST 1998 Raya Valley Development Project, Feasibility
Hydrogeology Report and Review of the Feasibility Hydrology Report by Geshanovich 2000.

The feasibility hydrogeology study was conducted to evaluate the groundwater resource
potential of Raya Valley Plain alluvial aquifer by reviewing previous studies, water points
inventory, water quality analysis, geophysical investigation, and conducting pumping tests
on existing wells. Based on the available previous data and data generated during the study,
the following results were obtained:

• Recharge to alluvial aquifer was estimated to be 86 Mm3/year;

• Total groundwater reserve of the valley alluvial aquifer is 7.2 Bm3
• The water quality of the valley fulfils the Ethiopian standard of drinking
water;
• Almost all the water samples analyzed from the groundwater are excellently
suitable for irrigation;
• Applying an analytical mathematical method, the exploitable groundwater
potential is estimated to be most 162 Mm3/year

Due to limitation of borehole data in the central and eastern parts of the valley plain, the
area was considered to have low transmissivity (less than 100 m2/day). It was concluded
that the transmissivity of the Raya Valley alluvial aquifer generally decreases in west-east
direction. In addition, it was recommended to carry out additional geophysical investigation,

28
drill test wells at the central and eastern zones of the valley plain, and conduct continuous
water level monitoring.

The Hydrology Report (REST 1998) was reviewed (Gershanovich 2000) and the following
conclusions and recommendations were made:

• The boreholes of the feasibility report 1998 are partial and require fully penetrating
wells, including the weathered part of the basalt bed;
• The density of the hydro-geological information is not sufficient for 1:50,000;
• No problem of water quality;
• The total exploitable groundwater potential is estimated most 130 Mm3/year
instead of 162 Mm3/year;
• Recommended pilot project (2-3 well fields) of groundwater development, regional
geological and hydro-geological investigations for further confirmation of the
groundwater potential of the valley; and
• Further recommended design of production well, design of observation wells,
borehole logging, well development, pumping tests, groundwater regime
monitoring.

The recent study by WWDSE (2007) has considered all of recommendations of the
feasibility report (REST 1998) and Gershanovich (2000) generated large additional data sets
to fill the data gaps in the valley with better and quality data. Piezometer wells were drilled
and data loggers were purchased and some installed recently.

The mean annual groundwater balance of Raya Valley Plain alluvial aquifer is summarized in
Table 4.2.

Table 4.2. Summarized groundwater inflow and outflow in Raya Valley Plain alluvial
aquifer

Inflow to Raya Valley alluvial aquifer Outflow from Raya Valley alluvial aquifer
Type of Inflow MCM/year Type of Outflow MCM/year
Recharge from draining the Groundwater extraction for 2.5
volcanic mountainous as 136.0 community water supply
subsurface inflow and irrigation (2009)
Recharge from runoff
seepage at the foot of the Evaporation from Gerjele 8.9
escarpment (upper part of 54.0 swamp
the alluvial plain)
Recharge from rainfall at
the plain and irrigation 68.0 Discharge of Waja Springs 2.8
return
Subsurface outflow through
Selen wuha zone 243.8
(southeastern margin of the
alluvial plain
Sum 258.0 258.0

29
The approximate exploitable groundwater resources of Raya Valley Plain alluvial aquifer is
estimated to be 437 MCM/ year or 1,199,178 m3/day for 10,000 days or 25 years of
exploitation time, considering the Raya Valley plain alluvial aquifer to include a total area of
1,227 km2. The estimate varies significantly from previous studies.

1420000 560000 580000 600000

1420000
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3000 0 3000 6000 Meters # 15

1400000

L
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1400000
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Y P
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# 1520
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1620 P
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§
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#
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# S
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# Y
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# #
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Scale 1:200,000
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40 660

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UTM ZONE 37 ADINDAN #

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#
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#
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#
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14

#
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#
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#
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#
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1480
#
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1380000

1380000
#
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#
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#
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4 #
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HYDROLITHOLOGY
³ S# S# Y
# Y #
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3
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P4 P
R W-5
0 -0 8
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# 1480
P
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0

# Gerjele
#
Y
W
BH 1

P
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0

Bore holes and Y# Y #### Y

# Y# Y# W
F /4 H
B /2 O
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0 -1 8
0 P
R W-4
0 -4 8
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0 -2 8
0

Quaternary unconsolidated sediments

1400

W
F /4 H
B 3 W BW
F /4 H F
2 /4 H
B /2 O
B5

W
F /4 H
B /2 O
B4
W
F /4 H
B /2 O
B2
1420

springs S# Y# S# S#
# Y # #
Y #S
S
#
#S L
AH
W
BH8

B 2
4
1 H
B -0 9

P
R1V
P
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0
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0 -4 8
0

L
A H
B23
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B -1 4

P
R W-5
0 -3 8
0
P
RW 5
-0 -5 8
0

4 (very high to high groundwater potential)

# Y
H
B 0
1

W
F /3 H
B3 V
LSE 8
2
40

³
#
0

Y
P
R W-3
0 -5 8
0
Z
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1 460
144

# S#
14

Y
P
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Y#
#
W
F /3 H
B 1
V
L S
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L S
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Tertriary Basalts
# Y
W
FV
2 10

a) Irrigation wells
W
F /3 H
B 2

Y #
Y #
Y
W
F /2 9
V

`
S
H
B -0 8 P
RW 5
-0 -7 8
0 P
R W-5
0 -8 8
0

#
S #
Y #
W
BH 2
W
FV
27
W
F V
28
P
R W-6
0 -1 8
0

(Medium to low groundwater potential)

Y §
P
R 2
V6 P
R 2
V7
P
R W-5
0C9 -0 8
1460

W
FV
2 6 p
S 9
-7

#
Y Private Well
P
R 2
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R2V 5

#
Y
p
S1-9

#Y # #
P
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-0 -7 8
0

Y P
R W-6
0 -2 8
0 P
R W-6
0 -0 8
0

Y P
RW 2
-0 -2 8
0

# Acidic Volcanic rocks

P
R 2
V1 P
R2V 2

Y
P
R W-6
0 C
1 -0 8

V
LSE 7
1

Bala
W
FV
23 P
R 1
V9 P
R 2
V0

100 Production #
S #
Y #
Y B
H4- 8
W
FV
2 1

W
FV
2 5
W
F V
22

W
FV
2 4
P
R1V P
R
8 W-2
0 -7 8
0
P
RW 6
-0 -3 8
0

#
Y (Very low to practicaly impervious)
P
R W-6
0C2 -0 8

##
Y
# ³# S#
W
F /1 1
V 2 p
S7-
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MH H
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W
F V
11 3 W
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112
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P 5

Wells (MOWR)
1500

V
LSE 8
1

# S Y
W
B H2
1
P
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-0 -7 8
0

S# #
Y
W
FV
1 7

#
Y
B
H1- /2
9
14 1400

B
H 1
- /1
9 P
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0 H
B 9
2 /2

#
S
S
A
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R W-6
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0 E
V 4
S
W
FV
1 3

#S
S #
A
L B
H93 A
LBH 1
4

S # #
B
H2- 0

# S Y
5
W
F V
14 L
AHB2
A
L B
H73 H
B1R 9
E
V7S P
R W-4
0 -2 8
0

#
20

W
F V
18 E
V 5
S

#
Y REST Drilled BH #
Y S#S E
V8S H
B -5 H
B
7 -3 0

The Mesozoic sedimentary rocks (MSR) occupy

1440

#
W
FV
1 2

S
5
1540

#
P
R W-6
0 -6 8
0
H
B -3 1 V
L S
E61

Y
W
F V
15

Alamata #
E
V 1
S1 P
RW 7
-0 -1 8
0

S #
1
K

#Y
Y# #
S Y W
F /1 V
9
E
V1S 2 P
R W-6
0 -8 8
0

elevated area and dips away from the valley plain

H
B -3 2

W
F /1 V
1 W
F V
16

W
FV
11 1

b) Monitoring #
Y #
Y #
Y W
F /1 V
10
P
RW 7
-0 -0 8
0
1 520

W
B H3
1

#
P
R W-6
0 -9 8
0

#Y
Y# Y W
F /0 B

#
Y
H6 W
F /0 B

#
H 7

Y
W
F /0 B
H 1

W
FV
0 7
P
R W-7
0C1 -0 8

P
RW 7
-0 -2 8
0

to the regional rift valley

bore holes #
Y ####
#
Y
W H2 W
F /0 B F B
0 H /2
OB 3

§
W
FB
0 H /O
2 B1 W
F B0 H /2
O B5

P
R W-7
0 -3 8
0 W
FB
0 H /2
OB 2

S#
W
F V
09
L
A H
B13

#
Y
S
p 0
9
-

#Y# # Y#
W
FV
0 6 G
a kil a
T ra d

Y Y
S
p98
- P
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-0 -6 8
0

W
F /0 B
H8 W
F /0 B
H5 W
F V
03 W
F /0 H
B3

# Observation well W
F V
010

Amba Aradom formation

W
FV
0 5

#
Y #
Y #
P
R W-7
0 -5 8
0
W
F /0 B
H 4 W
F V
01 1 W
F V
51
V
L S
E51

³ Piezometer Well #S Y #
Y #
H
B 1
7 /1

# Y Y # S#
Y
P
R W-8
0 -4 8
0 P
R W-8
0 -0 8
0

#
W
F V
55 W
F /5 H
B 2 P
R W-2
0 -5 8
0

P
RW 7
-0 -7 8
0 H
B -5 8

W
F V
52

# Y
Y # W

#
#Y
F /5 B
H 6

#
Y W
F /5 B
H5 W
F /5 H
B 4
P
R W-7
0 -9 8
0

Antalo formation MSR

c) Others Y S# W
F V
51 0
1420

W
F /5 H
B3 H
B2R 8
W
FV
5 0 W
F V
56

# #
W
F V
57

S
# Y
P
R W-7
0 -4 8
0 H
B -6 3

#
Y
#Y
P
R W-8
0 -1 8
0

Y# 8
W
F /5 H
B1

Adigrat formation
E
N WV
2 W
F V
63 P
RW 7
-0 -8 8
0

Water Supply Wel # Y

W
F /6 H
B 2 W
FV
6 5

# Y #
P
R W-0 -8 8
0

S S
H
B 4
2

W
FV
69

##
Y###
E
N WV
1

Y# Y# W
F /6 B
H /3 O

W
B 1
W

F /6 H
BW
F /6 H F
3 /6 H

B /3 O
B
F2
W V
B /3 O

61 3
B5

P
R W-8
0C4 -0 8
P
R W-8
0C2 -0 8

#
Y
§
# Profile Well #
V
LSE 7
6 V
L S
E56

Y
P
RW 8
-0 -2 8
0
W
F V
62

#
S
P
R W-8
0 -3 8
0

H
B 1
4
W
FV
6 12 W
FV
6 7

Spring #
S
W
B H4

³ #
# P
Z9 W
F V
61
W
FV
6 8
W
F V
611

V
LSE 6
7
#
S
H
B -2 2

V
LSE6
#
Y
a
Bma
l b ra s
Basement rocks impervious except
#Y
W
F /6 H
B 4 E
V2S 5

#
Y at Selen wuha area intensively faulted
1460

Y
b
A rg
e le e
l
W
F /6 H
B 1

#
Y
E
V 2
S3

W
F /7 H
B 2

0 #
Y
W
F /7 H
B3

8 # #
P
R W-8
0 -5 8
0

S H
B -2 3

#
V
LSE 5
7

Y
P
R W-2
0 -1 8
0

14
S by Regional fault (groundwater outflow zone
W
BH 0
2

6 #
#S #
H
B -R 6
3
#
S H
B -4 7

#
S
H
B 2
R9

³
# Z
P6

#S
S # H
B -4 4
L
AHB5
1

# Y
W
F /7 H
B 1

S H
B -6 1

Y P
RW 8
-0 -6 8
0
V
L S
E75 V
L S
E95 V
LSE 8
5

V
L S
E86
V
LSE7

from Raya Valley plain)

§
80

V
LSE 9
6 E
V2S 8
E
V 2
S0

#
S B
H 5
- 9
B
H5- 9

#
p
S5-8

Y
13

Bedeno
P
R W-8
0 -7 8
0

New Waja S#S# Y# S#

H
B -2 1

#
P
R W-8
0 C
8 -0 8 L
AHB 8
1N

³
#
E
V2S9

S
§
L
AHB 5 H
B -4 6
H
B -4 6 Z
P7

Selen§Wuh
H
B -2 6

6
1360000

#
1360000

Y #
P
RW 8
-0 -8 8
0 p
S 4
-8

Y P
R W-8
0 C
9 -0 8 V
LSE 0
1VL
8SE 13 p
S3-8

Multilayered alluvial aquifer zone (approx)

V
L S
E68
V
L S
E010

§§§#§§§ Y# Y# Y#
§§
`
# Y
E
V 3
S1
P
RW 8
-0 -9 8
0
P
R W-9
0 C
0 -0 8

146 S
S
C -4 p
S9-4
p
S3-0 p
S2-0 p
S 8
-4 P
R W-9
0 -1 8
0
p
S1- p
S7-4

#
§§§§Y# Y# S#
p
S0-8 p
S2-1 P
RW 9
-0 -4 8
0

S
p
S 1
-0 p
S8-0 p
S 6
-1
1
K 3
p
S3-1 pS1-8 p
S 4
-7 P
R W-9
0 -3 9
0
p
S4-1 pS8-1 pS1-2 p
S6-7
p
S 7
-1 pS5-1 p
S 3
-2 p
S0-5 p
S 5
-7
p
S 9
-1 p
S 3
-5 p
S1-5

0 Y
p
S 0
-2 p
S2-5
p
S5- pS4-5
p
S5-2 p
S 4
-2

#
p
S6-2

§§
p
S 7
-2 P
R W-9
0 C
4 -0 8

p
S2-3 p
S3- p
S 6
-3
p
S 9
-2

# § Groundwater level elevation contour, masl

p
S 7
-3 p
S 8
-2 P
R W-9
0 -5 8
0

p
S9-3

1480
p
S8-3
p
S 5
-3
p
S4-3 G
OUB V
LSE 9
8 V
LSE 0
9 V
LSE8

S #
Y
p
S0-4 p
S1-4
W
B H1
2 W
BH9
1
B
H 6
- 5 p
S2-8 P
RW 9
-0 -6 8
0
S
p75
- p
S2-4 p
S4-
S
p65
- S
p85
-

#
1
K1

# S
H
B -3 5 H
B -7 9

S # Old Waja
H
B -3 4

1
K0

# #§ Y S
h
B4-3

Y Y #
§§
P
RW 9
0
- C
70- 8

# Y # ##
Y
P
RW 9
0
- -8 8
0
P
R W-9
0 -7 8
0

S Groundwater Divide
P
RW 9
-0 -9 8
0
p
S9-5 T
W3J

p
S 0
-6 p
S3-6

Y #
p
S 2
-6

p
S6
p
S9
-
-6 p
p
S7
S 8
-6
-6
p
S5-6 P
R W-0
1 -0 8
0

#
S W
G -2

# S
8
K

#
p
S 0
-7

Y
# S
p
S 2
-7 9
K
h
Cali tko Ir p
S 3
-7 2
K

1500S #
S #
H
B -3 3
B
H6- 0 H
B3

# # Y
T
W1J

Y S #
V
L S
E9 L
A H
B74

S
6
K L
A H
B64
P
R W-9
0 -0 8
0 7
K V
LSE 0
15 V
LSE0
1 7
V
LSE 0
11

#
S
15 Ground water Flow directions
4
K

#
Y
V
LES 0
16
P
R W-1
0 -1 8
0

# S # # S
S #
20 7
3
K

S
L
AHB 8
4 W
P 5
1 W
P 1
W
P 2

#
S W
G -1

#
S #
1
K W
P 1

S W
P 6

V
ES- 1

#
S
E
V -S 2 E
V -S 3

#
E
V -S 4

#
S S #
# S
T
K *1 E
V -S 5

#
S
#
#
Y
S T
W2J
E
V -S 7
E
V -S 7
3

Faults / Lineaments
152
W
P 2
1 W
P 4
1 H
B -4 9

S
H
B -5 0
5
K

## S#
# Y
1480

S S
W
P9 W
P 0
1 W
P3

0 # #S
1

#
K 6 H
B -7 4

0
138
S 1
K 4

S 1
K 5

138
0

#
S W
P 8

#0
S 0 Hydrogeological x-section lines
140
0

1
K8
15

1
K7

1560 #
S
K
P 4
E
V -S 0
4

#
40

14 #
S S
# 1400
Y
T
W4J
H
B -7 7

`
#
#S
B
H 8
- 0
B
H 8
- 0

60 H
B -7 8

#
S 2
K2
2
K3

#
S T
W7

S # 14 Swamps
K
1 9 2
K1

# S K
P5
W
P5

S 2
K0

00
0

8
1440

E
#
S
V -S 1
4
K
P3

#
S 2
K6

E
V -S 9
3

#
S 2
K 4

0 14 Roads
140 00
1 440

#
S
7
2
K5

Rivers
80
13

Towns

HYDROGEOLOGICAL Kobo
MAP OF RAYA VALLEY ALLUVIAL AQUIFER
560000 580000 600000

Figure 4.5. Hydrogeological map of Raya Valley

4.2.3 Groundwater potential of Ada’a Becho

Adaa Plain is located in the south between 40 to 90 km from Addis Ababa. Becho Plain is
located southwest between 30 to 80 km from Addis Ababa.

30
Adaa-Becho Groundwater Resource Evaluation Project is one of the areas in the country
designated for potential use of groundwater for irrigation. According to Zemedagegnehu et
al. (2008), the recharge for the aquifer systems of these plains are partly in Abay Plateau
with coverage of 7,000 km2 and partly in Awash River Basin with coverage of 10,000 km2.
The general groundwater flow direction is NS through selective flow paths towards the
northern part of Koka Dam area (Awash Basin). Three aquifer systems were identified in the
project area; 1) alluvial and lacustrine sediment aquifer in Adaa Plain around Modjo and
Debrezeit; 2) the upper basalt aquifer is distributed in upper Awash River Basin with a
thickness of less than 50 m to over 400 m and transmissivity between 50 m2 to 27000 m2
and 3) a lower basalt aquifer composed of tertiary tarmaber scoraceous basalt. It was
penetrated to a depth of 100 m at Melkakunture. It is highly productive with transmissivity
values ranging from 100 to 1,700 m2/day despite the partial penetration.

A hydrological and preliminarily numerical groundwater model indicated the inter-basin

groundwater transfer accounts for the 50-70% of the net annual recharge to aquifer
systems of the upper Awash River Basin from Abay Basin. The mean annual recharge from
the upper Abay Basin is 370 mm3, from upper Awash Basin up to Melkakunturi Station is 142
mm3, from Akaki River is 22 mm3, and from Mojo and Wedecha Rivers is 153 mm3. The
mean annual recharge of the Ada’a-becho aquifer system is estimated to be 687 mm3 with
54% of recharge contributed by upper Abay Basin. On the basis of the water balance model,
the mean annual rechargeable water into the Ada’a-Becho plains groundwater aquifers is
more than 965 Mm3 with 67% contributed by upper Abay Basin (Abay Plateau). Estimated
annual recharge into Ada’a-Becho groundwater aquifers is given in Table 4.3.

Table 4.3. Estimated Annual ground water recharge into Adaa Becho

Mean annual
Watershed Recharge watershed Mean annual deep
rechargeable water
area (km^2) recharge rate (mm)
(Mm^3)
Upper Abay 7,367 88 648
Awash up to 4,432 32 142
Melkakuntri 885 25 22
Akaki Brige 1,797 85 153
Mojo + Wedecha
965

31
 38°0'E 400000 38°15'E 450000
38°30'E 38°45'E 500000
39°0'E 39°15'E 550000
39°30'E 39°45'E 600000 40°0'E 40°15'E 650000 40°30'E
KaaS
>

1100000

1100000
JanL PasB

Hose KaaS
JanL
JabB JanL PaaB
PasB PasB
PasB PaaB
Sela Dingay PNtbB Legend
JanL Sasit PNtbB PNtbB ×
× Tulu Miki Ejere PNtbB PNtbB I. Aquifers Properties
×
QwaB × PasB Inewari × PNtbB
PalRy A.Extensive aquifers with primary porosity
QwaB KaaS PasB PasB
PasB ×
JadS PasB PbnB PalRy Tarmaber Alluvium of Abay plateau (Qal) and Debre Zeit area
PbnB
× allluvium and lascustrine (Qal+Qld) aquifer of modertae
Gebre Guracha KaaS Degem Lemi Anchekorer Godo Beret to high productivity
× > × Fiche ×
PasB
× PalRy
× B.Fractured and Scoraceous basalt Aquifers
Biriti > Doro×
Ali > × Deneba PalRy
B1.Upper Basalt Aquifer
9°45'N × PNtbB × PalRy PalRy
PalRy
9°45'N
PasB PalRy PalRy Dinbaro Quaternary and Tertiary basalts, Bishoftu saptter cones
PalRy
Tsige × × and lava flows (QbiB), Weliso-Ambo basalt (QWab), Akaki
>
Debre
Weberi Qal
PalRy
Debre Birhan Basalts and Scoria (NakB) and Addis Ababa basalts (NadB)
PaaB × PalRyPalRy
×
Qal Jemo Lefo
Qal × PNtbB
> !×
A PalRy Qal Mendida
× PNtbB
PalRy
PNtbB
PNtbB
moderate to high sub-regional aquifers
Daleti PNtbB B2.Lower basalt Aquifer
Minare Qal
> Qal PalRy PNtbB
PNtbB PNtbB

× >
PasB
Qal
× JanL × PNtbB
Qal
Qal PNtbBPNtbB PNtbB PNtbB Lower Tertiary Volcanic aquifer : Tarmaber scoraceous
PalRy PalRy PNtbB
Qal Qal
PalRy basalt (PntbB) and Amba Aiba basalt (PaaB) high productive
JanL JabB PaaB Muke Turi Qal Qal
PalRy
PNtbB PalRy
PNtbB
aquifer. Outcrops in Abay plateau and underlain by acidic
× PalRyPalRy
PNtbB Chacha
JabB volcanic rocks in upper Awash
1050000

1050000
Kembolcha Mekoda Qal
>
Qal Qal PalRy
Qal PNtbB Qal ×
9°30'N PbnB × × KaaS
JanL Qal PalRy PalRyQal
PNtbB
PNtbB
Qal C.Regional and local Volcanic aquitards 9°30'N
PasB
> Duber u PalRy

latea
JanL KaaS C1. Extensive and regional upper aquiclude
> Muger× PNtbBPNtbB
PNtbB P
×> PNtbB
ay Qal
JanL Regional to Sub-regional aquiclude of Nazaret groups
Debra× Qal
> Welenkombi Gorfo g Ab PNtbB PNtbB PNtbB Asagirt (NnuRI) welded ingnimbrites, Chefe donsa pyroclastics
alon

MU
Shikute Ketket !
A × Mulo ×
×>
JanL
× PalRy
× tion line × > Qal (NQcdPc) and Addis Ababa Ignimbrites (Nadl), have low

GE
groundwater potent along fractrues and weathered zone.
Chobi t s ec Qal
Sheno
t-eas
Shino Separates the upper and lower basaltic aquifers
!

R -B
× PasB Gola Inchini A ×
W es
× Chancho C2. Extensive and regional upper aquiclude
Goja × × ×> Wenoda
>
EC

Se
Bicho × > !>
A > PNtbB
× A
!
Regional to Sub-regional lower aquiclude of Asahngi

gn
Basalt (PasB), Blue Nile Columnar Basalts (PbnB) and
×
HO
9°15'N Koremas 9°15'N

o
> > Alaji Ryholites (PalRy) acts as regonal aquiclude between the
×

G
Aleltu lower basalt aquifer and Mesozoic sedimentary formations
Shola Gebeya×

eb
SE C NebRy
×

ey
> Sendafa C3. Localized aquiclude
> !
>A

a
> !
× A Tertiary and Quaternary Rhyolitic and trachytic volcanic
T IO

_L
> ridges and volcanic centers (QbgPr+QZqTy+NebRy +NCvTy)

eg
PasB
>! >
NL
of Bede gebaba, Ziquala, Wechecha, Furu, Yerer,etc. localized

ed
PasB AHolota NebRy
!>
A

ad
aquicludes
1000000

1000000
× NadI
IN

is
Ginchi NadB D.Mesozoic Sedimentary aquifers
Adis Alem > > >
E

e
>× Out crops in the gorges, there may be a possibility to
JadS QwaB > > × NadB
× NadI pentrate this formation at a great depth more than 450
9°0'N > Addis Abeba !
A Chefe Donsa 9°0'N
× !
> > A × meters At Abay Plateau
> > > NebRy > NcvTy
Alem Gena NadB
NtrB
Qld Lakes
> Sebeta × QbiB
× > NtrB NtrB
> BECHO PLAIN
NtrB
Reservoirs
A! w A
!× ash
Akaki Beseka NtrB NnuRI

> er A
NcvTy
> > × o>ng Upp ×
Qal
> > Tefki > Godino NQcdPc II. Miscellaneous
n> lin al Boneya
e NakB
>QbiB >
QbiB NtrB Ada'a - Becho Plains Groundwater
t sectio > NebRy ×
Debre Mapping Wells Drilled by
! Genet
A as ×A > Dukem
!A Basin and Recharge Area

a in
NcvTy
> QbiB > Ejere
> est-e >
The Project And Woberi well
> W
QwaB ! >> >×! > A!> > A Zeyt × Abbay Plateau
>> By Oromia Irigation Dev. Authotity

Pl
> > >> QbgPr ×
QbiB > Debre
> >
8°45'N NadI
>>Melka Kunture NcvTy
! > VES Points 8°45'N
A
'a
> >
> >QbiB QbiB NcvTy Upper Awash
> !×
A > > NcvTy da × Towns Villages

³
> > >> QbiB
QbiB
gA

>>
Tulu Bolo > > >A
! > > > > Groundwater Divides Plain Area
> × > QbiB>A ! QbiB >
on

Dilela Groundwater
>> A ! > QbiB> QbiB
QbiB
Al

× Bantu NtrB Flow Directions

> QbiB> QbiB Mojo
950000

950000
× > > Lemen > QbiB
NQcdPc
>QbiB A! QbiB >
E

> > Hydrogeological

× > > > > ×
-N

X-Section
> > > >>
NnuRI
NebRy >
SW

Weliso > >

Adulala
> > > >
QwaB Faults/Lineaments SCALE 1:750,000
× QzqTy
>× >
on

Qld A! Rivers
10 5 0 10 Kilometers

> > 8°30'N

cti

8°30'N
> FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA
Se

> > > Koka MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES

NcvTy > > > ×
Kondaltiti
× > ADA'A PLAIN Project : Evaluation of The Groundwater Potential
Ombole× > of Ada'a-Becho Plains
> Title : HYDROGEOLOGICAL MAP OF ADA'A BECHO
Bu-i PLAINS AND THEIR RECHARGE AREAS
×
WATER WORKS DESIGN AND SUPERVISION ENTERPRSE
8°15'N Addis Ababa, Ethiopia P.O.BOX 8°15'N
Tel : 011-6614501,011-6610093 April, 2007
Tel : 011-6615371,011-6610898
email:w.w.d.s.e@ethionet.et

38°0'E 400000 38°15'E 38°30'E

450000 38°45'E 39°0'E
500000 39°15'E 39°30'E
550000 39°45'E 600000 40°0'E 40°15'E 650000

Figure 4.6. Hydrogeological map of Adaa Becho Plain

Source: WWSDE, 2008

4.4 Future development plan of ground water for agriculture

In the coming five year plan of the Ministry of Water and Energy implementation plan for
groundwater development, nine groundwater projects are envisaged for irrigated
agriculture. The plan incorporates four phase drilling and development activities.
Accordingly, 93,000 meters of test wells, 28,000 meters of monitoring wells, 379250 meters
of production wells are to be drilled. A total of 8,000 ha of land will be developed in various
parts of the country as pilot ground water irrigation schemes.

32
 Table 4.4. Development plan of ground water for agriculture
No. Project Name Unit 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 2013/14 2014/15 Total
1 Ada'a Bech GW Development
1.1 Monitoring well drilling meter 2000
1.2 Production well development meter 10500 105000 10500
2 Alaydage GW Development
2.1 Monitoring well drilling meter 1000
2.2 Production well development meter 12500 12500 12500
2.3 Pilot Irrigation Development hectare 500 500
3 Rift Valley GW Development
3.1 Test well drilling meter 2000 1000 20000
3.2 Monitoring well drilling meter 1000 1000 2000
3.3 Production well development meter 7500 8750 7500 5000
3.4 Pilot irrigation development hectare 500 500
4 Tana Beles GW Development
4.1 Test well drilling meter 1000 4000 8000 8000
4.2 Monitoring well drilling meter 1000 1000
4.4 Pilot irrigation development hectare 500 500
4.4 Production well development meter 10000 10000 10000 5000
5 Upper Tekeze GW Development
5.1 Test well drilling meter 4000
5.2 Monitoring well drilling meter 2000
5.3 Production well development meter 14000 14000 14000
5.4 Pilot irrigation development hectare 500 500 500
6 Katar GW Development
6.1 Test well drilling meter
6.2 Monitoring well drilling meter
6.3 Pilot irrigation development hectare
6.4 Production well development meter
7 Welkite-Ambo GW Development
7.1 Test well drilling meter 12000
7.2 Monitoring well drilling meter 8000
7.3 Pilot irrigation development hectare 500 500
7.4 Production well development meter 10000 10000 5000
8 Ogaden GW Development
8.1 Test well drilling meter 1000 4000 8000 8000
8.2 Monitoring well drilling meter 1000
8.3 Pilot irrigation development hectare 500 500 500
8.4 Production well development meter 20000 20000 20000
9 Teru GW Development
9.1 Test well drilling meter 12000
9.2 Monitoring well drilling meter 8000
9.3 Pilot irrigation development hectare 500 500
9.4 Production well development meter 10000 10000 5000
Total Test well drilling meter 32000 9000 16000 16000 20000 93000
Total Monitoring Well drilling meter 22000 4000 0 0 2000 28000
Total production well drilling meter 37000 159000 95750 52500 35000 379250
Total pilot level GW irrigation development hectare 500 3000 3000 1000 500 8000

33
5 GROUNDWATER POLICY AND INSTITUTIONS
5.1 Policies and strategies
The Ethiopian water resources management policy provides for groundwater study and
development in two sections of the policy document. Under ‘Technology and Engineering’
(section 2.2.3), the policy supports manufacturing and importing of drilling rigs, provides
training and capacity building for development and operation of shallow well drilling. In
‘Groundwater Resources’ (section 2.2.6), the document provides support for studying the
occurrence and distribution of groundwater and establishes regulatory norms for
sustainable abstraction of ground water. The policy:

1. Provides a framework to identify the occurrence and distribution of the

country’s groundwater resources;
2. Provides a framework for sustainable abstraction of groundwater;
3. Provides norms, standards and general guidelines for sustainable and
rechargeable management of groundwater;
4. Fosters conjunctive use of ground and surface water ; and
5. Promotes implementation of appropriate technologies suitable for water
deficient areas to mitigate water scarcity problems.

The policy supports ground water assessment, development and operation mainly for
shallow wells without explicit reference to drinking or irrigation water supply. Recent
development strategies such as PASDEP (2006) and Water Centred Development Strategic
Framework (2009) also include managed ground water development to contribute to the
national growth and development.

5.2 Institutions
The main institutions involved in ground water assessment, development and operation
include the Ministry of Water and Energy, the Ethiopian Geological Survey, the Regional
State Water Bureaus, and NGOs. The Ministry of Water and Energy has a directorate of
ground water assessment and development.

The institutional frameworks under which each operate is not clearly spelled out anywhere.
There have been instances in irrigated surface water development where regional state
governments undertake initiatives without fully understanding the national policies and
regulations. Each regional state government has its own water development strategy. For
better managed ground water development.

6. KNOWLEDGE AND CAPACITY GAPS IN GROUND WATER DEVELOPMENT

AND MANAGEMENT
6.1 Knowledge and information gaps
The knowledge gap in groundwater development and management in the country is
enormous. The major areas of knowledge and information gap include i) limited geological
surveys; ii) incomplete information base on production; and iii) lack of monitoring and
follow up. Gebrehiwot and Lulu (2004) also highlighted the absence of clear guidelines for

34
groundwater resource development and management. Consequently, more attention is
given to operational activities than strategic tasks pertinent to groundwater resource
development works.

Geological and hydro-geological maps are the basis of efficient exploration, development
and use of groundwater resources and reduces uncertainty regarding the quality and
quantity of available water. The coverage and the scale of the available geological and
hydrological maps is however limited. Only 50% and 39% of the country is covered by maps
respectively at a scale of 1:250,000. It will be an enormous task to develop countrywide
maps with a higher scale.

6.2 Professional capacity gap

A sample survey of different water sector organizations in the country was conducted by
JICA (in: EWTEC, 2009) and indicated the major capacity needs and gaps for the different
categories of water sector organizations, particularly related to domestic water supply.
The current human resource situation in the management and development of ground
water in the Regional State Water Bureaus is generally characterized as insufficient. A
minimum of 31% (281 out of 895) of job positions are currently vacant or planned to be
filled in the future. The capacity gap shows a dire shortage as we go down to the lower
levels of administration. The current human resource situation in Zonal Water Resources
Offices shows shortage of most 54% (579 out of 1076), while at the district level the shortfall
is 61% (,,447 out of 12,140). When it comes to town water supply service areas and public
enterprises, the situation is similar with relatively better coverage. In the same year, the
Town Water Supply Service Offices had a shortfall of 25% (1,002 out of 3,740), while public
enterprises such as Water Works and Construction Enterprise (WWCE), Water Works Design
and Supervision and Enterprise (WWDSE), and Water Works Development Enterprise
(WWDE) had a shortfall of 34% (512 out of 1503). In almost all the water bureaus and public
enterprises, the required professionals are hydrogeologists and water supply engineers.

6.3 Technician skill capacity gap

JICA (2009) looked into the technical staff requirements during their survey and found a
significant shortfall of drillers (chief drillers, assistant drillers) followed by relatively high
requirements for hydrogeologists, electricians and mechanics. Similarly, the report indicated
there is high requirement for water supply engineers and hydrologists in 12 consulting firms
included in the study. The summary below (Table 6.1) provides the status of groundwater
and related information and knowledge generated in the area of groundwater.

35
Table 6.1. Status of groundwater knowledge and capacity in Ethiopia

Issue Status Gaps

Geological • Geological maps (1:250000) 50% of the • Integrated groundwater
surveys country. exploration including test drilling
• Hydrogeological maps 39%; based on for high potential areas; lowered
borehole information not on test drilling pace in covering the remaining
information. area through mapping: EGS not
• Accelerated investment in assessment and able to live up to its mandate.
exploration; implemented by MoWR and • Current assessment project wise
regions. and not linked to EGS set
• MoWR largely engages public enterprises procedures.
such as WWDSE.
Information • Limited knowledge on: • NGIS most to be completed.
base • Very shallow and deep aquifers • Communication and dissemination
• Non reliable knowledge on shallow aquifers. strategy/business plan.
• Water quality has not been well defined and
mapped.
• Scattered information on ENGDA
discontinued.
• NGIS recently started.
EWTEC, 2009

Table 4.2. Status of Groundwater Knowledge and Capacity in Ethiopia (EWTEC, 2009)

Issue Status Gaps

Monitoring • Not done; patchy and project based; not even • MoWR to Gazet priority areas for
in high intensity area as in Akaki. monitoring.
• Emerging uses of groundwater for irrigation • Clear responsibility for well field
and lowered pumping cost demands operators.
systematic monitoring. • Link to NGIS.
Sustainable • First estimates for number of aquifer systems • Confined prior to operation of well
yields but not for others. field.
• No water balances. • Level and abstraction monitoring in
line with confined sustainable
yield.
• Link to groundwater. management
plans.
Exploitation • Poor capacity to explore deep aquifers poor • No (in-country) training on deep
supply. well drilling.
• Public enterprises have poor capacity and • Limited number /no critical mass of
management in complex well drilling complex organizations.
exploration. • Good supervision (arrangements)
• Problematic contract management observed missing.
from both sides - supervision/contract
management.

36
Mechanical • Absolute shortage of drilling rings
drilling (conservative estimate is 200) – partly
addressed by recent procurement drive.
• Shortage of submersible pumps, generators
and spare parts-gap in local maintenance
capacity and supply of fast moving items.
• Presumable relatively high cost of drilling
compared to other African countries.
• Relatively high number of failed wells – 15%
to 75% varying with regions.
• Discussion on standardizing well design
started by MoWR.
• Drilling association just set up.
Manual well • Limited well development even in high
development potential ultra shallow aquifer.
• Dug well dominate.
Table 4.6. Status of Ground Water Knowledge and Capacity in Ethiopia (EWTEC, 2009)
Issue Status
Expertise in • Pump tests not systematically done
groundwater • 25-60% vacancies (JICA report).
development
Expertise in • Ground water curricula recently being
ground water strengthened in five universities.
management
Managed • Accelerated highly ambitious exploitation
development plans/concept for growing number of areas.
Interlinkage • Land use planning process – based on started
with other in Oromia, Amhara, Somale and Afar.
sectors on • Growth corridors plans – large-scale
demand side development in select corridors.
• UAP.
37
• Drilling rigs – specific to conditions
(deep wells/sediments).
• Maintenance of drilling rigs to
ensure continued operation.
• Competition and little engagement
of private sector.
• Analysis of well failure – probably
related to lack of local engagement
/technical supervision – in some
areas due to water quality issues.
• Standardization.
• Drilling association to become
active partner in development of
the sector.
• very shallow bore well technology
– which allows deeper penetration.
• TVETs engagement /private sector
training.
• Popularization of manual drilling –
among others.
Gaps
• Training of: chief drillers, hydro-
geologist and water supply
engineers.
• High capacity equipment for
pump tests and well
development.
• Capacity to monitor in terms of
manpower and equipment.
• Centers of excellence in
groundwater development.
• Ground water management
plans-with stakeholder
engagement
• Need to expand and need to
broaden and put implementation
perspective /EGRAP plus.
Interlinkage • Watershed improvements programs exits but • No systematic linkage and not all
with other no focus on recharge. buffer techniques used.
sectors on • Irrigation development but not conjunctive. • Conjunctive management.
supply side
• Integration with land use planning on supply • Harmonize watershed programs
side. with buffer management-
differentiated.
GW • Not there. • Protection zones in selected
protection • No specific guidelines for point or non point areas (legal backing).
pollution. • Regulation around high priority
point pollution.
Regulation • Licensing procedure for well development in • Activation of licensing
place but not known or systematically procedure-especially in selected
followed. areas.
• Civil code set the limit for regulation at 100
meter depth.
Groundwater • -Non existent. • Would be required in areas of
management intensive development.
plans
Monitoring • See above (knowledge section).
Basin • RBO ordinance promulgation. • In future ground water.
management • One RBO in place (Abay), two under management plans linked in to
preparation. river basin management.
• Mechanism for allocation.
• Groundwater does not figure importantly.

6.4 Capacity building – education and training

There is a tendency toward large-scale development of groundwater for agriculture as
witnessed from intensified studies and implementation at various areas such as Ada’a and
Becho area and Kobo, Raya. Given the little experience in groundwater irrigation and the
limited institutional and human resources capacity, there will be enormous requirements in
enhancing the knowledge, technical and technological capacity and capability to develop
manage and use groundwater resources.

Public universities and training institutions can play pivotal role in building capacity. Some of
immediate interventions could be to increase the quantity and quality of geology education:
i) public universities offering geology degree such as AAU, Mekelle University can review
their curricula to accommodate more hydro-geological courses in their programs; ii) not
only for groundwater irrigation but also 85% of the domestic water supply comes from
shallow wells, there is substantial capacity requirement in the area, therefore one way of
offsetting the shortage of the human resources is through increasing university enrolment in
departments of geology. Short term training institutions should either evolve or the existing
ones should provide hands on training for technical skills.

Strategically, expansion of the coverage and knowledge of groundwater can be enhanced at

three different levels. It is suggested that the first level includes those professionals who
attain managerial positions or higher level technical professional skills suitable for

38
consultancy and contractors, for federal as well as Regional State Bureaus. These group of
professionals should be MSc or above in terms of education and skills in the field of
hydrogeology. Universities offering masters program should expand into accommodating
more hydrogeology education and training tuned to the special needs of the country. The
second level of professional studies should be intended to produce large numbers of mid-
level professionals at the BSc level. Universities offering geology degrees could mainstream
the emerging requirements of hydrogeology by modifying their curricula as a BSc in Geology
and Hydrogeology. The geology degree could be modified to mainstream other fields of
study such as ‘geology and mining and geology and engineering. Graduates from this second
level of professionals could fill the gaps up to the level of district offices, NGOs and
contractor offices.

Specialized technical and vocational education schools or Water Technology Institutes are
emerging in Regional State Bureaus. These institutions are for training technicians in drilling,
electricity and mechanical skills. It is important to recognize continuous capacity building for
both professionals as well as technicians and advanced short-term training institutions such
as currently existing in the Ethiopian Water Technology Centre (EWTEC) under the Ministry
of Water and Energy. Such institutes have the capacity to integrate research and
development in their training activities to promote innovation and technology in the area of
groundwater. The following pyramid shows the role of public institutions and their inputs to
various government and private offices.

Academics, Federal &

Masters, Regional Bureaus
Universities
and water

PhD sultancies/contractors
BSc professionals:
geology and Federal, Regional, Zonal,
hydrogeology Woreda, consultancies and
contractors

Technicians:
TVET and water Drilling crews, electricians, Federal & Regional water
technology mechanics works, private contractors,
centers NGOs

Figure 6.1. Proposed levels of education.

7 DRILLING TECHNOLOGY SND COSTS

7.1. Drilling technology and Equipment

According to Hailemichael’s review of 2004, there are a total of 103 drilling machines in the
country with the largest number of owned by the government (48 machines), private
companies (39) and NGOs’ 16 (Table 7.1). By any standard, the available number of water
well drilling machines, compared to the size of the country is limited.

39
Hailemichael’s review showed drilling in Ethiopia started by providing domestic water
supply using percussion type drilling machines and later more modern DTH/rotary type
drilling machines. The types of machines usually employed by most private contractors and
government enterprises are these modern machines that have a capacity to drill to depths
of 350 meters and more. There is some interest among private companies to manufacture
or assemble light drilling machines to reduce drilling costs. The effort is not well
documented either by Hailemichael or other researchers. Almost all drilling machines in the
country are initially meant for water supply, but there is increased use of the machines for
drilling wells for agricultural purposes as activities in Raya and Kobo show.

Table 7.1. Drilling Rigs currently engaged in well construction in Ethiopia (private
companies)

DTH/ Drilling
DTH Percussion Percussion
Private Data Rotary capacity Mud Auger/
without truck skud Total
companies collection with max rotary bucket
mud) mounted mounted
mud depth

Hydro contacted 1 500 1 2

Construction
&
Engineering
Co. Ltd.
Yadot contacted 5 120, 400 5
Engineering
and Trading
plc.
Pile contacted 2 150,500 1 1 8 12
foundation
& Water
Well drilling
Enterprise
Ethio- contacted 1 500 1 2
Drilling and
Water
engineering
Co. Ltd.
Saba contacted 3 500 3
Engineering
Ethio-Libya contacted 1 350 1
Drilling Plc.
China-Geo proxy 2 250-300 2
Engineering
company
Wattech proxy 1 1 2
Aquatech proxy 1 1 2
CRP (Indian proxy 1 250-300 1 2
drilling
company)
Axis proxy 1 1

40
engineering
Daniel proxy 1 1
Drilling Plc
Endale proxy 100 1 1
drilling
plc?????
AL Nejah contacted 1 500 1
drilling
agency
Rahbah & contacted 2 2
Sons drilling
Total 17 3 2 9 0 8 39

Table 7.2. Drilling Rigs currently engaged in well construction in Ethiopia

(Government)

Percuss Percuss
Aug
DTH Drilling DTH ion ion
Data Mud er
Name of company rotary capacity w/o truck skud Total
collection rotary buck
with mud max depth mud mount mount
et
ed ed
Government
Organizations
Afar Regional Water Cont’d 1 250-300 1
Bureau
Amhara Water Works Cont’d 5 350 1 6
Enterprise
SNNPS Water Works Cont’d 5 350 2 7
Enterprise
Oromiya Water Works Cont’d 10 350 1 11
Enterprise
Tigray Water Works Cont’d 7 150,350 7
Construction
Enterprise
Somali Water Works Cont’d 6 250-354 6
Construction
enterprise
Benninshangul Water Cont’d 2 150, 350 2
Works Construction
Enterprise
Water Well drilling Cont’d 4 350 2 6
Enterprise
Ministry of Water Cont’d 2 350 2
Resources
Total 42 2 1 1 2 0 48

41
 Table 7.3. Drilling Rigs currently engaged in well construction in Ethiopia (NGO)

DTH
Drilling DTH Percussion Percussion
Data rotary Mud Auger
Name of company capacity w/o truck skud Total
collection with rotary bucket
max depth mud mounted mounted
mud
NGOs
Kale Hiwot church Cont’d 2 150 2
Ethiopian Cont’d 1 200 1
Evangelical Church
Mekaneyesus
Norwegian Church Cont’d 1 250 1
Aid
Ethiopian Orthodox proxy 1 150 1 2
Church (DICAC)
World proxy 2 250 2
vision/Ethiopia
Oromo Self Help Cont’d 300 1 1 2
Organization
(OSHO)
Ethiopian Catholic proxy 1 350 1
secretariat
Africare/Ethiopia proxy 1 150 1
Church of Christ proxy 1 200 1
Relief Society of Cont’d 2 350 2
Tigray
Don Bosco Catholic proxy 1 350 1
NGO
Total 13 0 2 1 0 0 16
Grand Total 72 5 5 11 2 8 103

7.2 Well drilling cost and future trends in Ethiopia

In general, the cost of deep well drilling has decreased from an average cost of Birr
2,000/meter to Birr 1,200/meter. For shallow wells the cost has fallen from the previous Birr
1,500/meter to Birr 900/meter. Well construction quality has deteriorated due to the high
competition in that steel casings of poor quality have been used by some contractors. As
there are no standardized designs or specifications, price competition has greatly affected
quality (Hailemichael, 2004).

Drilling costs are dependent on:

• The distance of sites from the Addis (usually where the drilling companies are
located);
• The accessibility situation and the availability of water for drilling;
• The climatic condition where drilling is conducted;
• The expected hydrogeologic situation of the area (massive rocks, possible loss of
circulation and/or collapse, etc); and
• Cost of drilling machine accessories.

The government of Ethiopia provides incentives to private and public well drilling companies
to import drilling rigs free of tax. However, the initial capital cost of the machines is up to
800,000 USD (T3W rigs). This discourages the expansion of the private drilling companies.

42
Government may encourage private companies either through long-term loan schemes or
forming public private partnership schemes. The latter may be appealing for the
government to improve performance and reduce loses usually seen in public institutions.

8. Summary and Conclusion

Ethiopia is a country of great geographical diversity and geological complexity. High rugged
mountains, flat-topped plateaus, deep gorges, incised rivers and rolling plains are the pre-
dominant physiographical features. Since the country is located in the tropics, the physical
conditions and variations in altitude have resulted in a great diversity of climate, soil and
vegetation. The highlands on each side give way to vast semi-arid lowland areas in the east,
west and south. The ground water potential is shaped by the two complex phenomena of
complex geological formations in the one hand and the diversity of the topography, climate
and soil in the other.

Several assessments of ground water potential and studies indicate the rechargeable
ground water potential of the country is in the order of 2.6 BCM. This magnitude is believed
by many hydro-geologists and academics as a gross underestimation of the actual potential.
Indications are that the regional ground water aquifers of the country are deeper and larger
than previously thought. For instance, recent studies for irrigated agriculture at Kobo, Raya,
and Adaa Bechoo indicate the regional ground water aquifers are deeper; water movement
crosses surface basin boundaries (basin transfer) and there are large reserves of
groundwater. It is estimated that the ground water reserve of the Kobo Girana Valley is in
the order of 2.5 BCM (WAPCOS, 2009) while the reserve of Raya is 7.2 BCM. The estimated
annual recharge at Adda Bechoo is in the order of 965 MCM, of which the majority
contribution comes from Abbay Basin. This emphasizes the importance of understanding
the regional groundwater aquifers and movement when considering ground water
assessment and development for highly water consuming agricultural use.

The use of groundwater for agricultural is very low. Assessment of the borehole data from
Federal and Regional Water Bureaus indicates over 80% of the groundwater use is for
domestic water supply. The depth range of assessed wells indicates most wells are shallow
(83%) and have low yield in the order of less than 10 lps (>60%). However, groundwater use
for agriculture is emerging as a mainstay of irrigated agriculture development, particularly in
rainfall deficit areas. The five year plans from the Directorate of Groundwater Development
Studies and Management of the Ministry of water resources shows several ground water
irrigation projects will be implemented. Over 8,000 ha of land will be developed as a pilot
scheme using groundwater during the five-year period from 2010/11 to 2014/15.

The planning and implementation of irrigated agriculture using ground water is highly
encouraging. There are robust planning documents and ongoing studies at federal and
regional state government level. There are, however, valid concerns that may impede the
development efforts of the government. The most important concern is the limitation of
knowledge and information available on the extent of the potential ground. Second, the
available human and institutional capacity to plan, develop and manage is limited in
quantity and quality. Third, drilling equipment and spare parts are so hard to obtain.

43
Therefore, it suggested that the government of Ethiopia should invest in developing
institutional and human capacity if the current activity of ground water development is to
be sustained. The most important areas of human capacity development are hydrogeology,
water supply engineers, geologists and drilling technologies and associated technician skill
development.

The initial capital cost of the drilling rigs and spare parts are discouraging private companies
to expand. It is important to provide some kind long-term loan schemes for private
companies for importing deep drilling rigs and establish spare parts distribution within the
country. This enhances the coverage of ground water drilling activity and guarantees
sustainable availability of spare parts, contributing to ongoing efforts towards irrigated
agriculture development.

44
REFERENCES
Ethiopia Water Technology Centre (EWTEC), 2009. Training needs Assessment survey, by
Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), The Federal Democratic Republic of
Ethiopia, Ministry of Water Resource (MoWR). Volume I, Report.”
Ministry of Water Resources (date not given) Ethiopian Water Resources Management
Policy
Abbay River Basin Integrated development master plan project phase 2, section II, Volume
IV, part 3, 1998
Wabishebele River Basin Integrated development master plan study project, WWDSE in
association with MCE and WAPCOS, May 2004.
Baro-Akobo River Basin Integrated development master plan study by TAMS and ULG
consultant ltd Warwick, U.K. (May 1997)
Omo-Gibe River Basin Integrated development master plan study, by Richard Woodroofe in
association with Mascott Ltd., Dec 1996.
Tekeze River Basin Integrated Development master plan project by NEDECO
Master Plan for the development of surface water resources in the Awash basin, final
report, Dec 1989 by HALCRO
Ethiopian Institute of Geological Surveys, 1988. Hydrogeological map of Ethiopia /
hydrogeology, compilation by Tesfaye Chernet, 1988 ; cartography by Teshome
Kumbi and Belete Habteselassie.

45