Session 2019-20

Class 12th
BIOLOGY INVESTIGATORY PROJECT
ON

Gametogenesis

Submitted to Submitted By
Mr. Nilesh Khede Ma. Rehan Thobait
 Certificate
This is to certify that Ma. Rehan Thobait
of class 12th ‘A’ of Gurukul School,
Dhamnod has completed his Biology
project file under my supervision. He
has taken proper care and shown
utmost sincerity in completion of this
project.

I certifity that this project is up to my

expectations and as per the guidelines
issued by the C.B.S.E.

Mr. Nilesh Khede Principal External

......................................... ........................... ..........................
 Acknowledgement
I wish to express my deep gratitude and sincere thanks
towards director Mr. A.L. Mujumdar, Principal Mr.
Anway Chikate Gurukul School Dhamnod for his
encouragement and for all the facilities that they provide
for this project work. I sincerely appreciate this
magnanimity by taking me into his fold for which I shall
remain indebted to him.

I extend my hearty thanks to Mr. Nilesh Khede Biology

teacher who guided me to the successful completion of
this project. I take this opportunity to express my deep
sense of gratitude for his invaluable guidance, constant
encouragement, immence motivation, which has afforts
to all stages of this project work.

I can’t forgot to offer my sincere thanks to my parents

and my classmates who helped me to carry out this
project work successfully and for their valuable advise
and support which I receive from time to time.

Name:- Rehan Thobait

Class:- 12th ‘A’
 CONTENTS
1) HISTORY
2) INTRODUCTION
3) SPERMATOGENESIS
a) Location
b) Duration
c) Stages
i) Spermatocytogenesis
ii) Spermatidogenesis
iii) Spermiogenesis
d) Role of Sertoli cells
e) Influencing Factors
f) Hormonal control
4) OOGENESIS
1. Oogenesis in Humans
1.1. The Creation of Oogonia
2. Human Oogenesis
2.1. Oocytogenesis
2.1.1. Number of primary oocytes
2.2. Ootidogenesis
2.2.1. Meiosis I
2.2.2. Meiosis II
2.2.3. Folliculogenesis
2.3. Maturation into ovum
2.4. In Vitro Maturation
5) CONCLUSION
6) BIBLIOGRAPHY
 Introduction
Gametogenesis: The development and production of the male and female germ cells
required to form a new individual.
The male and female germ cells are called gametes. The gametes in human males are
produced by the testes, two globe-shaped reproductive organs just below the penis. Male
gametes are what most people refer to as sperm. Gametes in human females are
produced by the ovaries, two oblong organs on each side of the uterus in the lower
abdomen. Female gametes are what most people refer to as eggs or ova.
After sexual intercourse, an ejaculated sperm cell penetrates an egg and unites with it
(fertilizes it). The fertilized egg is called the zygote.
The reproductive organs in both males and females (testes and ovaries, respectively)
begin gametogenesis with a primitive germ cell. A primitive germ cell is a seed cell. Like a
seed planted in a garden, a primitive germ cell initiates the process that eventually results
in a new being. The primitive germ cell contains 46 pairs of chromosomes. Chromosomes
are structures that hold the genetic information (the DNA) that determine the makeup of
the new being. In humans, chromosomes influence hair, eye and skin color, height, bone
structure, and all of the characteristics that prompt people to say that a child "takes after"
his mother or father.
Chromosomes occur in pairs because they reflect the makeup of the previous generation
-- 23 chromosomes from the father and 23 from the mother. However, the gametes
produced by the testes and the ovaries cannot each contain 46 chromosomes. Otherwise,
after they unite, they will contain 92 chromosomes. Thus, the germ cells produced by the
testes and ovaries each divide once, then divide again, in a reduction process that creates
cells containing 23 chromosomes, or half the original number. This reduction process is
known as meiosis.
Then, after a male ejaculates sperm into a female and fertilizes her egg, a new individual
with 46 chromosomes begins to form. This is the beginning of pregnancy.
"Gamete" is derived from the Greek word "gamete" (wife) and "gamein" (to marry).
"Genesis" is derived from the Greek word "genein" (to produce). Thus, in gametogenesis,
cells marry ("gamein") and produce ("genein") a new being.
 History
The Kumamoto oyster, Crassostreasikamea, is native to Southeast Asia,
includingChina, Japan and Korea, and is an important traditional wild
fishery resource. Althoughthis oyster’s early gametogenesis was
reported in Mexico, no related research wasfound on the breeding
potential using early forming gametes. We re-examined
thegametogenesis of C. sikameaduring early life history in southern
China and furtherdivided it into three phases: sex differentiation (1
month old, shell height 2–3 mm),physiological maturity (2 months old,
shell height 3–5 mm) and functional maturity(3 months old, shell height
9–12 mm). The breeding potential was evaluated using foursets of
gametes from parent oysters of different ages (2, 3, 6, and 15 months
old). Thephysiologically mature gametes were not suitable for artificial
hatchery due to the lowproduction of eggs, and yielding a high deformity
rate of D larvae (95.47 ± 1.25%)and heavy larval morality (90.23
± 1.84%) post-fertilization. However, progeny fromfunctionally mature
gametes grew significantly faster than those of other age groups,with no
significant differences in fertilization, hatching level or survival of
progeny amongthem. This study clearly demonstrates that the first batch
of functionally mature gametescan develop normally and produce viable
progeny, suggesting that artificial hatcheryof C. sikameais completely
feasible using parent oysters from 3 months old andonward.
Furthermore, this hatchery method can effectively shorten the breeding
cycleand accelerate the breeding process

Spermatogenesis
Spermatogenesis is the process in which spematozoa are
produced from male primordial germ cells by way of mitosis and
meiosis. The initial cells in this pathway are called
spermatogonia, which yield primary spermatocytes by mitosis.
The primary spermatocyte divides meiotically into two
secondary spermatocytes; each secondary spermatocyte then
completes meiosis as it divides into two spermatids. These
develop into mature spermatozoa, also known as sperm cells.
Thus, the primary spermatocyte gives rise to two cells, the
secondary spermatocytes, and the two secondary
spermatocytes by their subdivision produce four spermatozoa.

Spermatozoa are the mature male gametes in many sexually

reproducing organisms. Thus, spermatogenesis is the male
version of gametogenesis. In mammals it occurs in the male
testes and epididymis in a stepwise fashion. Spermatogenesis is
highly dependent upon optimal conditions for the process to
occur correctly, and is essential for sexual reproduction. DNA
methylation and histone modification have been implicated in
the regulation of this process. It starts at puberty and usually
continues uninterrupted until death, although a slight decrease
can be discerned in the quantity of produced sperm with
increase in age (see Male infertility).
Spermatogenesis produces mature male gametes, commonly
called sperm but specifically known as spermatozoa , which are able
to fertilize the counterpart female gamete, the oocyte, during
conception to produce a single-celled individual known as a zygote.
This is the cornerstone of sexual reproduction and involves the two
gametes both contributing half the normal set of haploid
chromosomes to result in a chromosomally normal diploid zygote.
To preserve the number of chromosomes in the offspring – which
differs between species – each gamete must have half the usual
number of chromosomes present in other body cells. Otherwise, the
offspring will have twice the normal number serious abnormalities
may result. In humans, chromosomal abnormalities arising from
incorrect spermatogenesis can result in Down syndrome,
Klinefelter’s syndrome, and spontaneous abortion

Location
Spermatogenesis takes place within several structures of the male
reproductive system. The initial stages occur within the testes and
progress to the epididymis where the developing gametes mature
and are stored until ejaculation. The seminiferous tubules of the
testes are the starting point for the process, where stem cells
adjacent to the inner tubule wall divide in a centripetal direction—
beginning at the walls and proceeding into the innermost part, or
lumen —to produce
immature sperm. Maturation occurs in the epididymis .
Duration
For humans, entire process of spermatogenesis takes 74 days.
Including the transport on ductal system, it takes 3 months. Testes
produce 200 to 300 million spermatozoa daily.

Stages
The entire process of spermatogenesis can be broken up into several
distinct stages, each corresponding to a particular type of cell in
human. In the following table, ploidy, copy number and
chromosome/chromatid counts are for one cell, generally prior to
DNA synthesis and division (in G1 if applicable). The primary
spermatocyte is arrested after DNA synthesis and prior to division.
 DNA copy
Cell type Ploidy/Chromosomes number/chromatids in Process entered by cell
in human human
Spermatogonium Spermatocytogenesis
Diploid (2N) / 46 2C / 46
( types Ad,Ap and B) (Mitosis)

Spermatidogenesis
Primary Spermatocyte Diploid (2N) / 46 4C / 2x46
(Meiosis 1)

Two Secondary Spermatidogenesis

Haploid (N) / 23 2C / 46
Spermatocytes (Meiosis 2)

Four Spermatids Haploid (N) / 23 1C / 23 Spermiogenesis

Four Funtional
Haploid (N) / 23 1C / 23 Spermiation
Spermatozoids

Spermatocytogenesis
The process of spermatogenesis as the cells progress from primary
spermatocytes, to secondary spermatocytes, to spermatids, to
sperm.
Spermatocytogenesis is the male form of gametocytogenesis and
results in the formation of spermatocytes possessing half the normal
complement of genetic material. In spermatocytogenesis, a diploid
spermatogonium which resides in the basal compartment of
seminiferous tubules, divides mitotically to produce two diploid
intermediate cells called primary spermatocytes. Each primary
spermatocyte then moves into the adluminal compartment of the
seminiferous tubules and duplicates its DNA and subsequently
undergoes meiosis I to produce two haploid seconadry
spermatocytes, which will later divide once more into haploid
spermatids. This division implicates sources of genetic variation, suh
as random inclusion of either parental chromosomes, and
chromosomal crossover, to increase the genetic variability of the
gamete.
Each cell division from a spermatogonium to a spermatid is
incomplete; the cells remain connected to one another by bridges of
cytoplasm to allow synchronous development. It should also be
noted that not all spermatogonia divide to produce
spermatocytes,otherwise the supply would run out. Instead, certain
types of spermatogonia divide to produce copies of themselves,
thereby ensuring a constant supply of gametogonia to fuel
spermatogenesis.
Spermatidogenesis
Spermatidogenesis is the creation of spermatids from secondary
spermatocytes. Secondary spermatocytes produced earlier rapidly
enter meiosis II and divide to produce haploid spermatids. The
brevity of this stage means that secondary spermatocytes are rarely
seen in histological studies.

Spermiogenesis
During spermiogenesis, the spermatids begin to grow a tail, and
develop a thickened mid-piece, where the microtubules gather and
form an axoneme. Spermatid DNA also undergoes packaging,
becoming highly condensed. The DNA is packaged firsty with specific
nuclear basic proteins, which are subsequently replaced with
protamines during spermatid elongation. The resultant tightly
packed chromatin is transcriptionally inactive. The golgi apparatus
surrounds the now condensed nucleus, becoming the acrosome.
One of the centrioles of the cell elongates to become the tail of the
sperm.
Maturation then takes place under the influence of
testosterone,which removes the remaining unnecessary cytosome
and organelles.The excess cytoplasm, known as residual bodies , is
phagocytosed by surrounding Sertoli cells in the testes. The resulting
spermatozoa are now mature but lack motility, rendering them
sterile. The mature spermatozoa are released from the protective
sertoli cells into the lumen of the seminiferous tubules in a process
called spermiation .
The non-motile spermatozoa are transported to the epididymis in
testicular fluid secreted by the Sertoli cells with the aid of peristaltic
contraction. While in the epididymis the
spermatozoa gain motility and become capable of fertilization.
However, transport of the mature spermatozoa through the
remainder of the male reproductive system is achieved via muscle
contraction rather than the spermatozoon's recently acquired
motility.

Role of Sertoli cells

At all stages of differentiation, the spermatogenic cells are in close
contact with Sertoli cells which are thought to provide structural and
metabolic support to the developing sperm cells. A single Sertoli cell
extends from the basement membrane to the lumen of the
seminiferous tubule, although the cytoplasmic processes are
difficult to distinguish at the light microscopic level.
Sertoli cells serve a number of functions during spermatogenesis,
they support the developing gametes in the following ways:
• Maintain the environment necessary for development and
maturation, via the blood testes barrier
• Secrete substances initiating meiosis
• Secrete supporting testicular fluid
• Secrete androgen binding protien (ABP), which concentrates
testosterone in close proximity to the developing gametes
• Testosterone is needed in very high quantities for maintenance of
the reproductive tract, and ABP allows a much higher level of
fertility
• Secrete hormones affecting pituitary gland control of
spermatogenesis, particularly the polypeptide hormone, inhibin.
• Phagocytose residual cytoplasm left over from spermiogenesis
• They release antimullerian harmone which prevents formation of
the Müllerian Duct / Oviduct.
• Protect spermatids from the immune system of the male, via the
blood testes barrier
The intercellular adhesion molecules ICAM -1 and soluble ICAM-1
have antagonistic effects on the tight junctions testis barrier. ICAM -
2 molecules regulate spermarid adhesion on the apical side of the
barrier (towards the LUMEN) during
spermatogenesis, the cells are closely associated with sertoli cells
which lies at regular interval alone the seminiferous tubules. Sertoli
cells perform the following tasks:
• are target cells for follicular stimulating hormones (FSH)
• synthesize an androgen binding protein that maintain a high
levels of testosterone inside the seminiferous tubules
• maintain the blood-testes barrier which protect the body's
immune system from destroying the developing sperm cells
• create an environment that is necessary in the differentiation of
sperm cell
• degrade the residual cytoplasm that is shed during
spermatogenesis.
Influencing factors
The process of spermatogenesis is highly sensitive to fluctuations in
the environment, particularly harmones and temperature.
Testosterone is required in large local concentrations to maintain
the process, which is achieved via the binding of testosterone by
androgen binding protein present in the seminiferous tubules.
Testosterone is produced by interstitial cells, also known as leydig
cells, which reside adjacent to the seminiferous tubules.
Seminiferous epithelium is sensitive to elevated temperature in
humans and some other species, and will be adversely affected by
temperatures as high as normal body temperature. Consequently,
the testes are located outside the body in a sack of skin called the
scrotum. The optimal temperature is maintained at 2 Degree
Celcius–8 °C (mouse) below body temperature. This is achieved by
regulation of blood flow and positioning towards and away from the
heat of the body by the cremasataric muscle and the dartos smooth
muscle in the scotum.
Dietary deficiencies (such as vitamins B,E and A), anabolic
steroids,metals(cadmium and lead), x-ray exposure, dioxin, alcohol,
and infectious diseases will also adversely affect the rate of
spermatogenesis. In addition, the male germ line is susceptible to
DNA damage caused by the oxidation stress, and this damage likely
has a significant impact on the fertilization and pregnancy. Exposure
to pesticides also affects spermatogenesis.

Hormonal Control
Hormonal Control of spermatogenesis varies among spacies. In
humans the mechanism is not completely understood, however it is
known that initiation of spermatogenesis occurs at puberty due to
the interaction of the hypothalamus, pituitary gland and leydig cells.
If the pituitary gland is removed, spermatogenesis can still be
initiated by follicle stimulating hormone and testesterone.
Follicle stimulating hormone stimulates both the production of
androgen binding protein by sertoli cells, and the formation of the
blood testis barries. Androgen binding protein is essential to
concentrating testosterone in levels high enough to initiate and
maintain spermatogenesis, which can be 20-50 times higher than
the concentration found in blood. Follicle stimulating hormone may
initiate the sequestering of testosterone in the testis, but once
developed only testosterone is required to maintain
spermatogenesis. However, incresing the levels of follicle
stimulating hormone will increase the production of spermatozoa by
preventing the apoptysis of type A spermatogonia. The hormone
inhibin acts to decrease the levels of fillicle stimulating hormone.
Studies from rodent models suggest that gonadotropin hormones
(both LH and FHS) support the process of spermatogenesis by
suppresing the proapoptotic signals and therefore promote
spermatogenic cell survival.
The Sertoli cells themselves mediate parts of spermatogenesis
through hormone production. They are capable of producing the
hormones estradiol and inhibin. The Leydig cells are also capable of
producing estradiol in addition to their main product testosterone.

Oogenesis
Ogenesis is the creation of an ovum (egg cell). It is the female form of
gametogenesis; the male equivalent is spermatogenesis. It involves
the development of the various stages of the immature ovum .

Oogenesis in Humans
In humans, the first part of oogenesis starts in the germinal
 epethelium, which gives rise to the development of ovarian follicles,
the functional unit of the ovary.
Note that this process, important to all animal life cycles yet unlike
all other instances of cell division, occurs completely without the aid
of oo-spindle coordinating centrosomes.
Oogenesis consists of several subprocesses:
oocytogenesis, ootidogenesis, and finally maturation to form
an ovum (oogenesis proper). Folliculogenesis is a separate
subprocess that accompanies and supports all three oogenetic
subprocesses.
Cell type Ploidy Process Process Completion

Oogonium Diploid Oocytogenesis (Mitosis) Third trimester (forming oocytes)

Ootidogenesis (Meiosis 1) Dictyate in prophase I for approximately

Primary Oocyte Diploid
(Folliculogenesis) 50 years

Secondary Oocyte Haploid Ootidogenesis (Meiosis 2) Halted in metaphase II until fertilization

Oogonium —(Oocytogenesis)—>Primary Oocyte—(Meiosis I)—

>First Polar Body (Discarded afterward) + Secondary oocyte —
(Meiosis II)—> Second Polar Body (Discarded afterward) + Ovum

The creation of oogonia

The creation of oognia traditionally doesn't belong to oogenesis
proper but, instead, to the common process of gametogenesis,
which in the female human begins with the processes of
folliculogenesis, oocytogenesis, and ootidogenesis.
Human oogenesis
At the start of the menstrual cycle, some 12-20 primary follicles
begin to develop under the influence of elevated FSH to form
secondary follicles. The primary follicles have formed from
primordial follicles, which developed in the ovary at around 10–30
weeks after conception. By around day 9 of the cycle, only one
healthy secondary follicle remains, with the rest having undergone
Ovarian follicle atresia. The remaining follicle is called the dominant
follicle and is responsible for producing large amounts of estradiol
during the late
follicular phase. Estradiol production depends upon co-operation
between the theca and granulosa cells. On day 14 of the cycle, an LH
surge occurs, which itself is triggered by the positive feedback of
estradiol. This causes the secondary follicle to develop into a tertiary
follicle, which then ovulates some 24–36 hours later. An important
event in the development of the tertiary follicle occurs when the
primary oocyte completes the first meiotic division, resulting in the
formation of a polar body and a secondary oocyte. The empty follicle
then forms a corpus luetum which later releases progesterone
hormone.

Oocytogenesis
Oogenesis starts with the process of developing oognia, which
occurs via the transformation of primordial follicles into primary
oocytes, a process called oocytogenesis. Oocytogenesis is complete
either before or shortly after birth.

Number of primary oocytes

It is commonly believed that, when oocytogenesis is complete, no
additional primary oocytes are created, in contrast to the male
process of spermatogenesis, where gametocytes are continuously
created. In other words, primary oocytes reach their maximum
development at ~20 weeks of gestational age, when approximately
seven million primary oocytes have been created; however, at birth,
this number has already been reduced to approximately 1-2 million.
Recently, however, two publications have challenged the belief that
a finite number of oocytes are set around the time of birth. The
renewal of ovarian follicles from germline stem cells (originating
from bone marrow and peripheral blood) has been reported in the
postnatal mouse ovary.
Due to the revolutionary nature of these claims, further experiments
are required to determine the true dynamics of small follicle
formation.

Ootidogenesis
The succeeding phase of ootidogenesis occurs when the primary
oocyte develops into an ootid. This is achieved by the process of
meiosis. In fact, a primary oocyte is, by its biological definition, a cell
whose primary function is to divide by the process of meiosis.
However, although this process begins at prenatal at prophase I. In
late fetal life, all oocytes, still primary oocytes, have halted at this
stage of development, called the dictyate.
After menarche, these cells then continue to develop, although only
a few do so every menstrual cycle.
Meiosis I
Meiosis I of ootidogenesis begins during embryonic development,
but halts in the diplotene stage of prophase I until puberty. The
mouse oocyte in the dictyate (prolonged diplotene) stage actively
repairs DNA damage, whereas DNA repair is not detectable in the
predictyate (leptotene, zygotene and pachytene) stages of meiosis.
For those primary oocytes that continue to develop in each
menstrual
cycle, however, synapsis occurs and tetrads form,
enabling chromosomal crossover to occur. As a result of Meiosis I,
the primary oocyte has now developed into the secondary oocyte
and the first polar body.

Meiosis II
Immediately after meiosis I, the haploid secondary oocyte
initiates meiosis II. However, this process is also halted at
the metaphase II stage until fertilization, if such should
ever occur. When meiosis II has completed, an ootid and
another polar body have now been created.

Folliculogenesis
Synchronously with ootidogenesis, the ovarian follicle surrounding
the ootid has developed from a primordial follicle to a preovulatory
one.

Maturation into ovum

Both polar bodies disintegrate at the end of Meiosis II, leaving only
the ootid, which then eventually undergoes maturation into a
mature ovum.
The function of forming polar bodies is to discard the extra haploid
sets of chromosomes that have resulted as a consequence of
meiosis.
In vitro maturation
In vitro maturation (IVM ) is the technique of letting ovarian
follicles mature in vitro. It can potentially be performed before
an IVF. In such cases, ovarian hyperstimulation isn't essential.
Rather,oocytes can mature outside the body prior to IVF. Hence, no
(or at least a lower dose of) gonadotropins have to be injected in the
body.
However, there still isn't enough evidence to prove the effectiveness
and security of the technique.
 Conclusion
Having studied the Gametogenesis process we can conclude the
following:Gametogenesis is equivalent to what would be the
first stage of sexual reproduction in plants and animals.Through
this process the formation of sex cells called gametes
occurs.Gametes, both animal and vegetable, are produced from
diploid cells that undergo meiosis to form haploid cells, these
cells after a period of maturation become the respective
gametes.There is spermatogenesis and oogenesis that are sub-
processes of male and female gamete formation
respectively.Spermatogenesis is performed in the testicles of
males and is the process by which sperm are
produced.Oogenesis is performed in the ovaries of females and
is the process by which the eggs originate.With the formation of
male and female gametes, later the fusion of these would
continue through fertilization giving rise to a fertilized egg called
zygote.Gametogenesis is a primary process for the development
of sexual reproduction and thus benefits the continuation of the
species.Sexual reproduction represents a great evolutionary
advantage because it allows the combination of the genetic
characteristics of two individuals in the population and
represents a permanent offer of genetic variants for natural
selection to occur.
 Bibliography

www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/gametogenesis

https://www.landesbioscience.com/journals/spermatogenesis/

www.sparknotes.com/testprep/books/sat2/.../chapter7section2.rhtm

www.embryology.ch/anglais/cgametogen/oogenese01.html

www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov › NCBI › Literature › Bookshelf