REPORT 9: TYPES
The suffix ia refers
CHARACTERISTICS &
IDENTIFICATION OF LEARNERS
WITH DIFFICULTY REMEMBERING &
FOCUSING
Learning Disability
 Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA)
Specific Learning Disability is a disorder in one
or more of the basic psychological processes
involved in understanding or in using language.
 National Joint Commission on
Learning Disabilities (NJCLD)
Learning Disabilities is a heterogeneous group
of disabilities manifested by significant
difficulties in acquiring and using listening,
speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or
mathematical abilities.
 American Psychiatric Association
(APA)
Specific learning disorder is defined as a
neurodevelopmental disorder that hinders one
from learning academic skills.
Characteristics & Types of Learning
Disabilities
DSYLEXIA
 A language processing disorder, so it
can affect all forms of language, spoken
or written.
 Dyslexia is the term used when people
have trouble learning to read, even
though they are smart and are
motivated to learn.
 Learners have difficulties with accurate
and/or fluent word recognition and by
poor spelling and decoding abilities.
DYSGRAPHIA
 The prefix dys indicates that there is
impairment. Graph refers to producing
letter forms by hand.
to having a condition. 
 Is a neurological disorder that generally
appears when children are first learning
to write.
 Learning Ability in terms of mechanics of
writing (e.g. spelling, punctuating) is way
below what is expected of their age.
They also have difficulty communicating
their ideas through writing.
DYSCALCULIA
 Dyscalculia is sometimes called
“number dyslexia” or “math dyslexia.”
 More severe because it is diagnosing a
learning disability that makes it
challenging to understand even the
most basic math concepts.
 Learners perform poorly than their peers
in every type of math problem. They
have significant difficulty in terms of
retrieving number facts and solving story
problems.
DYSPRAXIA
 Also known as developmental co-
ordination disorder (DCD), is a common
disorder that affects movement and co-
ordination.
 A person with dyspraxia finds it difficult
to plan what to do, and how to do it.
 They are prone to interpersonal
problems, which often lead to rejection,
low social status, unpleasant interaction
with teachers, difficulty making friends,
and loneliness.
ATTENTION-DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY
DISORDER
 Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD) is one of the most common
mental disorders affecting children and
sometimes many adults.
  Symptoms of ADHD include inattention
(not being able to keep focus),
hyperactivity (excess movement that is
not fitting to the setting) and impulsivity
(hasty acts that occur at the moment
without thought).
 People with ADHD may also have
trouble focusing their attention on a
single task or sitting still for long periods
of time.
 Severity may also classify as:
 MILD - Some difficulties in learning skills in
one or two domains but the learner is able
to compensate with appropriate
accommodations or support services.
 MODERATE - Marked difficulties learning
skills in one or more academic domains that
the learner is unlikely to become proficient
without some intervals of intensive and
specialized teaching in school.
 SEVERE - Severe difficulties in learning
skills in several academic domains that the
learner is unlikely to learn those skills
without ongoing intensive individualized and
specialized teaching in school.
Causes Of Learning Disabilities
FAMILY HISTORY AND GENETICS
 A family history of learning disorders
increases the risk of a child developing
a disorder.
PRENATAL AND NEONATAL RISK
 Poor growth in the uterus (severe
intrauterine growth restriction), exposure
to alcohol or drugs before being born,
premature birth, and very low
birthweight have been linked with
learning disorders.
PSYCHOLOGICAL TRAUMA
 Psychological trauma or abuse in early
childhood may affect brain development
and increase the risk of learning
disorders.
PHYSICAL TRAUMA
 Head injuries or nervous system
infections might play a role in the
development of learning disorders.
ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE
 Exposure to high levels of toxins, such
as lead, has been linked to an increased
risk of learning disorders.
Identification & Assessment of Learners
With
Learning Disability
INTELLIGENCE AND ACHIEVEMENT
TESTS
1. Iowa Standardized Test of Basic Skills
• A group-administered achievement test
for grades K-12 which measures a
student's knowledge in subject areas
that students have learned in school –
reading, language arts, mathematics,
science, and social studies.
A. Language- Level 6 (Kindergarten 7
mo. – Grade 1.9 mos.)
• Parents say to your child: “I am going to
read you a question while you look at
some pictures. Listen carefully because
I can only read the question once. After I
read it, fill in the circle under the picture
that answers the question.”
B. Listening- Level 6 (Kindergarten 7
mos. – Grade 1.9 mos.)
• Parents say to your child: “I am going to
read you a question while you look at
some pictures. Listen carefully because
I can only read the question once. After I
read it, fill in the circle under the picture
that answers the question.”
2. The Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of
Achievement
• Includes 22 tests for measuring skills in
reading, mathematics, and writing, as
 well as important oral language abilities
and academic knowledge. Two parallel
forms (Form A and Form B) contain all
22 tests.
3. The WIAT Test (Wechsler Individual
Achievement Test) 
• Is an individually administered
achievement test that takes about 30 to
90 minutes. Specifically, the WIAT is
used to measure the strengths and
weaknesses of your child, so that the
school may determine the need for
special support or notice stand-out skills
in specific areas for gifted and talented
programs, especially for children who
are twice-exceptional (refers to
intellectually gifted children who have
some form of disability). It is used for
ages 4 years and up.
4. The Gates-MacGinitie Reading Test
• Is designed to assess student reading
levels
throughout the course of their education.
A. Comprehension
 Mature reading comprehension
passages
 are taken from previously published
books
 and periodicals in a variety of writing
styles.
B. Vocabulary
 Vocabulary is tested in Levels 3–10/12
and Adult Reading (AR). Selected words are
suited to each grade level.
6. Test of Reading Comprehension-
Fourth Edition (TORC-4)
• is an innovative approach to testing
silent reading comprehension that can
be used to (a) identify children and
adolescents who score significantly
below their peers and who therefore
might need help in improving their
reading proficiency and comprehension,
(b) document student progress in
remedial programs, and (c) serve as a
research tool in studies investigating
reading problems in children and
adolescents.
• Relational Vocabulary
• Sentence Completion
• Paragraph Construction
• Text Comprehension
• Contextual Fluency
7. The Woodcock Reading Mastery
Tests, Third Edition (WRMT – III)
• Is a comprehensive battery of
individually administered tests that
measure reading readiness and reading
achievement in examinees from pre-
kindergarten to Grade 12 and from ages
4 years 6 months (4:6) through 79 years
11 months (79:11).
8. The KeyMathTM 3
• Is a comprehensive, individually
administered measure of mathematical
ability that is designed to be a diagnostic
tool with specific, actionable results.
9. Stanford Diagnostic Mathematics
Test/SDMT
• 4 measures competence in the basic
concepts and skills prerequisite to
success in mathematics, while
emphasizing problem-solving concepts
and strategies. The test identifies
specific areas of difficulty for each
student in grades 2 through 12 so that
teachers can plan appropriate
intervention.
10. Test of Mathematical Abilities- Third
Edition (TOMA-3)
Is an easily administered, norm-
referenced, assessment tool used to
identify, describe, and quantify
 mathematical deficits in school-age
children. Specifically, it can be used to
identify students who are significantly
behind their peers in mathematical
knowledge and to determine the
magnitude (below average, poor, or very
poor) of any mathematical problems.
CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTS
The Brigance Comprehensive Inventory of
Basic Skills (CIBS)
• Is a comprehensive assessment for
students in grades K-9 and contains
over 400 tests for reading/ELA and
mathematics.
CURRICULUM-BASED MEASUREMENT
(CBM)
• A method teachers use to find out how
students are progressing in basic
academic areas such as math, reading,
writing, and spelling. CBM can be
helpful to parents because it provides
current, week-by-week information on
the progress their children are making.
ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY
DISORDER (ADHD)
Brief History of ADHD
When was ADHD Discovered?
● In 1798, a Scottish doctor, Sir Alexander
Crichton, noticed some people were
easily distracted and unable to focus on
their activities the way others could.
Early Descriptions of ADHD
● In a series of lectures in 1902, Sir
George Frederic Still talked about
mental conditions in otherwise healthy
children of normal intelligence.
The Discovery of Hyperkinetic Disease
● In 1932, German doctors Franz Kramer
and Hans Pollnow described a condition
called hyperkinetic disease
The First Medication for Hyperactivity
● In 1937, Charles Bradley, the medical
director of what is today called Bradley
Hospital in East Providence, RI, noticed
that a stimulant called Benzedrine
caused some children to behave better.
From ADD to ADHD
● ADHD was not included in the American
Psychiatric Association’s "Diagnostic
and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders" (DSM) until its second edition
in 1968.
ADHD Today
● In 1994, the APA released a fourth
edition of the DSM. It listed three types
of ADHD: mostly inattentive; mostly
hyperactive and impulsive; and a
combined type that includes all three
symptoms.
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
(ADHD)
• Is a brain disorder that affects how you
pay attention, sit still, and control your
behavior (Bhargava, 2021). It happens
in children and teens and can continue
into adulthood
• Most commonly diagnosed mental
disorder in children. Boys are more
likely to have it than girls. It’s usually
spotted during the early school years
when a child to begin to have a problem
paying attention
RESEARCH STUDY
• A meta-analysis of 175 research studies
worldwide on ADHD prevalence in
children aged 18 and under found an
overall pooled estimate of 7.2%
(Thomas et al. 2015). The US Census
Bureau estimates 1,795,734,009 people
were aged 5-19 worldwide in 2013.
Thus, 7.2% of this total population is
129 million—a rough estimate of the
 number of children worldwide who have
ADHD.
• In the Philippines, according to The
ADHD Society of the Philippines
estimated that 3 to 5 percent of the
population aged 0 to 14 years old is
affected by ADHD.
 Symptoms of ADHD can vary between
individuals in terms of severity and
combination of inattentive, hyperactive and
impulsive symptoms. ADHD, its symptoms
and impact, may also vary through an
individual’s lifespan. A worldwide meta-
analysis of 86 studies in children and
adolescents and 11 studies in adults
indicated that the predominantly inattentive
type of ADHD was the most common
subtype in all samples, with the exception
of pre-school children, in whom
predominantly hyperactive-impulsive type
was the most common.
Do symptoms of ADHD differ between
genders?
• No evidence to suggest that core ADHD
symptomatology differed between
genders
Do symptoms of ADHD differ between
genders?
• According to the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, boys are three
times more likely to receive an ADHD
diagnosis than girls. This disparity isn't
necessarily because girls are less
susceptible to the disorder. Rather, it's
likely because ADHD symptoms present
differently in girls.
Does the prevalence of ADHD differ
between genders?
• Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD) is recognized to exist in males
and females although the literature
supports a higher prevalence in males.
However, when girls are diagnosed with
ADHD, they are more often diagnosed
as predominantly inattentive than boys
with ADHD.
• ADHD can’t be prevented or cured but
spotting it early, plus having a good
treatment and education plan, can help
a child or adult with ADHD manage their
symptoms.
Characteristics of Learners with
ADHD
● ADHD has common characteristics.
Learners with ADHD might be (1)
inattentive, but not hyperactive or
impulsive; (2) hyperactive and
impulsive, but able to pay attention; or
(3) inattentive, hyperactive, and which is
the common form of ADHD.
A. Predominantly inattentive
The majority of symptoms fall under
inattention.
B. Predominantly hyperactive/impulsive
The majority of symptoms are
hyperactive and impulsive.
C. Combined
This is a mix of inattentive symptoms
and hyperactive/impulsive symptoms.
1. Inattention
● Having trouble staying focused; easily
gets distracted or gets bored with a task
before it is completed
● Appearing to not listen when spoken to
● Having difficulty remembering things
and following instructions, not paying
attention to details, or making careless
mistakes
● Having trouble staying organized,
planning ahead, and finishing projects
● Frequently losing or misplacing
homework, books, toys, or other items
2. Hyperactive
 ● Constant fidgeting or squirming
● Having difficulty sitting, playing quietly,
or relaxing
● Moving around constantly, often running
or climbing inappropriately
● Talking excessively
● Having a quick temper or “short fuse”
4. Impulsivity
● Acting without thinking
● Guessing rather than taking time to
solve the problem or blurring out
answers in class without waiting to be
called on or hearing the whole question
● Intruding other people’s conversation or
games
● Often interrupting others; saying the
wrong thing at the wrong time
● Inability to keep powerful emotions in
check, resulting in angry outbursts or
temper tantrums
USUAL COMORBIDITY OF ADHD
● ADHD is usually comorbid with
intellectual disability and learning
disability. Many children with ADHD also
have other disorders, including autism
spectrum disorders, tic disorders, and
obsessive-compulsive disorder.
Typical developmental behavior vs. ADHD
 Most healthy children are inattentive,
hyperactive, or impulsive at one time or
another. It's typical for preschoolers to have
short attention spans and be unable to stick
with one activity for long. Even in older
children and teenagers, attention span often
depends on the level of interest.
 The same is true of hyperactivity. Young
children are naturally energetic — they often
are still full of energy long after they've worn
their parents out. In addition, some children
just naturally have a higher activity level
than others do. Children should never be
classified as having ADHD just because
they're different from their friends or
siblings.
 Children who have problems in school but
get along well at home or with friends are
likely struggling with something other than
ADHD. The same is true of children who are
hyperactive or inattentive at home, but
whose schoolwork and friendships remain
unaffected.
CAUSES OF ADHD
 ADHD is considered a neurologically
based disorder, no clear and consistent
evidence links it to brain damage or
dysfunction.
 Experts aren’t sure what causes ADHD.
Several things may lead to it, including:
WHAT ARE THE CAUSES OF ADHD?
• Genes – ADHD tends to run in families.
• Chemicals – Brain chemicals in people
with ADHD may be out of balance.
• Brain changes – Areas of the brain that
control attention are less active in
children with ADHD.
ADHD can make life difficult for children.
Children with ADHD:
• Often struggle in the classroom, which
can lead to academic failure and
judgment by other children and adults
 • Tend to have more accidents and
injuries of all kinds than do children who
don't have ADHD
• Tend to have poor self-esteem
• Are more likely to have trouble
interacting with and being accepted by
peers and adults
• Are at increased risk of alcohol and drug
abuse and other delinquent behavior
Identification And Treatment of ADHD
IDENTIFICATION OF ADHD
• It can be hard to diagnose ADHD,
especially in children. No one test will
spot it. Doctors diagnose ADHD in
children and teens after discussing
symptoms at length with the child,
parents, and teachers, and then
observing the child's behaviors.
• The tests should be given by a
pediatrician or mental health provider
with experience in diagnosing and
treating ADHD. Your primary care
doctor might refer you to a specialist
such as a psychiatrist, psychologist, or
psychotherapist.
The tests may include:
• A medical and social history of both the
child and the family.
• A physical exam and neurological
assessment that includes screenings of
vision, hearing, and verbal and motor
skills. More tests may be given if
hyperactivity may be related to another
physical problem.
• An evaluation of intelligence, aptitude,
personality traits, or processing skills.
These are often done with input from the
parents and teachers if the child is of
school age.
• A scan called the Neuropsychiatric
EEG-Based Assessment Aid (NEBA)
System, which measures theta and beta
brain waves. The theta/beta ratio has
been shown to be higher in children and
adolescents with ADHD than in children
without it.
The following guidelines are used to
confirm a diagnosis of ADHD:
• In a child 4 to 17 years of age, 6 or more
symptoms must be identified.
• In a child 17 years and older, 5 or more
symptoms must be identified.
• Symptoms significantly impair your
child's ability to function in some of the
activities of daily life, such as
schoolwork, relationships with you and
siblings, relationships with friends, or the
ability to function in groups such as
sports teams.
• Symptoms start before the child reaches
12 years of age. However, these may
not be recognized as ADHD symptoms
until a child is older.
• Symptoms have continued for more
than 6 months.
TREATMENT OF ADHD
Treatment for attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD) can help relieve the
symptoms and make the condition much less
of a problem in day-to-day life.
There are 5 types of medicine licensed for
the treatment of ADHD:
1. Methylphenidate
• Methylphenidate is the most commonly
used medicine for ADHD. It belongs to a
group of medicines called stimulants
which work by increasing activity in the
brain, particularlyin areas that play a
part in controlling attention and
behavior.
 • Methylphenidate may be offered to
adults, teenagers, and children over the
age of 5 with ADHD.
• The medicine can be taken as either
immediate-release tablets (small doses
taken 2 to 3 times a day) or as modified-
release tablets (taken once a day in the
morning, with the dose released
throughout the day).
Common side effects of methylphenidate
include:
o a small increase in blood pressure and
heart rate
o loss of appetite, which can lead to
weight loss or poor weight gain
o trouble sleeping
o headaches
o stomach aches
o mood swings
2. Lisdexamfetamine
• Lisdexamfetamine is a medicine that
stimulates certain parts of the brain. It
improves concentration, helps focus
attention, and reduces impulsive
behavior
• It may be offered to teenagers and
children over the age of 5 with ADHD if
at least 6 weeks of treatment with
methylphenidate has not helped. Adults
may be offered lisdexamfetamine as the
first-choice medicine instead of
methylphenidate.
Common side effects of lisdexamfetamine
include:
• decreased appetite, which can lead to
weight loss or poor weight gain
• aggression
• drowsiness
• dizziness
• headaches
• diarrhea
• nausea and vomiting
3. Dexamfetamine
• Dexamfetamine is similar to
lisdexamfetamine and works in the
same way. It may be offered to adults,
teenagers and children over the age of 5
with ADHD.
• Dexamfetamine is usually taken as a
tablet once or twice a day, although an
oral solution is also available.
Common side effects of dexamfetamine
include:
• decreased appetite
• mood swings
• agitation and aggression
• dizziness
• headaches
• diarrhea
• nausea and vomiting
4. Atomoxetine
• Atomoxetine works differently from other
ADHD medicines.
• It's a selective noradrenaline reuptake
inhibitor (SNRI), which means it
increases the amount of a chemical in
the brain called noradrenaline.
• This chemical passes messages
between brain cells, and increasing it
can aid concentration and help control
impulses.
• Atomoxetine may be offered to adults,
teenagers, and children over the age of
5 if it's not possible to use
 methylphenidate or lisdexamfetamine.
It's also licensed for use in adults if
symptoms of ADHD are confirmed.
• Atomoxetine comes in capsule form,
usually taken once or twice a day.
Common side effects of atomoxetine include:
• a small increase in blood pressure and
heart rate
• nausea and vomiting
• stomach aches
• trouble sleeping
• dizziness
• headaches
• irritability
5. Guanfacine
• Guanfacine acts on part of the brain to
improve attention, and it also reduces
blood pressure.
• It may be offered to teenagers and
children over the age of 5 if it's not
possible to use methylphenidate or
lisdexamfetamine. Guanfacine should
not be offered to adults with ADHD.
• Guanfacine is usually taken as a tablet
once a day, in the morning or evening.
Common side effects include:
• tiredness or fatigue
• headache
• abdominal pain
• dry mouth
OTHER TREATMENT
Therapy
• As well as taking medicine, different
therapies can be useful in treating
ADHD in children, teenagers, and
adults.
Psychoeducation
• Psychoeducation means you or your
child will be encouraged to discuss
ADHD and its effects.
Behavior therapy
• Behavior therapy provides support for
carers of children with ADHD and may
involve teachers as well as parents.
• If your child has ADHD, you can identify
the types of behavior you want to
encourage, such as sitting at the table to
eat. Your child is then given some sort
of small reward for good behavior and
has a privilege removed for poor
behavior.
• For teachers, behavior management
involves learning how to plan and
structure activities, and to praise and
encourage children for even very small
amounts of progress.
Parent training and education programs
• If your child has ADHD, specially
tailored parent training and education
programs can help you learn specific
ways of talking to your child and playing
and working with them to improve their
attention and behavior.
• You may also be offered parent training
before your child is formally diagnosed
with ADHD.
• These programs are usually arranged in
groups of around 10 to 12 parents. A
program usually consists of 10 to 16
meetings, lasting up to 2 hours each.
Social skills training
• Social skills training involves your child
taking part in role-play situations and
aims to teach them how to behave in
social situations by learning how their
behavior affects others.
Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)
 • CBT is a talking therapy that can help
you manage your problems by changing
the way you think and behave.
Other possible treatments
• There are other ways of treating ADHD
that some people with the condition find
helpful, such as cutting out certain foods
and taking supplements.
Diet
• People with ADHD should eat a healthy,
balanced diet. Do not cut out foods
before seeking medical advice.
Supplements
• Some studies have suggested that
supplements of omega-3 and omega-6
fatty acids may be beneficial for people
with ADHD, although the evidence
supporting this is very limited.

REPORT 10: PRINCIPLES &
STRATEGIES OF LEARNERS WITH
DIFFICULTY REMEMBERING AND
FOCUSING
INDIVIDUALIZED EDUCATIONAL PLAN
(IEP)
 An Individualized Education Plan (or
Program) is also known as an IEP. This
is a plan or program developed to
ensure that a child with an identified
disability who is attending an elementary
or secondary educational institution
receives specialized instruction and
related services.
 An IEP lays out the special education
instruction, supports, and services a
student needs to thrive in school.
 Pre-K–12 public education includes
IEPs.
GENERAL EDUCATIONAL APPROACHES
Universal Design for Learning (UDL)
What is UDL?
 In 1984, UDL was discovered by two
researchers Dr. David Rose and Dr. Ann
Meyer from the Harvard Graduate
Education, incorporated with CAST, Inc.
(Center for Applied Specialized
Technology). And later on, develop by
an American Architecture Ronald
Lawrence Mace.
 In 1990, the goal of UDL is address the
“disabilities of schools” rather
“disabilities of individuals.”
 UDL is an educational framework to
build equal opportunities to every
learner to succeed with learning and
thinking differences. This help to use
variety of teaching methods to removes
any learning barriers.
Examples of UDL in Classroom
1. Attached lesson goals- Having
goals in the classroom set-up may
engage the students to know what they
are working to achieve.
2. Assignments- Allowing them to
create their own assignments in different
means as long as they meet the lesson
goals.
3. Flexibility in learning environment-
UDL promoting flexible work spaces to
every learner.
4. Feedbacks- Students are
encouraged to have self-reflection if
they achieve a certain learning goal.
5. Digital and Audio Text- Materials
are accessible for all types of learners.
Principles of UDL
1. Engagement
Providing multiple ways to motivate learner and
sustain their interest.
Examples:
a. Let the learners to make their own
choice.
b. Create opportunities to every learner.
2. Representation
Offering learning or representation options
rather than one format.
Examples:
a. Audio-visual presentations
b. Powerpoint presentations
c. Books or Flipbooks
3. Action and Expression
 Give every learner more than one way to instruction and mastering the objectives of
interact with the material and to show what each lesson.
they know or learn.
Examples:
Examples of Direct Instruction
a. Doing a group project
A. Response Cards - are described as
b. Taking pen-and-paper test
reusable cards, signs, or items that all
c. Making a video
students in the class hold up at the
same time to display their replies to the
Direct Instruction teacher's questions or issues.
What is Direct Instruction?
 In 1960s, the Direct Instruction model is
the most carefully developed and
thoroughly tested program for teaching
and begun by Siegfried Engelmann and
Wesley Becker at the University of
Illinois
 DI model is a teacher-directed teaching
method, which means, teacher is the
facilitator and presenter of information.
In other words, teachers are “directing”
the instructional process or instruction is
being “directed” at students.
 Two major rules underlie DI: “Teach
more in less time.” and “Control the
details of the curriculum.”
3 Main Components of Direct Instruction
 Program Design identifies the concepts, rules,
strategies and big ideas. B. Self-monitoring - It's a behaviorally-
5 main elements: based technique that encourages self-
regulation, in which a person observes
(a) Carefully Analyzing, and records the occurrence and non-
(b) Clear communication, occurrence of a given behavior on a
(c) Instructional Format, regular basis.
(d) Skill, and
(e) Instructional topic.

 Organization of Instruction including

scheduling, grouping, and on-going process
monitoring to assure that each student
receives appropriate and sufficient instruction.

 Student-Teacher Interaction is a technique

assuring that the student is engaged with
 A. Instruction focuses more on critical
contents.
B. The concepts, skills, and strategies are
sequenced logically.
C. Complex skills and strategies are
broken down into smaller instruction
units.
D. Lessons are organized and focused.
opening (attention, review, and
preview.)
body 
closing (review, preview,
independent work.)
E. Instructional routines are used.

Explicit Instruction of Skills/Strategies

 
Model - I do it. My turn.
Explicit Instruction Prompt - We do it. Let’s do this together.
Check - You do it. Your turn.
What is Explicit Instruction?
 It is an effective and efficient way of Explicit Instruction of Concepts
teaching.  (Vocabulary)
 Students are guided through the learning
process with clear statements about the 1. Introduce the word.
purpose and rationale for learning the new 2. Provide a “student-friendly explanation.”
skill, clear explanations, and 3. Illustrate with examples.
demonstrations of instructional target, and 4. Check understanding.
supported practices with feedback until ENGAGING
independent mastery has been achieved” A. Frequent responses are elicited.
(Archer & Hughes, 2011 p. 1)
 Rosenshine (1987) described this form as
“a systematic method of teaching with
emphasis on proceeding in small steps,
checking for student understanding, and
achieving active and successful
participation by all students.”

Three Characteristics of Explicit Instruction

1. SYSTEMATIC
2. ENGAGING
3. RELENTLESS

SYSTEMATIC
 B. Student performance is carefully
monitored.

 Walk around.  
 Look around.  
 Talk around.

C. Immediate affirmative and corrective

feedback is provided.

Corrective Feedback is:

 Provided
 Immediate
 Specific and informative D. The lesson is delivered at a brisk
 Focused on the correct versus incorrect place.
response  Be prepared.
 Delivered with appropriate tone  Provide just enough thinking time.
 Provide just enough time for oral,
 Ended with students giving correct
written, or action responses.
response
 After providing a response, move on.
Praise is:  Avoid digressions.
 Utilize instructional routines.
 contingent (IF – THEN)
 specific
 provided for noteworthy performance
RELENTLESS
 focused on achievement and effort
rather than personality attributes Practice.
 comparing students to themselves Practice.
rather than to other
 positive, credible, genuine Practice.

1. Adequate initial practice opportunities.

2. Distributed practice.
3. Cumulative Review - Tier 3 students may
require 10 to 30 times as many practice
opportunities as peers.
4. Teach to mastery.

It is not: Drill and Kill

It is: Drill and Skill
Perhaps: Drill and Thrill

TEACHING STRATEGIES
READING INSTRUCTION
  Teaching reading comprehension
includes using self-questioning, use of
graphic organizers, mnemonics, and
summarizing.
Types of Reading Instruction
1. Language Experience Approach
2. Kinesthetic-Auditory Visual Emphasis
Methods
3. Directed Reading-Thinking Activity
4. Miscue Analysis of Oral Reading
LANGUAGE EXPERIENCE APPROACH
 The language experience approach
(LEA) is a whole language approach
that promotes reading and writing
through the use of personal
experiences and oral language.
 It was first developed for Maori-speaking
people by Ashton Warner in 1963.  prediction was correct or not.
 Roach Van Allen (1964), a leading
proponent of the language experience
approach, describes the following
principles upon which it was founded:
KINESTHETIC-AUDITORY VISUAL
EMPHASIS METHODS
 Originally designed by Dr. Grace
Fernald (1943).
 It is a strategy that helps your child
remember the appearance of words
through a visual, auditory, and
kinesthetic approach to learning.
 This method makes the reader to
correctly write and read their own written
words, combining the sense of touch,
hearing and seeing, and then move to a
more extensive reading material. 
DIRECTED READING-THINKING ACTIVITY
 The DRTA is a strategy that firstly
introduced by Russell Stauffer (1965).
 The Directed Reading Thinking Activity
(DRTA) is a comprehension strategy
that is used during reading to guide
students in asking questions about a
text and making predictions. They then
keep reading to figure out if their
 This strategy consists of three phases
which direct students to propose
questions about a text they read, predict
while they are reading, and verify their
predictions
 The DRTA is beneficial in leading the
students to be active and become
independent readers.
What are the Purposes of DRTA?
 Elicits student’s prior knowledge of the
topic of the text.
 Encourages students to monitor their
comprehension while they are reading.
 Sets a purpose for reading. 
SAMPLE QUESTIONS:
 What is the main point the author is
making in this story/article? What
supports your answer?
  Do you agree with the author’s ideas or
the character’s actions? Explain why or
why not.
 What is the mood of this piece and how
does the author develop it?
MISCUE ANALYSIS OF ORAL READING
 This is an assessment strategy first
introduced by Goodman (1969) that
helps the teacher identify cueing
systems used by readers.
 Miscue analysis is an analytical
procedure for assessing students’
reading comprehension based on
samples of oral reading. It is based on
the belief that students’ mistakes when
reading are not random errors, but
actually their attempt to make sense of
the text with their experiences and
language skills.
Types of Miscues:
1. Correction  after the unit to determine the learners’
2. Insertion  mastery.
3. Omission 
4. Repetition 
5. Reversal
6. Substitution  WRITING (CSIW)
WRITING INSTRUCTION
 Learners with difficulty in writing have
problems with basic skills in handwriting,
spelling, punctuation, and grammar. 
 Studies suggest that explicit instruction
including advice and feedback could
help learners develop basic skills in
writing.
Types of Writing Instruction
1. Study Test Technique
2. Cognitive Strategy Instruction in Writing
(CSIW) 
3. Self-regulation  
STUDY TEST TECHNIQUE
 This is giving of pretests at the
beginning of each unit of study where
the words misspelled become the
learners’ study list. Posttest is also given
COGNITIVE STRATEGY INSTRUCTION IN
 Developed by Englert and her
associates in 1992. 
 CSIW was a research program aimed at
developing learners’ expository writing
skills and knowledge of various ways
that a text could be organized. 
SELF-REGULATION
 This strategy requires the writer’s
continuous vigilance of the graphic,
syntactic and semantic errors that
happen in writing. 
  Graham and Harris (1987) developed How to Conduct Error Analysis
instructional procedures for this
The following steps describe the error analysis
strategy: 
process, applied to mathematics (Howell, Fox,
 Pre-skill development & Morehead, 1993): 
 Review of current performance level
1. Collect a sample of student work for
 Discussions of executive strategy
each type of problem.
 Modeling of the strategy and self-
instruction 2. Have the student verbalize or think
 Mastering of the strategy aloud as s/he solves the problems
 Collaborative practice without providing any type of cues or
 Independent Performance prompting. 
3. Record all student responses in written
MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTION and verbal format. 
Motivational Approach 4. Analyze the responses and look for
patterns among common problem
This means that in teaching mathematics,
types. 
learners should be exposed to problem-solving
approaches and strategies, using day-to-day 5. Look for examples of "exceptions" to an
life examples instead of making them learn apparent pattern.
“rules of thumb” or fundamental rules alone.
6. 6. Describe the patterns observed in
Other Motivational Approach includes:  simple language and the possible
reasons for the student’s problems.
 A thoughtful environment. 
 Intrinsic and extrinsic motivators. 7. 7. Interview the student by asking
 A “mistakes are okay” class culture.  him/her to explain how s/he solved the
 Charitable opportunities. problem to confirm suspected error
patterns.
Error Analysis
 It is a method commonly used to identify
the cause of student errors when they
make consistent mistakes. 
 Common examples include the concept
of place values, computational facts,
using wrong process of calculation,
poor concept of carry over and
working from left to right and wrong
direction. Likewise, the reasons for
committing such errors may include
prerequisite mathematical skills,
unfamiliarity with basic number
factors, problems of
conceptualization, speed of
processing, and deficits in adopting
calculation strategies.
REPORT 12