Carbon Trends 2 (2021) 10 0 019

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Carbon Trends
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cartre

Carbon nanomaterials to combat virus: A perspective in view of

COVID-19
Joydip Sengupta a, Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain b,∗
a
Department of Electronic Science Jogesh Chandra Chaudhuri College (Affiliated to University of Calcutta), Kolkata 700033, West Bengal, India
b
Department of Chemistry and Environmental Science, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The rapid outbreaks of lethal viruses necessitate the development of novel antiviral substance. Besides
Received 8 November 2020 the conventional antiviral substances, biocompatible nanomaterials also have significant potential in com-
Revised 17 December 2020
bating the virus at various stages of infection. Carbon nanomaterials have an impressive record against
Accepted 18 December 2020
viruses and can deal with many crucial healthcare issues. In accordance with the published literature,
biocompatible carbon nanomaterials have a promising prospect as an antiviral substance. Subsequently,
Keywords: the antiviral properties of different carbon nanomaterials namely fullerene, carbon nanotube, carbon dot
Fullerene and graphene oxide have been reviewed.
Carbon nanotube
Carbon dot © 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Graphene oxide This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
Antiviral (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
COVID-19

The world is facing an unprecedented medical emergency since
December 2019 owing to a new strain of coronavirus which is
named as severe acute respiratory-related coronavirus 2 (SARS-
CoV-2) [1]. Various detection strategies are being employed to re-
frain off the transmission chain of the disease which is mainly
based on immunological assays or using amplification techniques.
The methods involving immunological assays suffer from the draw-
back of the requirement of complex production of antibodies and
recombinant proteins while amplification-based techniques require
expensive instruments and skilled personnel [2]. To overcome the
inherent problems of the standard detection techniques many new
nanotechnology-based approaches have evolved [3,4] incorporating
carbon nanomaterials [5]. However, mere detection is not enough
to break the chain, the development of a new generation of antivi-
ral tools is urgently needed to combat this pandemic.
Antiviral substances can be categorised as virostatic and viruci-
dal [6]. The working of virostatic substances is based on a binding
mechanism and they act in the early stages of infection by reduc-
ing viral replication rate, while virucidal substances can deactivate
the virus permanently. These antiviral substances are of the order
of nanometer and they interact well with nanosized viruses via
biochemical interaction. In this regard, carbon nanomaterials show
great potential to be used as an antiviral substance because of their
novel physio-chemical characteristic [7].
∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: chaudhery.m.hussain@njit.edu (C.M. Hussain).
The first carbon nanomaterial fullerene was discovered in 1985
by Prof Smalley’s group and it is also the first candidate to be
tested as the antiviral substance in 1993 by Sijbesma et al. [8].
It was found that fullerenes fit well into the active sites of the
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and can block the encoded
enzymes. Later on, several researchers have synthesised different
tailor-made fullerene derivatives to achieve higher inhibition of
HIV-1 maturation [9], HIV-RT [10] or HIV-1 protease [11]. In some
cases, the solubility of antiviral substance is required and inter-
estingly it is possible to synthesise water-soluble fullerene while
keeping their antiviral activity intact [12]. Kornev et al. [13] de-
veloped water-soluble polycarboxylic derivatives of fullerene which
showed pronounced antiviral activity against HIV and influenza A
virus. Carboxylic derivatives of fullerene also have been effective
to inhibit Herpes Simplex Virus and Cytomegalovirus [14]. Kataoka
et al. [15] synthesised proline-type fullerene to inhibit Hepatitis
C virus protease successfully. Falynskova et al. [16] produced a
tailor-made fullerene compound fullerene-(tris-aminocaproic acid)
hydrate to hinder the Respiratory Syncytial Virus multiplication in
HEp-2 cell, however application time is crucial for effective inhi-
bition of the virus. Fullerene derivatives are also able to inhibit
the Zika Virus and Dengue viruses [17]. Non-derivatized fullerene
is also employed for efficient inhibition of viruses like simian im-
munodeficiency virus and the Moloney murine leukemia virus (M-
MuLV) [18]. Moreover, fullerene can produce singlet oxygen (1 O2 )
upon illumination by visible light [19] (Fig 1). This property of
fullerene has been utilized by several researchers for the inacti-

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cartre.2020.10 0 019
2667-0569/© 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
J. Sengupta and C.M. Hussain
Fig. 1. A ground-state fullerene absorbs a photon, transitions to the short-lived (nsec) excited singlet state that can undergo intersystem crossing to the long-lived (μsec)
excited triplet state. The triplet fullerene can relax to ground state by emitting phosphorescence, but can also undergo energy transfer with ground state triplet oxygen (3 O2 )
to form reactive singlet oxygen (1 O2 , Type 2) or else can undergo an electron transfer reaction to form HO•, superoxide and H2 O2 (Type 1). These ROS (1 O2 and HO•) can
damage lipids, proteins and nucleic acids leading to the destruction of all types of microbial cells, and efficiently kill cancer cells and destroy tumors. (Reproduced with
permission from Royal Society of Chemistry [53]).
vation of viruses [20,21] even in water [22] and can be used for
the sanitization of indoor air [23]. Thus, fullerene can be effectively
employed to combat RNA type viruses.
Another carbon allotrope, namely carbon nanotube (CNT) was
first reported in 1952 [24], but after the description provided by
Ijima in 1991, [25] it gains worldwide attention. Krishnaraj et al.
[26] theoretically studied the molecular interaction between CNT
and HIV. Their results revealed that CNT has a high binding affin-
ity towards the proteins of HIV, demonstrating the antiviral activ-
ity. Single wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs), both in pristine form
and decorated with metal (Pt, Pd, Ni, Cu, Rh, or Ru) nanoparticles
were examined to study the adsorption of hydrogen peroxide (as a
representative of the ROS family) by Aasi et al. [27] employing den-
sity functional theory. The results exhibited that hydrogen peroxide
is weakly physisorbed on pristine SWCNT while strong physisorp-
tion was found on metal decorated SWCNTs. Moreover, metal dec-
orated SWCNTs showed long shelf lives which make it a poten-
tial candidate for designing the antiviral surfaces and personal pro-
tection equipment (PPE). Banerjee et al. [28] prepared porphyrin-
conjugated multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) by attaching
protoporphyrin IX to acid-functionalized MWCNTs. Under the illu-
mination of visible light, the prepared material considerably sup-
pressed the ability of Influenza A virus to infect mammalian cells.
Differently functionalized MWCNTs were studied by Iannazzo et al.
[29] for their in-vitro anti-HIV activity. The results revealed that
hydrophilic functionality and water dispersibility of functionalized
MWCNTs governed the antiviral activity against HIV. Henceforth, it
can be seen that CNT can be potentially used for deactivation of
RNA type viruses.
Carbon dots (CDs) were accidentally discovered by Xu et al.
[30] in 2004 and later in 2006 Sun et al. produced stable pho-
toluminescent carbon nanoparticles having different sizes and
named as “Carbon Quantum Dots” (CQDs) [31]. On the other hand
graphene quantum dot (GQD) was discovered in 2008 by Pono-
marenko et al. [32]. There is a structural difference between GQD
and CD. CDs are generally quasi-spherical in shape and are smaller
than 10 nm in size, while GQD has graphene lattice having a size of
2
Carbon Trends 2 (2021) 100019
less than 100 nm [33]. Barras et al. [34] reported that functional-
ized CDs with boronic acid can restrict the entry of herpes simplex
virus type 1 (HSV-1) at its early stage. Functionalized CDs with
boronic acid also have the potential to inhibit HIV-1 entry [35].
Du et al. [36] examined inhibition characteristics of CDs on RNA
and DNA model type viruses. Pseudorabies virus (PRV) was consid-
ered as a DNA model type virus and porcine reproductive and res-
piratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) was used as an RNA model type
virus for this study. They found that CDs induces interferon-α and
inhibit virus replication for both RNA and DNA type viruses (Fig 2).
Glycyrrhizic acid was used to synthesis CD by Tong et al. [37] and
the prepared CDs depicted a broad spectrum of antiviral activity
against various viruses like PRRSV, pseudorabies virus (PRV) and
porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV). Lin et al. [38] derived CDs
from curcumin (Cur-CQDs) through one-step dry heating and found
that the obtained CDs possessed strong antiviral activity against
enterovirus 71 (EV71) via scavenging free radicals and strong an-
tioxidant activity. To examine the antiviral property of curcumin
derived CDs for inhibition of coronavirus model type virus Ting
et al. [39] used PEDV. It was revealed that the curcumin derived
CDs inhibited the viral entry by changing the structure of virus
surface proteins and reduced the viral replication via stimulation
of the production of interferon-stimulating genes (ISGs). The effect
of functionalization using boronic acid on seven types of CDs to in-
hibit human coronavirus was studied by Łoczechin et al. [40]. The
derived carbon nanostructures depicted concentration-dependent
virus inactivation at the viral replication step. Huang et al. [41] pre-
pared benzoxazine monomer derived CDs and showed that the
derived nanostructure possessed broad-spectrum antiviral ability
against life-threatening flaviviruses (Japanese encephalitis, Zika,
and dengue viruses) and non-enveloped viruses (porcine par-
vovirus and adenovirus-associated virus). Norovirus can also be in-
hibited by surface passivated CDs as reported by Dong et al. [42].
Ju et al. [43] reported that CDs are even effective for the inhibi-
tion of viral microRNA by regulating the proliferation and survival
of virus-induced cancer cells. GQD has also has been used for inhi-
bition of virus. Lannazzo et al. [44] synthesized water-soluble GQD
J. Sengupta and C.M. Hussain Carbon Trends 2 (2021) 100019

Fig. 2. Effect on PRRSV and PRV before (leftmost column) and after (rightmost column) the addition of carbon dots. (Reproduced with permission from Elsevier [36]).

Fig. 3. Schematic representation of the working principle. (A) The synthesis of functional nanomaterial composite; (B) the proposed inhibition mode of functional nanoma-
terials composite against RSV infection. (Reproduced with permission from Royal Society of Chemistry [48]).

by prolonged oxidation of multiwall carbon nanotube and used it
for the inhibition of HIV RT.
After the first demonstration of easy isolation of graphene by
Geim and Novoselov, from bulk graphite in 2004 [45], graphene
and its derivatives have been widely used in different sectors of
the medical industry (Fig 3). Sametband et al. [46] used graphene
oxide (GO) derivatives to inhibit HSV-1 via viral attachment block-
ing. The GO blocked HSV-1 infections at relatively low concentra-
tions and the charge density was the major factor affecting the in-
hibition of virus. Two typical enteric viruses, EV71 and Influenza A
virus subtype (H9N2), were used as target viruses by Song et al.
[47] for inhibition by GO and found that GO could completely re-
move the target viruses by destruction and disinfection properties.
Yang et al. [48] functionalised GO with β -cyclodextrin and used it
as an antiviral substance to inhibit RNA type respiratory syncytial
virus. His-result showed that the functionalised GO can inactivate
the virus directly. The photocatalytic activity of GO [49] has also
been explored by the researchers for the inhibition of viruses. Hu
et al. [50] prepared GO functioned aptamer and used it for success-
ful photocatalysis of viruses via energy transfer under visible light
illumination. Graphene-tungsten oxide composite thin films were
synthesized by Akhavan et al. [51] which exhibited an outstanding
photocatalytic performance in photoinactivation of bacteriophage
MS2 viruses in the presence of visible light.
In summary, SARS-CoV-2 belongs to the RNA virus family and
has created a medical emergency worldwide because of its deadly
nature and rapid transmission rate. To combat the present situ-
ation various carbon nanomaterials, like fullerene, CNT, CD, GQD

3
J. Sengupta and C.M. Hussain
and GO can be employed as antiviral substances because of their
capability of inhibiting RNA type virus [52], biocompatibility and
low toxicity. Thus, it can be believed that these unique carbon
nanomaterials will pave the way to combat the fatal SARS-CoV-2
in near future.
Declaration of Competing Interest
All Authors declare no conflict interest.
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