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Experimental Performance and Study of Low Power Strain Gauge Based

Wireless Sensor Node for Structure Health Monitoring

Article  in  Wireless Personal Communications · August 2018

DOI: 10.1007/s11277-018-5782-6

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Wireless Pers Commun (2018) 101:1657–1669
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11277-018-5782-6

Experimental Performance and Study of Low Power

Strain Gauge Based Wireless Sensor Node for Structure
Health Monitoring

Rajeev Kumar1 • Ashraf Hossain1

Published online: 3 May 2018

 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2018

Abstract A low cost strain gauge can be implemented to detect damage before natural
disaster phenomena in real time for monitoring the health of structure. The most common
non-destructive sensing element such as strain gauge employs in the form of array is to
measure surface strain of concrete structure. In this paper, we perform an experiment for
developing the wireless sensor node to recover the characteristics of surface strain. The
objective of an experiment is to model the strain sensor to receive large assessment data in
real time. It analyzes the surface strain on mechanical cantilever beam and receives the
electrical signal with the help of signal conditioning amplifier circuit in civil engineering
laboratory. Moreover, an essential observation is that the experimental results are equiv-
alent to numerical results when location of load point is closed to strain sensor. The
experimental results are essential in development of strain gauge based sensor node which
is useful for structure health monitoring.

Keywords Strain gauge sensor  Sensor network  Structure health monitoring

1 Introduction

A wireless sensor network (WSN) provides a platform to interact with physical world in
real time. To interact with physical parameters in nature, integrated hardware and software
systems have been developed for WSN. The hardware system employs to identify system
parameters and its interrelationship. Low cost energetic sensor nodes are disseminated to
gather meaningful data from the specified concrete structure. Each sensor node is

& Ashraf Hossain

ashrafiit@gmail.com
Rajeev Kumar
er.rajeevkr1989@gmail.com
1
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, National Institute of Technology
Silchar, Silchar, Assam 788010, India

123
1658 R. Kumar, A. Hossain

assembled with electronic components. The sensor node consists of one or more than one
sensing unit, on board processor, micro controller, radio transceiver module and limited
power of battery [1]. In particular, wireless strain sensor networks can be used to model the
several practical applications in concrete structure such as building, bridge, and dam.
A significant effort has been dedicated by Pakzad et al. [2] to develop an accelerometer
sensor model to meet the requirement for structure health monitoring (SHM). It has been
implemented on long-span bridge for measuring sensing acceleration from strong motion
and ambient vibration of structure. However, this sensor model is not applicable to detect
surface deformation. Ellis and Smith have developed a predictive model under controlled
laboratory and generated mechanical motion on cantilever beam [3]. They have measured
strain by binding strain gauge over its surface. Operational and failure mode have been
analyzed through stain sensor. In practical, binding strain gauge on the turbine blade has
been employed to measure the strain when turbine engine is operated at high frequency in
air craft application.
In [4], Ling et al. have presented a distributed decision-making framework for an online
SHM. They have developed a nonlinear 0-norm minimization formulation to recover
sparse damage severity vector, localize, and quantify damages in a structure through
distributive and collaborative decision-making among wireless sensors. However, they
have not validated their works through experiment. Furthermore, Chin et al. [5] have
studied low data rate rapid structural assessment network for detecting building damage
experimentally. They have used custom-built gages to detect cracks in critical structural
elements. However, this sensor node is not suitable to measure water level, rainfall,
seepage and displacement in dam section.
Moreover, Miao et al. [6] have implemented a ZigBee based wireless dam monitoring.
In this network, the smart node has been mounted to detect accurate temperature, water
level, rainfall, seepage and displacement in the dam section. For SHM, Dai et al. have
designed a wireless sensor network, implemented, deployed and tested on the Zheng Dian
viaduct bridge in China [7]. They have provided a few implication and guidance for
implementation in SHM. In [8], Bhuiyan et al. have studied sensor placement optimization
methodology for SHM (i.e, building). It has been addressed several features named as
finding a high quality placement of a set of sensors, communication efficiency and low
complexity for sensor placement, and reduce the probability of a network failure. However,
they have not considered decentralized data collection strategy for SHM.
On performance and design of WSN, researchers have proposed significant works for
civil SHM. In [9], Ho et al. have designed a multi-scale acceleration-dynamic strain-
impedance sensor system for vibration- and impedance-based SHM. In this design, Imote2
platform has been implemented to measure acceleration and impedance produced by
system structure during natural deserter. In addition, operation logics of multi-scale sensor
nodes are programmed based on the concept of decentralized sensor network to collect
important information. However, it is not sensitive to track small crack in concrete
structure. Further, Torfs et al. [10] have developed capacitive Microelectromechanical
systems (MEMS) strain sensor and 3-D acceleration sensor. These sensors are deployed at
the base of building to measure the settlement and plastic hinge activation of building after
earthquake.
Setijadi et al. [11] have implemented large scale sensor system for monitoring long-span
bridge which is located at remote area. However, fault-tolerance in SHM has not been
considered. In [12], Bhuiyan et al. have addressed two important challenges: sensor
deployment and decentralized computation. They have proposed fault-tolerance in SHM.
Furthermore, Peralta et al. [13] have developed a platform which is based on WSN to

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Experimental Performance and Study of Low Power Strain… 1659

estimate seismic risk of buildings. The SAVER project (Structural Analysis of Vulnera-
bilities of buildings through wireless sensor networks) is intended to give basis for analysis
of buildings and gather instrumental data. It is useful for decision-making of academic and
researchers. In [14], Putra et al. have described preliminary study of agent-oriented pattern
to develop smart sensing in single degree of freedom. They have studied bridge condition
assessment and load rating using dynamic response.
Recently Contreras and Ziavras have studied sensing and vibration using WSN
motes for SHM [15]. The SHM system is suitable for structures that carry live loads in
a linear fashion such as railroad and pipeline monitoring. In [16], Guo et al. have
presented an experiment to measure the vibration of deck of bridge and building.
Furthermore, Glišić et al. [17] have presented an experiment to evaluate the width of
crack damage with probability of detection over large area of civil structure. However,
universal test machine (UTM) has not been used for testing the deflection of column
from neutral axis to receive the electrical signal under different location for SHM in
the literature.
In this paper, we have performed an experiment to recover meaningful electrical signals
in the civil engineering structure laboratory. With the application of UTM, the mechanical
motion is developed over surface of cantilever beam. Thereby, strain is generated in the
surface of cantilever beam. The surface strain is transformed into electrical signal with the
help of signal conditioning amplifier circuit (SCAC). Thus, the strain gauge meets the
requirement of sensor node. The strain gauge responds the amplitude of threshold value
with mechanical motion of concrete structure in real time before its collapse. The
mechanical motion changes due to the seismic forces and physical forces during its
operational lifetime. The experimental results demonstrate that the transduction mecha-
nism of cantilever beam is related to strain gauge which recovers as signal in the form of
voltage.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows. In Sect. 2, we present the performance of
strain gauge with mechanical motion of cantilever beam and obtain relation between
position of load point from the free end of cantilever beam and electrical signal. The
experimental setup for performance of strain gauge on cantilever beam is described in
Sect. 3. Section 4 presents experiential results and discussions. Finally, we conclude this
paper in Sect. 5.

2 Analysis of Strain Gauge Over Surface of Cantilever Beam

In this section, we present the performance of surface strain and investigate to transform
the developed strain in structure into meaningful electrical signal.

2.1 Performance of Strain Gauge

The cement material used in concrete structure modulates the lateral resistance of strain
gauge with mechanical motion. The stain is denoted as 2, is defined as the ratio of small
change in length, dl of body by external load to original length of body, l. And therefore, it
is formulated as,

123
1660 R. Kumar, A. Hossain

dl
2¼ ð1Þ
l
A strain gauge is manufactured by resistive sensitive material and its electrical resistance is
proportional to instantaneous value of stain developed over the surface. A fundamental
parameter of strain gauge is its sensitivity to strain, and is obtained quantitatively in form
of gauge factor, Gf. It is defined as the ratio of fractional change in electrical resistance to
fractional change in length (strain). Therefore, Gf is given as,
dR=R
Gf ¼ ð2Þ
dl=l

We consider an elastic body which is located on a substrate and then external force, F is
applied on body as shown in Fig. 1. The stress is developed inside body to maintain its
equilibrium and body is then deformed. If we mount a strain sensor at point P, then
corresponding output voltage can be measured. In [18], it is formulated as,
V ¼A2 ð3Þ
where A represents system gain. The system gain depends on properties of surface, binding
of strain sensor, and circuitry used to measure the electrical signal.

2.2 Mechanical Operation of Cantilever Beam

In this subsection, we study the strain developed over surface of cantilever beam with
mechanical motion and describe electrical signal by employing strain sensor. The elec-
tromechanical system is modelled as an oscillating cantilever fixed at one end and guided
at other end. Figure 2 elaborates the motion of cantilever beam guided at point A and fixed
at point B. With application of load, force F is applied to point A which causes a vertical
deflection, d at any point x along beam. Let MA and MB be the moment at respective points
A and B, and RA is reaction force at point A. For this testing model, strain along the beam
at any point x is given [3] as,

Fig. 1 Deformed structure under

applied force (F)

123
Experimental Performance and Study of Low Power Strain… 1661

Fig. 2 Cantilever beam guided at left side and fixed on right side of the block

3  106 dx hð2n  LÞ
2 ð xÞ ¼ ð4Þ
2x3  3Lx2 þ L3
where dx measures displacement at the caliper, h is thickness of beam, L is length of beam,
x is distance from the load and n is distance from that load where dx is known i.e., it is
location of caliper. If strain sensor is mounted on the cantilever beam then voltage mea-
sured at various points along mechanical beam can be obtained from Eqs. (3) and (4).
Thus, output voltage at any point x is formulated as,

3  106 dx hð2n  LÞA

V ð xÞ ¼
2x3  3Lx2 þ L3 ð5Þ
Provided L 6¼ x

2.3 Performance of Signal Conditioning Amplifier Circuit (SCAC)

In this subsection, we introduce signal conditioning amplifier circuit. It is a classical

approach to receive the electrical signal with deformation of structure under load condition
through strain gauge as shown in Fig. 3. This circuitry consists of strain gauge with
Wheatstone bridge, operational amplifier and output voltage measured at digital storage

Fig. 3 Signal conditioning circuit measures voltage as change in resistance of coil

123
1662 R. Kumar, A. Hossain

oscilloscope. Advantage of Wheatstone bridge is that, it measures accurate static and

dynamic strain. It provides complete freedom from error due to changes in resistance of
strain gauge [19]. The excited voltage is applied to Wheatstone bridge which is represented
as VCC (Fig. 3).
The output voltage is measured from output terminal of Wheatstone bridge which is
very small in magnitude. Thus, amplification is needed to bring small electrical signal to a
level for recording purpose. Furthermore, we assume that the normal resistance value of
resistive strain gauge without mechanical motion is Rn. With mechanical motion, resis-
tance of strain gauge changes linearly by dR. The change in resistance is related to voltage
gain measured at output terminal of Wheatstone bridge, Avw is defined as,
Vout2
Avw ¼ ð6Þ
Vout1
where Vout2 and Vout1 are output voltage of Wheatstone bridge with and without
mechanical motion respectively. With the application of nodal analysis at point A and B,
we obtain Avw. Thus, it is formulated as,
 
R1 þ R2 þ Rn R3 ðRn þ dRÞ  R4 ðR1 þ R2 Þ
Avw ¼ ð7Þ
R1 þ R2 þ Rn þ dR Rn :R3  R4 ðR1 þ R2 Þ
The gain, Avw changes linearly with resistance due to variation of strain gauge with
mechanical motion. If dR is very small compared to Rn then gain, Avw is approximately
equal to 1 i.e., we get error free output at Wheatstone.

3 Experimental Setup for Performance of Strain Gauge on Cantilever

In this section, we perform an experiment to recover electrical signal from change in

mechanical property of strain gauge in civil engineering laboratory.

3.1 Experimental Setup

In this subsection, we describe an experimental setup. The experimental analysis is a

perspicuous evidence of testing of strain gauge behavior on cantilever beam with appli-
cation of load. For experimental purpose, we organize a mechanical core component with
SCAC circuit as shown in Fig. 4. The experimental setup consists of cantilever beam,
strain gauge and SCAC circuit. One end of cantilever beam is fixed at iron rod and other
end is free for application of external load (UTM). We have used cold adhesive (TSE
399C) to bind strain gauge on cantilever beam at 60 mm from the fixed end. The electrical
resistance of strain gauge and typical gauge factor (Gf) are respectively equal to 120 X
± 0.1% and 2.1 ± 1% [20]. The electronic circuit i.e., SCAC assembles with core elec-
trical and electronics component such as resistances and potentiometer forms Wheatstone
bridge, 741-opamp IC and low resistance wires which connects electrical and electronic
component. The external load is generated with the help of UTM. The SCAC circuit
receives excitation voltage (kept 3.3 V) from multi-channel DC power supply (MCDPS).
The galvanometer is used to examine the balanced condition of Wheatstone bridge. The
741-opamp IC amplifies the output signal of Wheatstone bridge and reduce quantization
errors [21]. The digital oscilloscope (DSO) is used to measure output signal.

123
Experimental Performance and Study of Low Power Strain… 1663

Fig. 4 Experimental setup of strain gauge on cantilever beam

3.2 Principle of Experimental Procedure

The experimental process is demonstrated in Fig. 5. The important steps are:

(a) The experimental setup is placed with UTM and then set the reading of UTM to be
zero. Wheatstone bridge is balanced using potentiometer. Then, we measure
threshold voltage at output of SCAC with the help of multi-meter.
(b) With the advanced technology of UTM, we apply an external pin point load at free
end of cantilever beam. And then, we measure the output voltage at SCAC circuit
with variation of vertical deviation of cantilever beam.
(c) Reset the process and then changes position of pin point load toward the fixed end of
cantilever beam. The Step-a and Step-b are repeated several times for different
location of cantilever beam.
(d) Finally, we stop the experiment.
The results are measured in terms of amplitude, position of point load and respective
vertical deviation from neutral axis. The concrete structure such as dam, bridge column,
building column are deviated from neutral axis before deterioration with the application of
load (i.e., seismic force, flood, etc.) over its surface. Our goal is to monitor health of
structure. Thus, we concentrate to interested result related to concrete structure that is
mentioned in Sect. 4. In next section, we investigate the experimental results.

123
1664 R. Kumar, A. Hossain

Fig. 5 Flow chart of experimental process

123
Experimental Performance and Study of Low Power Strain… 1665

4 Experimental Results and Discussions

In this section, we present the experimental performance of strain gauge on cantilever

beam. The important core components have been used to organise an experiment which is
shown in Table 1.
The experiment is performed at room temperature (* 31 C) and atmospheric pressure.
In this experiment, signals have been measured for performance of cantilever beam. First
of all, we keep load pin point at free end of cantilever beam and set the load value and
deviation of UTM to be zero. Also, the galvanometer is balanced for null deflection. The
UTM operates for various weights at free end of cantilever beam and then measures its
deviation. The output voltage of SCAC is measured using multi-meter. Again, the position
of load is changed on cantilever beam and repeated the same procedure for several times.
The voltage signals are observed for all the occasions.
On the basis of experimental results, we plot output voltage of SCAC with distance
measured from free end of cantilever beam for various deviations from neutral axis as
shown in Fig. 6. From each experimental results, it has been observed that the output
voltage increases with vertical deviation when location of load point from free end moves
towards the strain gauge. Since, resistance of strain gauge increases with stain generated
inside the strain gauge. Thereby, we can conclude that the output voltage of SCAC is
directly proportional to vertical deviation of cantilever beam keeping constant location of
load point near strain gauge sensor. This is mathematically represented as,
V / dx ; when x ¼ constant ð8Þ
where x represents the location of load point from free end of cantilever beam. From this
experiment, we observe that the output of SCAC fails to follow the pattern of Eq. (8) when
load point moves away from the strain gauge. But most of the time, strain sensor follows
same pattern as (8). Specifically, we realize that the strain sensor gets activated fast when
small amount of external forces is applied on the cantilever beam.
We plot numerical results obtained from Eq. (5) using MATLAB as shown in Fig. 7.
For simulation purpose, we assume that the strain sensor places at the location of caliper on
cantilever beam and measure the output voltage. Furthermore, we have not considered
features such as aluminium sheet specification, strain gauge sensor specification, SCAC,
atmospheric temperature and pressure for numerical analysis. From the numerical results,
it is clear that the strain sensor voltage increases with location of load point from free end
of cantilever for various deviations from neutral axis.
Based on the experimental results mentioned in Fig. 6 and numerical results mentioned
in Fig. 7, we observe that the voltage signal with location of load from free end of
cantilever beam follows same pattern when location of load point closes to strain sensor

Table 1 List of core compo-

Core components Specification of component
nents used in the experiment
Aluminium 401 mm 9 25 mm 9 3 mm
Strain gauge 120 X ± 0.1% and Gf = 2.1 ± 1%
Resistances 100 X, 1 kX, 47 kX.
Potentiometer 470 X
MCDPS 3.3 V
Galvanometer MO:65 Clss 2 (20 lA/De)

123
1666 R. Kumar, A. Hossain

120

Output voltage of SCAC (mV)

100

80
x=17.6 mm
60 x=21.2 mm
x=26.1 mm
40
x=36.1 mm

20 x=53.9 mm

0
8 48 88 128 170
-20
Location of load from the free end of cantilever beam (mm)

Fig. 6 Variation of experimental output voltage of SCAC with distance from free end of cantilever beam

Fig. 7 Variation of analytical strain sensor voltage with location of load point from the free end of
cantilever beam for different deviation

(i.e., locations of load from free end of cantilever beam are 128 mm and 170 mm). Note
that the voltage of strain sensor is directly proportional to deviation of cantilever beam for
any location of load point. Moreover, we conclude that the stain gauge sensor provides
meaningful data when it is deployed near to load point.
During the operational lifetime of concrete structure, it can be damaged due to external
forces such as seismic forces, flood, and reservoir pressure. If external forces exceed the
threshold value of all balancing forces operating on concrete structure, it causes breakdown
of binding molecules of concrete surface. And then strain is developed over entire surface.
Therefore, if we bind strain gauge over its surface, the cement used in construction pro-
vides lateral resistance which is transformed into electrical signal with the help of SCAC.

123
Experimental Performance and Study of Low Power Strain… 1667

5 Conclusion and Future Works

The strain sensor receives great attention to detect surface strain when surface molecules of
concrete structure get deformed. We have studied numerical approach to determine output
voltage of strain sensor. Also, we have completed an experiment in Civil Engineering
laboratory for performance evaluation of strain gauge on the aluminium beam and recorded
the electrical signal using multi-meter. From the experimental results, we have observed
that the strain gauge sensor produces sufficient amount of voltage signal for recordable
purpose. But sometimes, it fails to detect correct knowledge of voltage signal with location
of load point. During the experiment, we notice that strain sensor generates voltage signal
rapidly with external applied load.
For future work, the idea is to improve the strain sensor model to detect large volume
data when strain sensor generates rapid signal assessment during seismic event. The
transmission of large volume data would be probably expensive in terms of power and
memory. One can study Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) processing to compress receive data
before writing into memory and processing into module. Energy consumption is always an
issue with WSNs, and that is also one aspect that can improve in the strain sensor hardware
system.

Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the Professor-in-Charge, Structure Lab., Dept. of Civil
Engg., NIT Silchar for providing support for carry out the experimental work. The authors would like to
thank the Editor-in-Chief and the anonymous reviewer for their valuable comments which helped to improve
the quality of the paper.

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Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institu-
tional affiliations.

Rajeev Kumar received his B.Tech. degree in Electronics & Com-

munication Engineering from West Bengal University of Technology,
West Bengal, India, in 2012 and the M.Tech. degree in Communica-
tion & Signal Processing Engineering from National Institute of
Technology (NIT), Silchar India in 2015, where he is currently pur-
suing Ph.D. in the Department of Electronics & Communication
Engineering. His current research interests include Wireless Sensor
Network, Multi-hop relay based wireless communication.

123
Experimental Performance and Study of Low Power Strain… 1669

Ashraf Hossain earned the Ph.D. degree in Electronics & Electrical

Communication Engg., from Indian Institute of Technology (IIT),
Kharagpur, India in 2011. He received the M.Tech. and B.Tech.
degrees in Radio Physics & Electronics from the Institute of Radio
Physics & Electronics, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, India in 2004
and 2002, respectively. He served Dept. of Electronics & Communi-
cation Engg., Aliah University, Kolkata and Haldia Institute of
Technology as Asst. Professor. He is currently working as an Assistant
Professor in the Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engg.,
National Institute of Technology (NIT), Silchar, Assam, India. His
research interests include wireless sensor network, communication
theory and systems. He is the Senior Member of IEEE and Member of
IE (India).

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