Optoelectronic Devices

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 TYPES OF OPTOELECTRONIC MATERIALS

• Optoelectronic components are fabricated from a broad range of materials. The

material selection is based on a number of factors including optical properties
(refractive index, absorption, and emission properties), electrical properties (mobility
and conductivity), stability, and process compatibilities.
• As waveguides, the materials should exhibit very low absorption or scattering loss.
• Optical modulators and switches rely on materials with high electro-optic
coefficients.
• Light emitting diodes (LED) and lasers require materials with large radiative
emission efficiencies and high gain.
• Detectors require absorption at the desired wavelengths.
• On the basis of these requirements, optoelectronic materials are divided into three
major categories: organics, inorganics, and hybrids. 2
 TYPES OF OPTOELECTRONIC MATERIALS
• Crystalline solid materials can be divided into three categories: conductors,
insulators, and semiconductors.

• Several base technologies have taken advantage of solid-state materials including

semiconductors, insulators, and glassy materials. Examples of such technologies are
silica-on-silicon, silicon-on-insulator (SOI), III–V semiconductors, ion in-diffused
lithium niobate (LiNbO3), and ion-exchanged glass.
• Lightwave circuits and photonic components have been fabricated using these
techniques. 3
 TYPES OF OPTOELECTRONIC MATERIALS
Semiconductors
• Semiconductors are examples of crystalline solids.
• The potential of the crystalline lattice, W(r), has the full periodicity of the lattice,
W(r) = W(r + R), with R being a vector in the direct lattice

• The periodic potential gives rise to the band structure of the solid with delocalized
electronic wavefunctions ψnk(r) given by the Bloch’s theorem. Schrödinger equation
for an electron in the lattice periodic potential, W(r), is given by the Bloch
wavefunction 4
 TYPES OF OPTOELECTRONIC MATERIALS
Semiconductors
• Schrödinger equation for an electron in the lattice periodic potential, W(r), is given
by the Bloch wavefunction,

where,
unk(r) is a function that has the translational symmetry of the lattice, unk(r) = unk(r+R)
V is the volume of the crystal
n and k are indices that label the electron with wavevector k in a given band n

• Thus, the Bloch electron wavefunction has the character of a free-running wave with
the amplitude modulated by the periodic lattice. The memory of the original atomic
function is kept in the modulation of the Bloch function unk(r).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloch’s_theorem 5
 TYPES OF OPTOELECTRONIC MATERIALS
Semiconductors
• The majority of the important semiconductors used in optoelectronics have diamond
or zinc blende lattice structures.
• In a diamond lattice the atoms within the lattice are identical, whereas in a
zincblende lattice they consist of sublattices made from different atoms. The most
popular diamond lattices are the group IV semiconductors such as Si and Ge,
whereas most of the group III–V compounds have zincblende structures.
• The band structure of semiconductors gives them their unique optical and electrical
properties. For semiconductors to conduct current electrons from the valence band,
they should be excited to the conduction band by various excitation means. We often
take the top of the valence band as the reference level.
• The energy separation between the highest valence band state and the lowest
conduction band state is called the band gap energy, Eg. The band gap wavelength
can be obtained from the band gap energy
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 TYPES OF OPTOELECTRONIC MATERIALS
Semiconductors

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 TYPES OF OPTOELECTRONIC MATERIALS
p–n Homojunctions and Heterojunctions
• p–n Junctions are formed when p-type and n-type semiconductors are brought into
contact to form a junction. p–n junctions are of major importance in a wide range of
electronic and photonic components.
• They allow electrical biasing and pumping of semiconductors. They can be divided into
homojunctions and heterojunctions. In the case of homojunctions, the two materials are
the same with the same band gap. In heterojunctions the materials have different band
gaps.

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 TYPES OF OPTOELECTRONIC MATERIALS
p–n Homojunctions and Heterojunctions

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 TYPES OF OPTOELECTRONIC MATERIALS
Alloy Semiconductors
• Alloy semiconductors can be made from I to VII, II to VI, and III to V elements.
• III–V Compound semiconductors exhibit a wide range of band gaps and are of great
interest in optical communications. Various binaries (such as GaAs, InP), ternaries
(AlGaAs, InGaAs), and quaternaries
• (InGaAsP, InAlGaAs) are widely used for the fabrication of lasers and photonic
integrated components for optical communications in the 800–1600 nm wavelength
range.
• A good knowledge of the various physical and optical properties of III–V ternary and
quaternary compounds is necessary in the design of photonic components.
• These parameters are obtained using empirical formulae from their constituent
binary compounds. Whereas for GaAs all the compositions of AlxGa1−xAs are lattice
matched, the situation is much more complicated for InP-related compounds.

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 TYPES OF OPTOELECTRONIC MATERIALS
Alloy Semiconductors
• For GaxIn1−xAsyP1−y quaternaries the lattice match condition to InP is obtained when
x ≅ 0.468y. Interestingly, all the GaxIn1−xAsyP1−y compositions lattice matched to
InP have a direct band gap, with their energy gap at room temperature obtained from

• For all other compositions the band gap (in electron volts) can be calculated from

• The band gap of semiconductors changes as a function of temperature. The

temperature dependence of the band gap is generally obtained from

where
Eg(0) is the energy gap at 0 K
α and β are constants 11
 TYPES OF OPTOELECTRONIC MATERIALS
Light Absorption and Emission in Semiconductors
• When an electromagnetic wave propagates inside a semiconductor, its intensity
typically decreases exponentially with distance. The intensity (I) of the wave after a
distance L in the semiconductor is given from

• where α(ω) is the frequency-dependent loss in the semiconductor, which is caused by

two different phenomena, e.g., absorption and scattering, α(ω) = αabs(ω) + αscat(ω).
• The main mechanism of absorption in semiconductors is band-to-band absorption. In
this case, a photon with energy in the vicinity of the band gap of the semiconductor
gets absorbed, generating an electron–hole pair with the electron being in the
conduction band and the hole remaining in the valence band.
• Similarly, an electron from the conduction band can recombine radiatively with a
hole in the valence band, emitting a photon. In both cases the absorption or emission
of photons requires the conservation of energy and momentum. They are simply
obtained by 12
 TYPES OF OPTOELECTRONIC MATERIALS
Light Absorption and Emission in Semiconductors

where,
kf (Ef) and ki (Ei) are the final and initial wave vectors (energy) of the electrons
q and ℏω are the wave vector and the energy of the photons, respectively

• The photon wave number is very small compared to the electron wave number and
can be neglected. In direct band gap semiconductors near Γ = 0, kf, and ki can be
nearly identical. As a result, conservation of momentum can be easily achieved with
the small photon momentum.

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 TYPES OF OPTOELECTRONIC MATERIALS
Light Absorption and Emission in Semiconductors
• However, for indirect band transitions the large momentum difference between the
valence band maximum and conduction band minimum requires the absorption or
emission of a photon to conserve momentum.
• As a result, the probability of light emission in indirect band gap materials, such as
Si and Ge, is negligible and these materials are not suitable for LEDs and lasers.
• In fact the absorption of a photon with energy near the band gap can generate
electron–hole pairs, which are bound together by the Coulomb interaction. Such a
bound electron–hole pair is much like a hydrogen atom and is called an exciton. The
binding energy (BE) of the exciton can be obtained from

where mr* is the reduced effective mass of the exciton, given by

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 TYPES OF OPTOELECTRONIC MATERIALS
Light Absorption and Emission in Semiconductors

• Excitons in semiconductors such as GaAs are referred to as Wannier–Mott excitons.

They have large Bohr radii and small binding energy. For example in GaAs, the exciton
Bohr radius is 140 Å and its binding energy is 4.2 meV. This is in contrast to excitons in
organic materials, which are referred to as Frenkel excitons with small Bohr radii (5–10
Å) and large binding energy (0.5–1 eV).
• Excitonic absorption in inorganic semiconductors usually manifests itself as a series of
strong absorption peaks just below the energy band gap. A photon may also be emitted
as a result of bound electron–hole recombination, resulting in an excitonic emission.

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 TYPES OF OPTOELECTRONIC MATERIALS
Semiconductor LEDs and Lasers
• The majority of semiconductor LEDs and lasers are made of p–i–n heterostructures.
Under forward biasing, carriers (electrons and holes) are injected into the depletion
region, where they can recombine radiatively to generate photons.
• Radiative recombination occurs through two processes: spontaneous emission and
stimulated emission. Figure 1.9 shows the mechanism of absorption and emission.
• Spontaneous emission is the natural radiative recombination process of an electron
from the conduction band to the valence band. This is the main process in LEDs.

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 TYPES OF OPTOELECTRONIC MATERIALS
Semiconductor LEDs and Lasers

• In stimulated emission a photon with a specific wavelength, direction, and

polarization stimulates another photon of similar characteristics (same frequency,
direction, and polarization) by forcing the recombination of an electron from the
conduction band with a hole in the valence band.
• This is the photon amplification process involved in lasers.

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 TYPES OF OPTOELECTRONIC MATERIALS
Optical Glass
• Among all optical materials, glass has been the material most commonly and widely
used for centuries as the ideal transparent material for the fabrication of lenses,
telescopes, and mirrors, etc.
• However, it was during the second half of the twentieth century that the use of glass for
the fabrication of waveguides and fibers intensified. Glass-based fibers and integrated
optics have several unique features including excellent transparency; high thermal,
mechanical, and chemical stability; and very high damage threshold.
• Glass is also an ideal host material for a range of optically active elements such as rare-
earth and nonlinear materials. In fact during the past few years, glasses doped with rare-
earth ions Er3+, Yb3+, Nd3+ elements have been widely developed for light amplification
and emission.
• Among all these elements erbium (Er 3+ ), a three level system, is of particular
importance as it can provide light amplification and emission in the 1500–1600 nm
wavelength range, particularly important for optical communication.
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 TYPES OF OPTOELECTRONIC MATERIALS
Optical Glass
• In addition pumping is also relatively easy, since 980 nm semiconductor lasers are very
suitable pumps and are commercially available.
• Figure 1.11 shows the energy diagram and the mechanism of absorption and emission in
erbium. A 980 nm pump excites the Er ions from the ground state to the excited state.
• The excited ions have a very short lifetime in the 4|11/2 and they rapidly decay to the 4|13/2,
where they have a longer lifetime and provide inversion of population and amplification
of the 1550 nm signals.

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Light Emitting Diodes [LEDs]

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 Introduction to LEDs

• LEDs are promising light source whose efficiency was 10 times greater than the
incandescent lighting.
• Long operating life and reliability has made LEDs as a potential choice for present and
next generation lighting systems, including automotive, emergency, backlight, indoor
and outdoor.
• LED lighting can also be referred to as solid-state lighting (SSL) because an LED is
solid-state technology
• LEDs were first developed in 1960s and its characteristics decides this light source is
suitable for indication or illumination.
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 Introduction to LEDs
Indication:
• Indication – refers – use of light source – viewed directly – self luminous object.
Ex: Signs, signals, indicator lights in electronic equipments.
Illumination:
• Illumination – refers – use of light source – view other object by the light reflected from those
object.
Ex: Lightings found in rooms and Task lightings in desk.

LED - Indicator LED - Illuminator

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 Introduction to LEDs
• LEDs are quite effective and efficient for colored light applications.
• Unlike conventional signs and signals which use a nominally white light source and a colored
glass or plastic filter or lens to create the sign or signal, colored LEDs require no filtering.
• The light absorbed by the filters in the conventional products is essentially wasted, and because of
this waste, the luminous efficacy of LED signs and signals is often higher than those using
conventional white light sources. The development of white light LEDs in the mid-1990s, have
made LED illumination systems feasible for some applications, and a number of products are now
available on the market.
• At present, typical indicator LEDs have light outputs on the order of one to several lumens,
whereas LEDs for illumination produce on the order of tens to hundreds of lumens.
[lumens - (denoted by lm) are a measure of the total amount of visible light (to the human eye)
from a lamp or light source. The higher the lumen rating the “brighter” the lamp will appear.] 23
 What is an LED?
• LEDs are semiconductor diodes, electronic devices that permit current to flow in only one
direction.
• The diode is formed by bringing two slightly different materials together to form a PN junction .
• In a PN junction, the P side contains excess positive charge ("holes," indicating the absence of
electrons) while the N side contains excess negative charge (electrons).

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 What Determines the color of the LED

• The material used in the semiconducting element of an LED determines its color.
• The two main types of LEDs presently used for lighting systems are aluminum gallium indium
phosphide (AlGaInP, sometimes rearranged as AlInGaP) alloys for red, orange and yellow LEDs.
• Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) alloys for green, blue and white LEDs. Slight changes in the
composition of these alloys changes the color of the emitted light.

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 Electrical characteristics of LEDs
• Individual LEDs are low voltage devices.
• Single indicator LEDs require 2 to 4 volts of direct current, with current in the range
from 1 to 50 milliamperes.
• An illumination-grade LED containing a single semiconducting element requires the
same voltage, but operating currents are much higher, typically several hundred
milliamperes.
• A device containing multiple elements connected in series will require higher voltage
corresponding to the larger number of individual elements in the device.
• Reverse polarity destroys an LED.
• Manufacturers provide specifications about the maximum reverse voltages acceptable
for LED devices; 5 volts is a typical maximum rating. 26
How much light do LEDs produce?

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V-I Characteristics of LED

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What now makes LEDs suitable for illumination
applications?

• LED construction has also changed to

make them more efficient.
• The crystals forming early LED junctions
were grown on light-absorbing
substrate materials.
• Using transparent substrates and
optimizing the shape of the
semiconducting element have increased
the amount of light able to leave the
device
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OLED Technology

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 INTRODUCTION

• Uses organic light emitting diode(OLED).

• Emerging Technology for displays in devices.

• Main principle behind OLED technology is electroluminescence.

• Offers brighter, thinner, high contrast, flexible displays.

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 What is an OLED?

• OLEDs are solid state devices composed of thin films of organic molecules
that is 100 to 500 nanometres thick.

• They emits light with the application of electricity.

• They doesn’t require any backlight. i.e., they are self emitting.

• They are made from carbon and hydrogen.

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 History
• The first OLED device was developed by Eastman Kodak in 1987.
• In 1996, pioneer produces the world’s first commercial PMOLED.
• In 2000, many companies like Motorola, LG etc developed various displays.
• In 2001, Sony developed world’s largest fullcolor OLED.
• In 2002, approximately 3.5 million passive matrix OLED sub-displays were
sold, and over 10 million were sold in 2003.
• In 2010 and 2011, many companies announced AMOLED displays.
• Many developments had take place in the year 2012.

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 Features

• Flexibility.

• Emissive Technology.

• Light weight and thin.

• Low power consumption.

• High contrast, brighter and perfect display from all angles.

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Structure of OLED

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 Working Principle

• A voltage is applied across the anode and cathode.

• Current flows from cathode to anode through the organic layers.

• Electrons flow to emissive layer from the cathode.

• Electrons are removed from conductive layer leaving holes.

• Holes jump into emissive layer .

• Electron and hole combine and light emitted.

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 OLED device operation

Transparent Anode Conductive Emissive layer Cathode

substrate (ITO) layer

eˉ eˉ
LUMO
LUMO

Light
HOMO
HOMO
h+ h+
h+

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 Colour Generation

• Different approaches for fabricating red, green

and blue pixels.

- Red, green and blue individual pixels.

- White emitter and colour filters.

- Blue emitter and colour converters.

- Stacked OLED

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 Types of OLED

Six types of OLEDs

qPassive matrix OLED(PMOLED).

qActive matrix OLED(AMOLED).

qTransparent OLED(TOLED).

qTop emitting OLED.

qFlexible OLED(FOLED).

qWhite OLED(WOLED).

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 OLED Advantages
• Thinner, lighter and more flexible.

• Do not require backlighting like LCDs.

• Can be made to larger sizes.

• Large fields of view, about 170 degrees.

• Faster response time.

• Brighter.

• High resolution, <5μm pixel size.

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 OLED Disadvantages
• Expensive.

• Lifespan.

• Water damage.

• Colour balance issues .

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 Applications
Major applications of OLED technology are

• OLED TV.

• Mobile phones with OLED screens.

• Rolltop Laptop.

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 Conclusion
• Organic Light Emitting Diodes are evolving as the next generation displays.

• As OLED display technology matures, it will be better able to improve upon

certain existing limitations of LCD including
• high power consumption
• limited viewing angles
• poor contrast ratios.

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