Technology, Law and Insurance, 1999 4, 87-83 Sources of disputes in construction contracts in the Middle East OSAMA E. K. DAOUD and OMAR M. AZZAM Dar Al-Handasah Consultants (Shai 8 Parers), P.O, Box 855, Ataba 11511, Calo, Eaypt Received 12 March 1992 one rere ee ee eet sophia tesa ee eoeerceercns Seeenacen eee amene iors tae tiga aonenr os cre ant Saas a hate cee ieremmeara oo oe Ss oe emerson Eker ctonttaremae gare aececoeetactae sie nroki ie rer cornet ates Se eee ree Soe Loeernaee eater meecmaeand aie eteeeoeecageen Gmaoeae secret ee cuca tc enaes ee Sirs cron anaes ca es “the stuton. Keywords: Construction industry, eaputes local culture, the Mie Eas, arbitration, contract Introduction product. local owners prefer to assign thele In recent decades the Midale East has experienced 4a boom in the construction industry, Egypt has Degun a comprehensive expansion pian to con struct new cities to accommodate the rapidly Increasing population. Major infrastructure, tour- {st and irigation projects have been carried out to boost Egypt's economy. The Gulf sates experi fenced substantial growih after escalated oll prices Drought cash pouring Into thelr economies. They ‘made use ofthis revenue and began an ambitious plan to construct ther Infrastructure and enhance ational economic development. Lebanon now Is Undertaking major urban and rural reconstruction following he 20-year civil war. The West Bank and Gaza strip also are expected to undergo a major ‘onstruction boom fo reconstruct the long neq: lected infrastructure systems “Amidst this massive expansion, foreign compa- niles are capturing a sizeable market share ‘Although local firms are able to daliver a good ‘04072 0 1999 BTN Spon [rojecs to Toreigr fms. This raises many ques: tions since many of these international firms ‘depend on local aff to handle technical issues Indicating thatthe local market is well advanced technically. However, it seems that when it comes {to management ard contractual matters, interna- tional ims are mere dependable. This i reflected inthe annual lst of the top 200 contractors and ‘consultants prepared by the Engineenng News Records (ENR, 1895). Only one or two local Consulting ofées and contractors are found on these lists, and during the past three decedes no significant improvement has been observed. ‘Construction envirenment inthe Middle Bast ‘The Middle East construction market has many unique features, both culturally and environmen tally. that potenialy can result in delays and cost. ‘overruns ending in disputes. For example, the Gulf88 States depend heavy onan imported workforce in he construction industry. More than 90% of those Involved’ in this Industry are expatriates with diferent backgrounds. Engineers and tochniesl ‘Staff come from the West and neighbouring Areb ‘countries, Skiled and nskiled labour come from the Indian subcontinent, South East Asia, and Iran Language barriers cause problems between these lferent cultures not only in communication but false in interpreting and comprehending contract documents “The ellmate in the Middle East is one of the hotest in the world, The major climate factors in the area include intense solar radiation, extreme temperatures, and very sigh humidity. For exam- ple, summer temperatures in the Arabian Gulf exceed 40°C In the shade for up to 9 hours daly This makes site control of ongoing ectiviies dificult, to say the leas. and reflects negatively fon the productivity retes and planning of the works: ‘Local schools of engineering follow old curricula ‘that focus on basic design theories and givelit or no attention to management skis requlred for site ‘works. Contractalisaues and te interpretation of Contract requirements are not covered sufciently in the curriculum nor in courses given in continu Ing-career development centres. "These conaitions have created a station where ‘an open market with a huge demand for construc- tion works exists within m environment experien- ing short supply of basic managerial and contractual sil, This encourages the employment fof international firms to provide the missing lnk. However, conflicts between the local culture and systems adopted by international firms arise and play @ major role in hindering proper execution of fhe contrac, which can lead to financial lose 9 Doth the owner and the contractor. Causes of depates Contraction contract inthe Midle Eat “The FIDIC Conditions o Contract (International) ‘for Works of Civil Engineering Construction were ‘frst published in 1957 to govern international contracts. The first edition, which was known as ‘the ‘Red Book iste was long and its cover was -red), was based on a form of contract published by ‘the Institution of Cll Engineers (CE) in the UK. “This was known in the Middle East asthe English ‘Contract. The second, third, and fourth editions of Daoud and Azzam FIDIC were issued in 1963, 1977, and 1967, res- pectively. "The word ‘International’ was omitted from the fourth edition tile in order to indicate that the contract may be used in both local and interna ‘onal projects. The Red Book sa remeasured (ype of contract that may be adopted for use with elther lumpsum or design-build types, Ths sults the 'ypes of contract commonly used in the Midale East whieh mostly ate remeasured. Limp-sim snd design-bulld contracts have stared to galt. popularity in Kowait. Egypt and Saudi Arabia, {Costreimbursable contracts are not common in these areas) With the use of Part Il of FIDIC, ‘Conditions of Particular Applicaton, to meet the local requirements, the Red Book became. very popular and is considered to be the standard Conditions of contract in the Middle East or the base for local conditions of contract. Abo, FIDIC is the contract used by The World Bark in all is projects in the aren. Such widespread use of a Standard form of contract should have made it possible to educate local personnel invalved in ontract administration to avoid dsputes, This has hot been the case. On the contrary, there is often ‘much disparity when applying FIDIC inthe Midalle Ens. “The legal system in Middle Easters countries generally is based. on the French legal system (Eranco-German) that Inckides Civil Law and contracts fr services rendered to others, including Contract agreement (Contrat Entreprise) 25 part of the law. The FIDIC Rea Book is taken from the English Contract by the ICE and is subsequently based on the “Anglo-Saxon legal system which Includes Common Law (Uff, 181), "This ‘creates discrepancies ‘when Interpreting and. applying Clauses within the boundaries of the local Civil Code. For example, focal Civil Code allows the enforcement of ‘penalty’ clauses on the contractor I he is responsible for delaying tie projet, Comman Law does not allow the enfereement of penalties but allows the application of ‘iquidated ‘damages’ clauses, which isthe term used in FIDIC. ‘Thus ere fe an indirecr contlet of inerpretation Detween the local law and FIDIC “The design of permanent works is the Engineer's responsiblity as per clause 6 of FIDIC. Hence, the Fed Book does not give the contractor any re sponsibility for the design ofthe works (xcept for ermanent or temporary works designed by the Contractor) as given in subeauses 72 and 82. This, contradicts local Civil Code and other applicable Jaws that state: ‘any attempt to walve the Engl neers or the Contractor's labilty towards theDisputes in construction in Midale East safety ofthe works (construction and design) shall be considered nugatory. This indicates that Civil law, unlike FIDIC, shares the responsiblity of the esgn safery between the Engineer and the Con- tractor even ifthe Contractor did not perform any design. This principle can be found in the folowing ul codes articles in the Mile East (Al Sanoury, 1989) Article 653. _Egyptian Civil Code ‘Article 618 Syrian Civil Code ‘Article 652 Libyan Civil Code ‘Article 870/1 Iraqi Civil Code ‘Article 669 Lebanese Civil Code ‘Article 697 Kuwaiti Civil Code ‘Artie 790 Jordanian Civil Code In the Midale East, construction contracts gen- erally are governed by Civil Code except for the tase when 4 governmental authority Is part of the contract then the contract is governed by Aamin- Istrative Law. In the case wien the works are part of the assets of a commercial entity, the construc ‘on contract falls under Commercial La Employer wtrfrence in contracts In FIDIC, the project owner is defined as the ‘Employer’ and the consulting engineer respons!- ble for design and site supervision is named as the ‘Engineer’ This terminology Is used hereafter. ‘Changes in the contract form are expected for each project. Most International contracts contain special document, named Part I: Conditions of Parucular Application, that contains contract clauses that have changed to Suit project condi- tions. Normally these ‘clauses. address subjects Such a6 prionty of contract documents, Limits of the Engineer's authority, contract language, etc ‘The most common ofthese changes are included in Par Il of the standard conditions. However, in many cases, local project owners (Employers) fxtend the modifications in the standard contract form toinlude clauses that ave a direct impact on the contract balance ‘Frequently these modifications are added. to increase the Contractor's risk and relax the Em lover's responsiblties (Shalakani Attorney and Taw Office, 1989)-For example, clause 60 of FIDIC limits the duration for the Employer to pay the Contractor the certifed amount in the Interim paviient to 28 days. Delaying the payment results Ina sdaitional payment of interest by the Employ” fer or more serious contractual consequences in ‘which the Contractor may be entiled to addtional 89 ‘compensation. Employers sometimes omit the ime limit trom the etuse, leading to an open ended duration for payment. Employers beleve that by Going this they can protect themselves from the Contractor’ elaine and adliional payments This Is unreasonable ance it afects the cash flow of the Contractor and has direc impact on his floance, Infact, the Empleyer encourages the Contractor to intentionally overestimate his financial obligations during the pricing stage o cover anticipated delays In payments, thus Increasing the overall contract pee. In other words, the Employer's modiieston Fesuls in addtional cost to him. Furthermore, the Contractor will ztiempt, throughout the contract uration, to overestimate his Interim payments In fonder to’ secure the maximum amount of cash in Savane to minimize his risk and boost his cash flow, This could 36 a cause of continuous dispute between the Contractor and the Employer of the Engineer ‘A second example of Employer’s modifications is the increase in the maximum limit of variations Above which a further sum shall be added to OF Seducted from the contract price with regard to the Contractors site and general overhead costs. Employers wrongly believe that Increasing this limit protects them from. adltional payments resulting from revised rates. The original text In f@ause 52 of FIDIC, limits the total variations 10 415% of the contract price. Increasing tis 25% oF ‘more would actually deny both parties a legitimate Fight that was given to them by the contract for a very good reesan. The contract recognizes that Under normal chcumstances changes are inevt able and the reesonable value is estimated at 15% ff the total contract sum. in case the project encounters unexpected conditions that affect its {otal value by more oF less than this 15% limit the contract gives beth partis the right to revise the cost ofthe project overheads. This does not always ‘ean additional cost to the project owner. Infact, IRtworks both wavs. The wistom behing this Clause 5s to maintain competitiveness during the bidding period. Increasing the limit to 25% or mare may Backfire on the Employer. The Contractor, during the tendering stag, wil assume that the Employer Intends to issue variations in excess ofthe normal limit: Henee, the Contractor may Increase his sk allowances (comingenctes) and consequently the ‘overall price. The Contractor ean also inerease unit ales for tasks dene during the early stages of the project to secure adltional cash (a process known 4s front loading). He may" try to provide an Unbalanced bid In which he increases "wo- oF threefold the unit Tater’ for items with. smal0 quantities, This would not affect the overall ender ‘ost much since only minor quantities ae involved. However, ifthe variations involve those items, the ‘employer will be obliged to pay tis inflated price ther techniques to secure iquidty and. profit: ablity are given by Tavakoll and Azzam (1992), ‘AthirdexampleaftheEmployer’smoditicationsis thefixingofthecontractpriceforlongtermcontracts Irrespective of any rise or fll in the cost of labour and/or materials or other matters affecting the cost fof the execution of the works. This modification Contradietsthespinitofsubclause 70.1 of FIDIC. This is unfair particulary in periods of inflation and/or Instability in currency exchenge rates. As expressed In FIDIC (1989) "The Employer should not, for his ‘own best Interests, and on long-term contracts, ask {tenderers to quote frm prices wth no provision for adjustments, least in the country in which the ‘Works are to be executed’. Obviously, if the Con- {ractorisfaced with this demand from theEmployer, bewillincreaseisriskallowances during pricing by adding acertain percentage tothe contract price In the event that inflation and/or currency exchange rates ae varied very litte during the contract dura- fon, the Employer ends up paying more than necessary dueto is demands Mindesandingofconractul obligations In many cases, disputes arise from a misunder- Standing of the contractual obligations by the personnel administering the contract In the Mi: ‘de East, university curricula devote most of the time in undergraduate courses to engineer subjects related to design and analysis, and very Iitle time Is given to contractual aspects and logic ‘Avallable courses in continulngrcareer develop: ‘ment also are directed towards presenting prac: tical field problems, edvanced construction tech nology, and the application of computers in design ‘Works, Very few courses are avalable that explain Contractual issues f0 engineers or present case Studies. Case studies are Improtant reaife ius: ‘rations of disputes and their outcomes. The down. Side fs that they are not always available cue to confidentiality restrictions Tack of contractual knowledge inevitably leads to unprofessional contract administration, loss of documentation and dlsputes. For example, con- ‘actual letters are not always replied toon time oF In fil, and in many cases, when they are writen, they are not substantiated with the necessary ‘contract clauses. The effects of these shorteominge ‘on project owners become more pronounced ‘when an Intemational contractor is involved in Daoud and Azzarm the project. Naturally such contractors have strong: legal support from teams of quantity surveyors tnd contract managers who may ‘ind easy ways to penalize the otter party ‘A language barrier may also contribute to poor administration of contracts. Since the documents fd site correspondence inal large projects are in English owners tend to favour employing joint venture between local and an international con sultant forthe site supervision. This is done not only. because. the project complexity recuires expatriate technical expertise but also to ensure proper handling of contract administration. Trgoes ‘without saying that In such contract all the Contractual iss are handled by expatriate mem- bers for both the Contractor and the Engines with [tle of no interference from the local personel on either side, Tis may resolve the problem fer the ‘owner and the contractor, however, it has not helped to buld up local experience In such ies "Also, due tolocal customs, some of those invaved, In contract administration do notbelleveincarimit- ting their rights in writing. They are more arcus- tomed to Informal means of communication. The lack ofnecessary site manualsand oolstoguicethe site staff also contributes to the improper applica: tion of professional communication ‘procedures, Conversely, in many large contracts built by inter- ‘ational contractors, manuals are required a¢ part bfthe contract documents; this requrement may be Felaxed halfway through the contract duration. ‘One important fator contributing to this ack of adherence o contractual obligations isthe song Inuence of upper management that in the Middle East, frequent exceeds contact limits In Its decisions. This is done eutside the contract fame Work Without consideration of the implications. It may be done for poltical reasons, business moti- vations, orto exercise power. Upper management ould resolve many problems using thelr insight of the project by promulgating decsions that other- wise could not be given by those involved fn the day-to-day activites. On the other hand, a complex Situation could be created in which decisions are ‘made by an ill-informed manager who s not fully aware ofthe contract stipulations. ite sta seelng such maladministration, lose respect for the con {act conditions tht ate viewed as a rig set of rules. This also establishes local belief that Contracts are administered on a personal rither than on a professional bass Legislation changes and subsequent regulations Middle Eastern countries sufer frequently fromDisputes in construction in Middle East repeated changes in local laws and regulations, especialy in taxation and customs duties, which is {ypical of growing economies in developing coun- tes. Legislative changes and regulations. are blamed for disrupting the construction market, and are reflected in ysed unit rates for materia, labour, and equipment. Sudden changes in laws result in greater risks to contraciors and owners alike, FFIDIC Conditions ef Contract state, in clause 70: “The Engineer has to determine after consultation with the Employer and the Contractor the effect of such legislation charges and subsequent regu tions on the contract price’. This permits contrac- tors to exclude allowances for price varlations When preparing ther tenders, resulting in the receipt of more competitive offers from contrac: tors. Yet Employers continually amend Part Il of the Particular Conaitons of Cantract by deleting ‘dause 70 to fx the contract price to Include ‘controling factors a: well a= unforeseen changes Jn legislation andor regulations. Consequently, the Contractor Is burdened with a substantial risk ‘that increases with prolonged contract duration, ‘Also equivocal laws can create unnecessary isputes between the contract parties. The legisla- tion and application ofthe sales taxes in Egypt sen example that has caused considerable contractual Confusion and monetary disputes between Con {actors and Employers over the past sl years. In SOO, the Sales Tax law was issued in Egypt Imposing a 10% tax on sold goods. An ambiguous Clause was included in the law making the tax applicable to ‘services rendered to others without defining the limitations of these services. Two years later the tax Hureau announced that con: iracting works are clasiied as services rendered 1 others, and hence required Contractors to pay 40% of the contract price as sles tax on behalf of the Employers. Whenthis was contested as double taxation Because materials are taxed upon Dur= chase, the tax bureau agreed to limit the tox tothe ‘workmanship portion of the contract price. The Workmanship share was estimated at 29% of the ‘onstruction contrac: price, and hence the tax Became 29% of the otal contract pric. Even this was contested as. unconstitutional because the form by which this tox was issued was through presidential decree and not a law. To avoid a Eonstitutional impasse, the government omitted the contested clause and a new law was issued in 1007 defining the taxin a legal form. However, the application of the tar was backdated to. 1901 10 avoid refunding thosewho had already paid it. This ‘backdating was also contested as unconstttional a and currently awaits a court decision. Many of the ‘Contractors did not pay this tax nor did they collect it from the owners over the past six years because they Knew that the matter was under deliberation In the courts, These contractors now face legal action and. could be jalled or have property Confiscated a5 a result of this confision ‘This i fnly one example of the unexpected variations in local laws that increase the risks of the contract partes and can cause disruptions with huge nancial Implications. Continuous changes in the legislation "and. regulations for” importation of {goods to Egypt was another example of asruption Inthe construction market in the 480s, ‘Another illustration of te instability ofthe local regulatlons is the sudden decision by the Saudi Government to deport all expatriates who entered the country and stayed without the proper perms ‘Many ofthe Arablan Gulf states have thousands of foreign workers in the construction industry with- ‘ut legitimate working papers. Accordingly, they fre underpaid and mey stay for years. without problems. On 15 October 1997, the Saudi Govern: ‘ment gave an ultimatum to some 70000 labourers {either legalize thelr postion or fae jal and nes. “Most ofthis force had to leave the country to avoid being Jalled. Such a huge expulsion will most Gefintely thwart construction work in Saudi Ara bia and eisrupt current contracts. similar mass Aeportation was experienced in Kuwait in the ‘1900s, resulting ina sudden shortage in skiled labour and a sharp Increase in thelr daly rates (Daoud and Hamdeni, 188), Poor desig documents ‘A great many construction disputes are caused by potty prepared documents In the USA, specica tions were found to be the major cause of claims (Giunta and Ramirez, 1991). Problems in preparing project specications Inthe Middle East arise Decause of ingrained local habits, as aiscussed by Daoud (1987). Generally, designers put most of thelr elfort into the design sage to produce Aetaled drawings Lite efforts put into preparing Specifications oF into coordinating them with the drawings and bls of quantities (BOQs}. There is 4 common trend in the Middle East to’ underrate Specifications. This has evolved from the use of Imported specifications that lack the modifications ‘needed to suit the local environment and practice. ‘AS a result, specifications are viewed, in many cases, as impractical documents, and. there is always an excuse for vilating their requirements. Employers and Contractors are primarily con-2 commed withthe BOQs, which reflect mainly on the project pricing. Its very common to price a projec In the Middle East using only the BOQ without & ‘thorough inspection of the drawings or the spec- fications. This s dctated sometimes by the short duration allowed for bidding. Furthermore, BOQs fre prepared by quantity surveyors who, due 10 last minute changes In the design, cannot always reflect accurately the contents of the drawings tnd/or the specifications Poor contract documentation has evolved also from the lack of enforced local regulations and laws t0 protect the public from professional mis conduct’ In Egypt for example, the role of the ‘govemmental authorities in reviewing’ design documents is specife and concerned only with ‘reviewing the regulations such asthe bull-up erea 4nd the bullding height. Coordination between the documents and their contents is not a subject of $oview. Local regulations require the approval of the design by an insurance company. Accordingly, ‘central committee reviews the designs on behalf of the Insurance companies. Tae approval of this Committe iss prerequisite for issuing the insur- lance policy and, accordingly, the bulling permit, However, the committe is concerned only with the structural design safety and nothing more. ‘They are not concemed with the quality ofthe Sinai product nor with the specifications used, Impact of local cultre and social emsironment ‘The Middle Eastern soci environment advocates the amicable resolution of disputes. Going to court |s considered by many’to be an aggressive act, ‘unlike western cultures that consider away t0 resolve disputes. This outlook may have evolved ue 1 the slow legal resolution of disputes in the Middle Bast Hence, taking a case to court means creating along term headache for both partis with Seemingly endless procedures and hearings. Going to court is thus lened to an insult rather than a means of settlement Many Employers would iacklst the Contractor who bas taken them tO Cour oF known to have taken others to cour and abet him as claims oriented. This means that the decision to go to court could not only affect the Contractor's projects in hand but also could jeopardize his future conteacts. Employers and Engineers use this stranglehold to. manipulate Contractors, knowing that they would hesitate 10 take legal action. ‘The Contractor, for his own part tres to protect his interests by increasing the price for projects ‘owned! or supervised by Employers or Engineers Daoud and Azzam know to be unfair. He wil also be quite defensive in relying to the Employer's demands, even those considered to be within the contract. Tis ‘wil ‘Greate unnecessary contention and paper wars, leading to project delays. Also, the Contractor will be pushed to perform unprofessionally to cope ‘withthe situation. Such Employers inevitably end ‘up paying for thelr il treatment to Contractors. On the cher and, Contractors can ear a. bad Teputition in the market. Ulimately, all those Involved suffer n one way or the other. ‘Due to the unavailability of a swift legal system, ‘many construction disputes are resolved out of court This has degraded the importance of the ‘Condivons of Contract. Family tes and poltical ‘connections. also are misused, and have more Inlueree than ‘contract documents (Daoud and Hamesni 198). Therefore tis expected that, when cutofcourt setlements fail, it is going to be ‘iffeut, i not impossible, o reach an equltable ‘decision with poor documents. This becomes more proncunced when it is coupled with poor site Correspondence documenting site actives and decisions Remedies and conclusions It Is mportant to understand that some of the causes of disputes mentioned in this paper will remain unsolved since they are part of the local culture and customs. However, many of these ‘causes can be eliminated with the cooperation of the parties concerned. [tis important to recognize the earrent shortage in the market of engineers ‘with @ strong contractual background. Efforts must be made to improve this situation by revising University currleula and delegating more time to ‘contrict administration and follow-up. The orga ization of short courses dealing with contract Intergretation and modern software for contract administration for engineers cannot be empha ‘Sized enough. This can be arranged with the help fnd cdvice of concerned professional establish ments in developed countries. “The formation of local professional societies to ‘emboty contract managers would facilitate the ‘exchange of the accumulated knowledge and the fstablshment of solld database on the common Sourcas of conflicts, which will elp to avoid their Fepettion in future projects. These societies should Incluce representatives from contractors, owners, and eagineers as well as lawyers and judges. Local periodicals, conferences, and seminars should be fncouraged to explain the legal snd contractualDisputes in construction in Middle East aspects to those involved and to heighten aware- hess of changes in contrac balance ‘Upper managers should refrain from indulging In contract issues uniess they ae senate to all the ramifications. The privatzaton plan currently ap- plied in the area may make iteasier on the decision makers to enforce such issues, though this may be Aificlt to apply in governmental projects Ti is necessary to promote the principles of quality assurance in conducing design works and ‘document preparation in the Mice East More {ime should be given to document preparation and review to ensure accuracy, which will effectively reduce problems during the execution of the ‘contract and result in fewer disputes. “The establishment of local consulting offices to eal with contractual issues could. be usefl in directing the contract parties to their contractual ghts. The success ofthese fms will convince the ppablc at large of their visoilty and usefulness. ‘Most certainly this will gererate greater respect forthe contract and Ws appleation. ‘International firms operating in the area must understand the local cture to prevent jeopardiz Ing thelr interests. Local Employers should, on the ‘ther hand: insist tat local personnel be involved In the contract management team to learn the techniques and receive training, with generous Incentives given to those who perform well. ‘Although Contractors are well aware of the problems they face when dealing with Employers, they should be encouraged to bring pressure 10 bear upon two particular sues. First, the costs fsing from changes in local legislation shoula be borne by Employers on long term projects for thelr own Interests, Contractors can supply Basie price lists during tender so that the effect of 93 legislation changes can be calculated realy Second, international Contractors. should insist fon arbitration belng carried out by 2 neutral Appointed arbitration panel to avoid manipulation Dy Employers atthe local level, References ‘AlSanboury, A.A (180) Al Waseet in Qa Cae Digest ‘Val. 2, Part, Dar Al Naha, Cairo. Daoud. 0. EK (007) Problems with sprcigeations ‘wnting in the Middle East, Techaclogy Law and Ingurance 23), 179-8, Daou 0. EK. and Hamdenl, S. K (1986 Concrete ‘quality contol the Arablan Gul, Cancete Inter faonal Design & Construction, 2) 16-21. aout 0. EK. and Hamdan, 6K. (94). Human ‘thes in consruction ~ case study inthe Cal Felon, Inernauonal Journal of Forense Engineer lng. ta re Engineering News Records (ENR. 1995) Te top 200 Intenatlonl design fr, 295() 34-8. [DIC (1969) Guide tothe Use of FDIC Cantons of (Contractor Works f Chl Engineering Censtructon, “4 Ean, Foderation Internationale Des ingenieur Conesls Lausanne Switzerland (Giunta FJ and Rater A. (1900) Avlang defective ‘specications, cil Engineering, ASCE. 6. 70-7. ‘SalakanAtorey and Law Office (1989) Aol for @ onstruction contract or medium andiarge projects in Proceeding of te 2nd Conference of e Union of Contractors air in Arabic ‘avail A. and Azzam, 0. (8959) Cash management ‘Sistem for GC/CM teva The American reson Consouctos 1701, 815 un dsen Conscurdon Law, Sweet & aswel, Londen.