Chapter 3

Curve Fitting and Statistics

One of the big differences between working on purely numerical solutions
and working with data from experiments is that the experimental signals are
often more complex than expected. This is not improved by the additional
noise usually found in measured signals. Analyzing this data often requires
that trends in the data be extracted and ideally expressed as a simple
mathematical function. Determining an appropriate mathematical func­
tion is the domain of the many curve-fitting techniques that are commonly
used.
Complex curves can also be created from many simpler mathematical
functions by adding them together. The individual components of these
synthesized curves can be explored separately. We have already shown that
there are ways to introduce noise into numerical functions and that the noise
in data can be filtered to reduce its impact. Adding noise to a synthesized
curve can make the curve more like an experimental data set.
The process of determining whether a curve fits a data set requires the
development of metrics to use for comparison. These metrics provide a measure
of the quality of the fit between the curve and the data. One simple metric that
we will develop will provide a "goodness of the fit" test. This simple test relies
on the curve through the data being, on average, equidistant from the curve so
that the sum is zero.
In this chapter we will introduce sorne simple tools for working with
complex signals contaminated with unwanted information. The appropriate
statistics such as the mean and the standard deviation will be used, and we will
go farther by showing that we can find the trend in the data and remove this
bias so that we can look in more detail at the noise signa!.

3.1 y>olynomial Synthesis and Curve Fitting

Mathematical functions can be summed over a common range of inputs' to
generate or synthesize a curve. Polynomial functions are composed of a number
of terms with a variable of interest raised to sorne power and a coefficient

37
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 T

Chapter 5 lmaqes and Image ;

in bytes (B) or megabytes (MB). ln order to work u'ith graphics files, it is fname:'rec.:
important to understand that each color element, or pixel, is just a nuntber oL M - imreao ( :. ::-
a sct ol numbers, and a picture is r.rothing more than a matrix of numbers.2
lmagc files can be separated into two classes, raster and vector graphics. te¡ Separ.ale ::
Raster graphics arc typically a rectangular array of numbcrs that represent the redPt ane - i: -:
various colors in the image, with the fir'st pixel located in one comer olthe itnage greenP Lane - :-:
and then lollowing a row colun.m otder until the final pixel is reached. Raster bfue Pl ane : ::: -
graphics will be thc prirnary focus ol this chapter. Vector graphics, as the namc
implies, alc based on vectors used to represent positions of objects in the irnage
!¡ ? Dcne
plane. Compalcd to raster graphics, vector graphics make t¿rsks such as scaling,
rotation, and translation ol objects considerably easier; however, vector graphics The r¡r,::.-:,
are not as effcctive lor representing everyday images taken with current digital file in this ca s;
carrcras. Most display and printing dcvices work with raster infonnation. semicolon is r¡:
Fortunately. conversior.r from vector graphics to raster graphics is straightfor- returned in thitt -
n'ard. although raster images usually rcquire larger file sizcs thau vector images. ,n" a*""r1i6r.i rr:
Iu a rastcr image the overall color of each pixel is defined by a specific v¿rriables can b:
intensit¡r levcl lor each of the colors red (R), glccn (G), and blue (B). The intensity panel.
level is a numbcr typically between 0 and 255.2 Using this RGB model, tlie color The cottr er.
blue would be rcpresenled by the number triplet (0, 0. 255), red by (255, 0, 0) and by-column-b¡ -pi.
green by (0, 255, 0). Other colors, such as purplc (128, 128, 255), make use of would provide ar
intensity levels in each plane. Onc of the easiest rvirys to explore how colors are thc red, green. '
madc rip in images is io use a graphics program such as Microsof'tt Painl to matlix are listed
make a small, single-color image and then decompose the imagc into numbers. The pixel int
Some of the more common image or graphics hles that MATLAB is able to used lor mather
work with arc BMP. GIF, JPEG, PNG, TIFF, and thcre are many more. In MATLAB dctcr
this chapter we u'ill work with just two of these file typcs to introduce some ol require data t¡ ¡.,;
the basics of wolking with images. In most cases, the MATLAB Help will let unsigned integcr
you take the basic skills that wc introduce here and adapt them to work with mathematics. p..
other file fom.rats. Example 5.1 th.'
4
The MATLAB built-in function to read in an image file is rmread 1¡ .r'3 numbers with ¿
This function reads in an image file of a defincd lormat and places the values 2, and 3. The c.-
into a matrix. Example 5.1 shows how to use amr:ead O to load a bitmap file lrom color plar'::
and store it in a matrix as a set of numbers that can be uscd lor calculations. plane 3 is blr,r.-.
Several new idcas are included here that will be explained further. rnatrix M are in:
type double anc
Example 5.1 Use imread ( ) to load a file and separate out color planes. type double. :i
t!¡ M 5 1.m mathematical .:
? sr'rr 2 25 16 occur when inte
? Load a frle lo a vecLor. Should ther.
!ó? Hou se keep ing values in each..
cfear aff; cic; t clears the lrorkspace & command l',/indow using the :-:-
reconstructcd iil
!¡:. Load a fife to a matrix next section.
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 Chapter 5 lnages and lmag.

5.2 lmage Commands in o function. :

¡he image ploi
Working with irnage files is an integral part of MATLAB.' and numerous The appr..-,
built-in functions support thc rcading, writing. and display ol irnagcs. To one image t¡ p:
derronstl-ate hon' these commands can bc used. Examplc 5.2 changes a red bitmap: rr e c,-..-r
image to blue ancl saves tl.rc file to a new name. More detailed leatures of the cbange both th:
commands are avaiiable in thc MATLAB Help files. savedl
The reirl pr
Example 5.2 Use ¡,4ATLAB image commands to turn a red image to blue. an image tc' n.
i;:' M 5 2.rn reconstructe¡ ::
'¡ SljlT 2-25-16
-¡ Tu¡ns red amage b-ue
!: !¡ Hous e keeping 5.3 lmage Sir
cfear ali; clc; '; cieaIs Lhe r,rorakspace & conmand win{tow Working u ith .:
files can be r ei.
r.r; toad a f i-e to a matr.ix or 3ooo x lt)l)
U - lm re ad ( ':red . bnp' , 'bmp' ); 3 numbcrs li¡r:
the file. tlie m;::
:::. SeparaLe cof
or pfanes header that c¡:-
.eaP-ane:M(:, |, !) ; complession i.'
greerPfane --14(:, : ,2) ; inlorrnation c..:
bfuePlane:M(:,:,3); reduction in ::-
compressed di-:
coior pfane order
rl-¿ Sr,rap
infomation L..
N(:/:,1)-greenPlane; compression r'--:
N(:,:,2):bfuePiane; tion process i: :
N (:, :,3) : redPfane;
Iarge pictur. j:
e. Shor,¡
ijlagc, not all .
.ó
image s
the image b¡ re:
figure ; lmage (M)
(1 )
singlc pirc1. I::
figure (2) ; rmagesc (N) ; degrading th.- r:
!¿:; Save lmag;e f
Figure :. 1 -
iLe as an arra\ ol :
imw¡ i le (N, 'biue.bmp', 'bnp' ) ;
has an inder l,-.,
of a supcr-prr:
the super-pirel
The conversion to a blue in.rage is failly simple: the order in whicl.r outlined bor.
the inrage planes were placed back into the new matrix N was switched removcd" it u l.
hom the original order so that the blue plane now has values and the The result is t:-.
red plane has zclos. Sincc wc are not doing any real mathematical Conbining
operalions on the values in the matrix, thcrc is no necd to cor.lvclt coding skill th.:
thcm from their original uintS data typc. The lmage O and imagesc o reduction plt'i:
functions were used to display thc in.rages. Thc dilftrence between the imagc to a sur.,
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L9
68 Chapter 5
nages and lrr.)

I 11 1 11 11
I 11 1 11 111 11
1 11 111 11
1 111 11 -,ra n e
1 111 11
1 1
Erirnrpl.-:
1 1111 1 11 ar r ay and t.'; -

1 11111 11 11 11 .'r'ery tl.titd :r.

gre¿1tl) redui:
1 11111 11 11 11 atvcragc ol n::-
1 11111 11 11 11 irnf gesa r :--
larger pirel:.
F¡gure 5.1 Construction of the super-plxel frorf smaller pixels of the originai
climensions.
mag e.
Thc net:
nealcst nclgir:
Example 5.3 Reduce an image file size by using super-pixels.
:cr O loop: I
thc M arra\.
,: Ii 5 3.nL a sun]l]l¿ltiolr ..

i SIir 2-25 16 figurcs using t:.

!a Averag= paxers to a smaffer m¿tr1¡ grayscale nr.'.
.a::r tiousekeepr:lg by using thc gr
clea¡ aLf; cfc; : cfears the '!or{space ! c¡mm¿¡o ,,]i¡do-- in the 'Shou r:
two images .Li
;!: Ccnf lgiure mat¡ices value of the t::
14:rand(10tC); This pr.oc.'
lrMax, cMaxl : slze (M) ; tl.re desir-ed le:
r: !; Scan ancl lep.ace

sum: C; sr 1; sc !;
Ícr r:2:3: rMar
'at c:2:3:cl'llax
-of s- :1
ior t: -1:1
sum: s,J.n + M (r+ s, c+t );
end
e 1ci €:
(sr, sc) - sun/ 9,'
x.-
1: l
sum: C; sc:sc', i; !óincr counte r
end Figure 5.2 A ::
sr:sr+1; sc I; :; with pixelation ¿-
informat on iLra :
-ond
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CI
OI
'pe^erqc€ sr cZIs elu.to uorlnlosoJ peJrsep eql
Illun 3lU o8urur u9.ro xulpur l? uo sourrl IE.raAos unlel oq uuJ sseJold srqJ
Jr
'pepoeu raqurnu paxu e le 1es rq plnoJ lr lnq 'e8eurr lsrq orll.lo enle^
lexrd runurxeu aqt sr ¡cxrd eJuaJoJeJ srrlt o-raH (1'1) laxrd aql lu se8eurr o,n1
eql uoo,r\laq ecuere-¡o.r flrsua¡ur uoutrüoJ e sepr,r.o:d uollJes ,sllnsei,roqS, orll ur
eurJ lslu eqJ ' (Ierb) deuroToc uorlcun3 Surdduu ro¡oc alecs,{er8 eql Bulsn,{q
lre1q o1 seuol ,(e:3 qinorql elq,r ruor3 aSuu s.ro1o: 1eql Surueeru e1els,{e:8
ll ol pJus^uoc uaaq e^pq saiuur cq¿ pul?rxtrro3 O csobeurr er¡l Sursn sa:n8g
crqde:8 se pe,{e¡dsrp eJÉ slJs ptep o,\\t oqJ slcxrd euru eql Jo uortpruruns e
cpl,r.o.td sacrpur 1puú s rrJqt r¡lr,r ,sdoo¡ loJ, o,\\t lsul sq1 pue ,,{e:re ¡41 erp
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lqira rqt 8ur8e:e¡¿ pue ,{u-r:u cq1 qSno:q1 Surddels Jo poqteru eq.l.
'suorsueurrp
leur6r.io eql ]o =
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:,req o1 s-ruodde 1r¡3r.r sqt uo ,{e:le ,nau eql ¿ g 3rg ur uorlcun; ( ) c s abeur
¡ql Sursn pa1lo1d e:e s,{¿llp qtog ,{u.l:e ler ur eq1 ur slexrd euru 3o a8urc,ru
eql sr ,{prre ,lrau eql ul slcxrd aql 3o qJue álaq,r ,ozrs ,{utla pecnpe.t ,{11ee.ri
e sr tlnsei :r¡1 sloqqireu tselpáu áqt Sur8e:c¡.¿ pue lurod pJrqt ,,{.re^a
t¿ ,{ei-re oql q?no.rqt Surddals ,(q tos etpp oqt Jo ezls eql sáJnpái pue ,{¿llp
a,Ienbs p ur sJequnu tuopul?l Jo ,{er.te yerlrur up selpl g.g aldruexa
3UOC:
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I (,{e.rb ) deu¡roIoc I (r{) c s abEu.rr i ( 'i ) ernb r_
1(I,I)r^r: (I,I)N j((:)N)rpur- (I /T)¡,
slTnssf Moqs ?i:
g )etdeLtC
70 Chapter 5 lmages and lm¿.

5.4 Golor Models and Conversions Results of rr

There are many \\ays to present color inlormation to the viewer. Thcsc
c:0
nrethods include using truc color and using false color images. where the
M:0.846
colors are altered to highlight particular inlormation in an imagc. There are
also dillerent ways to represent the colors that arc being used. One of thcse
Y - 0.64 ,-

mcthods. RGB. lias already been introduccd, Others include HSV and
K - 0.368
CMYK color nodcls, or tables that provide dillerer]t ways to var)' color.
These colol models pt'ovidc different ways to model color, but sincc the range This ls a
of color lcally doesn't changc very much to tlre obscrver. thcsc other determine u hi¡
Ícprcsentations are just transforms of other models. The transformatiol] the tht'ee coltrl:
between RGB and CMYK proceeds as fbllou's: be used to del:
defined as a c¡ .
/R G B\
nrrxl^-,^-.^-1.
either bc ll an::
K-l \ /\\ /\\ /\\/
(5.1)
MATL.IB :
color schente.
intensity 1e,,.-1 r
imagc, as thc i:-.:
(5.2) lront whitc to i.
IK
lor a figule is;
coior map ker .

(s.3) Color rlaps u r,.

5.5 Spatial Fi
(5.4) One of the mo:r
Thesc filters ¿i rc
1o smooth or sl-.
These equatior]s can bc constructed into a fturction that will return the ap¡rly these tú.
CMYK values lor an RGB input. This function is shown in Example 5.4. introduccd in Sr-,
size of the tll.-. ::
Spatial trlre:
Example 5.4 Use the conversion function for RGB to C|\4YK. i.e.. a spatiai da:.
functron lC, M, Y, K I : RGB2CYMK (R, G, B) a point. In Sec::,
-a;:¡ I'{ 5 4.rn smooth nois\ d¡:
!i SI\'T 2 26-16 filter did reduce ::
!¡ RGR -)> CI4YI{ The simplest f ur,.
!ó
'i Conve r s Lon sharpening. Sntt r
RGB: fR/255; G/255; B/2551 ; fliters tcnd ¡o cn:
K-1 rnax(RGB) ; tion of the filter :
c: (1-RGB(1) K) / (1-K) ; shows tlre o¡-ser::
M: (1-RGB(2) K) /(1 K); applications.: Th:
Y- (1 RGB (3 ) - K) / (1-K); lliter.2 In the h:-i
E i.i sharpening Lapla.-
 I
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(: s)
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'eldurrs srql e{eur oJ 'lseq8rq sr g ro 'C '1¡ Jo senle^ eql Jo qcrq,tr ourruJotep Jáqlo oseql .l¡ u
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72 Chapter 5 Images and lmag..

lrnaoe Dáta column of the

starting at ( 1.1 r

11'1 111 the image u ith

Smoothing either of these r
111 111
1t9 1t9 1t9 in.rage.
111 111 Each time
1ts 1t9 1t9
location is cali
1111
1t9 1t9 1t9 summation ol t:
11 111 111 the data set tha:
to the final r alLi
11 111 111
0 -1 0 showsa5xi.
11 11 1 111 half at a valu.-
-1 A+4 -1
11 11 1 111
0-1 0 Example 5.5 P:
1'l 11 1 111
Sharpening
?i? 5 5.::.
M
111 5-2- '
',: SIriT
? Tunabfe ::.
F¡gure 5.3 (left) A matrix populated with 1s showing how a 3 x 3 filter would be positioned
on the matrx. The dark center shows the pixel location where the result of the filter
mult plication is placed in a new matrix. (right) Two filters used in spatial filtering.
? Hou se ke a. r:
cfear a--; :
inragc u ill appear bdghter. The opposite of the sharpening filter is the snoothing ?t Matr.r- :-
filter. uüich reduces the high-f'r'equency variations and blurs the image. Thc siZe:25; .: .
smoothing fllter shown in Fig. 5.3 has the 3 x 3 matrix populated with ls, so it M-zeIoSl::::
musL bc divided by 9 so that thc brightncss ol thc filter does not inctcrse. M(l1:size , -
The proccss of spatial filtering that is being described is also knowt.t ¿ts lrM,cMl:- .
discrete convolution and involves the gene¡ation of a ncw matrix based on
applying a spatial filter matlix to the larger image data set. The flltcr matrix ; Fif ter l.:--::
passes over the data matrix one pixel at a time, and the element-by-element F- | 1 1 - ,
product of the two matrices is summed. This result is placed into thc resulting 11
matrix. This process is shown mathematically as 11 -
1_,
c(r,r) - |
lt- ti I
\) lll,.l,l+M(r-/r.t
t: t"
.lt), (5.5 )
lrF,cFl -.- -
noRm- s.r:: i :

where C(r, c) is an element of thc nen' matrix. / is a square filter matrix of size ri noRrn {= :

N-2nt- 1, and M holds the elemcnts being included ln the original irnage
matdx. ¿¿ Scan. ..:
The application of the 3 x 3 filter matrix to the data is shown in Fig. 5.3. s - ilocr (.i ,
rvhcre the first calculation has the filter centered on the in-rage data point r:R : slart, .
located at row - 2, colunn:2 or (2,2). By starting at this location rathcr for¡-s]-:r,:
than at the (I,1) location, all of rl.re filter elements are within the inage. Had iorc-:.
the proccss started at the point (l.l) in the imagc. the top row and lafJcft T:.',
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 Chapter 5 lmages and lmage
74

*F; if the sum is 0. a ,

N: T. fiftered natrix
Z
in the next sectio
R (rR, cR) :sum(N(:)) /noRm;
The third sec
co-cR+ l; ?lnc courLó" coding, where n
end accounting of inc
rR: rR +1; cR: slart; ? incr rR reset cR
for the new spati
end F matrix. The n
spaces, their pu¡
?g Show re su 1Ls
The T matrix is a
ligure (1) colornap (gray)
; imagesc (M) ; ;
while the F mat
figure (2) ;imagesc(R) ;colorrnap (gray) ;
column position i
step, in which rl
* Done
element. The \ r
value. The locari
This script is fairly complex and shows many interesting and useful controlled b1 rF
concepts. Functionally, the script is in four sections, with each section appropriate.
identiirable by the double percent symbols 'o/'|%' . The first section is the MATLAB h¿
header, where the only active code is for clearing variables and workspace' convolution ol rh
The fourth section shows the two images on the scleen with only a command result of runnin_s t
to set the colors used to display the images. the righthand im
The second section %% Matrix set up does exactly as that first line the left. Because t
indicates: the matrices to be used are set up. Even though we are talking about calculation, thel
images in this script, the starting point will be numerical matrices' The around the right-l
diménsion of the data matrix is defined using the 'siZe' variable MATLAB
has a si ze ( ) function, but by capitalizing just one letter in the function name, Example 5.6 Use :
we can use the function as a variable. Two matrices are created next: M,
M_5_6.m
which will be used to hold the original data, and R, which will be used to hold
Z%
sWT 5-27-1€
the processed data. Both M and R are initially set up to be 25 x 25 element
%

matiices with the elements set to zero. Approximately half of the values in the
¿ Tunable spa: _

M matrix are set to 1, creating a sharp transition between the values. This line
?3 House keec _:.:
is sufficiently interesting to look at in detail:
c lear al1; c-:;
M( f1: sizel , [1: ffoor (síZe/2) ] ) :1; 2 set haff to 1
¿* Matrix se-_ _!
The commands in brackets identify regions in the matrix; [1: size] siZe-25;: s r::
r"l - zeros ( st _- ;
identifies rows l through 25' and l1: ¡1oo r \size/2) I identifies the columns
beginning with the first and running through half the size value, 12.5, then
M([1:saze]/ -_:-
rounded downward using the floor O function to 12. The size g function R = size (M) ;
passes the matrix size to two variables that hold the maximum size lrM, cMl : sizs '1.

information. Each of these variables is tracked individually so that the data

set matrix is not required to be square. ? Fi Lter Mat:_:.:
The firlter matrix F that will be used is lequired in this case to be square, F: I 111 _
but it can be any dimension provided it is smaller than the data matrix. The 111,_
sum of the values in the matrix is calculated as an 'if statement' to ensure that 1111_
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76 Chapter 5 lmages and lmage

11111
111111;
lrF/ cFl - size (F) ; ?assign size to rMax, cMax
noRm- sum (F (: ) ) ; % sum values in F
_f n oD,r" -_ 0; noRr _'; e.td,. 15

U ? Scan, convolve and replace

C: conv2 (M. F, 'valld' ) ;
%Z Show re sult s
figure (1) ; lmagesc (M) ; colormap (gray) ; Figure I
f igure (2 ) ; imagesc (c),' cof ormap (gr:ay) ;
f11gure (3) ; subpfol (I,2t7) ; imagesc (M) ;coforrnap (gray) ; axis
square; One of the r
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works is to firs¡ r

: Done from the origin:

When added to i
sharpening the ir
A basic sha¡
ing matrix in the
is applied to a st,
Fig. 5.6.
The usefulne
image and the I
unsharp mask ti
image to pror id
masking is shos
s 10 1s 20 25 s10152025 Many differe
Figure 5.4 (left) Original image and (right) the filtered image. Not¡ce that there is a black effects can be us
band in the f¡ltered ¡mage, as the filter was not appl¡ed to the outer row of p¡xels, where the
intensity was kept at zero.

The script in Example 5.6 includes the conv2 g function approach, and the
results of applying the hlter are shown in Fig. 5.5. The conv2 function g 5l
supports several keyvords that allow the user to tune the way the function is
applied. The keywords include 'full', 'same', and'valid'and change the resulting
shape of the matlix. The 'valid' key,vord returns the convolution without using
zero padding.
The usefulness of spatial filtering becomes apparent when working
directly with images, as the filtering effects can be masked by the viewing
resolution. The effect of many hlters is difficult to show except in electronic
images, where it is possible to zoom in on features of interest. An image- F¡gure 5.6 (left) O
filtering techniq te lhat does have clearly evidelt effects uses sharpening Notice on the right-l
masks, which enhance regions of abrupt change. made to stand out f
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 Chapter 5

Part
800 800

200 400 600 800 200 400 600 800

Figure 5.7 (right) Or¡ginal image and (left) the sharpened image.
Chaptels 6 thror
enhancing images. Being able to construct and apply custom image filtels is a often encounte¡e
powerlul skill and can also be interesting. developing soluti,
visualization tool
5.6 Practice Problems
1. What 3 x 3 flrlter would return the same image that you started with?
2. What is the ellect of the filter 0.5*[0 0 0; 0 I 0; 0 0 0]?
Answers
1.[000; 010;000]
2. It reduces the brightness by half.

References
1. D. Hanselman and B. Littlefield, Masrering MATLAB@ 7, Prentice-Hall,
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey (2011).
2. R. C. Gonzales and R. E. Woods, Digital hnage Processing, Second
Edition, Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey (2002).
3. H. Moore, MATLAB@ Jor Engineers, 4th Edition, Prentice-Hall, Upper
Saddle River, New Jersey (2014).
4. R. Pratap, Gexing Started vvitlt MATLAB 7: A Quick Introduction for
Scienrisrs and Engineers, Oxford University Press, Oxford (2006).
Chapter 7
Spectrometers
Spectroscopy can be thought of as working with rainbows, i.e., the separation
of white light into its component colors, which range from red to violet.
Seeing a rainbow, or even better, double rainbows, has great aesthetic value
but is also part of the science behind analyzing light. On the beauty side, cut
glass crystals such as those that might be used in a chandelier will also show
the colors of the rainbow. Refining the shape of these crystals for use in
science has led to new insight in many fields.
The light intensity as a function of wavelength is known as a spectrum and
is used in many analytical systems to determine the composition of materials.
lt is well known that the sun produces a wide range of wavelengths and that
the water vapor in the Earth's atmosphere blocks many wavelengths from
reaching the surface. The areas of the spectrum that can penetrate the
atmosphere are known as atmospheric windows. 1-5 Metallurgy has benefitted
from the use of spectrometers for determining temperatures of highly heated
metals to ensure that the metal processing happens at the right temperatures.
Optical spectrometers can be made usi�g prisms, which rely on refraction
and gratings. Gratings use diffraction to separate out the various wavelengths.
Hybrid devices known as grisms are made from combinations of gratings and
prisms and have the advantage of making very compact instruments.
In this chapter we will model the sorne of the key equations used m
spectrometers and how they relate to the final spectrum.

7.1 Dispersion in a Material

The index of refraction of a material is wavelength dependent and typically
will have a higher index of refraction at shorter or blue wavelengths than will
redder or longer wavelengths of light. The results is that if a beam of white
light-one that contains ali wavelengths-pa.sses through a thickness of glass
at a non-normal angle of incidence, the emerging light will have separated into
its component colors. This separation of colors is known as dispersion and is
shown in Fig. 7 .1.

95
Chapter 11
Polarization
An object viewed through certain crystals will appear as a double image. Such
crystals demonstrate double refraction; i.e., the two directionally dependent
refractive indices through the material result in one image being displaced
from the other. l-4 The explanation of this effect led to our current
understanding of polarization effects.
A wide range of devices incorporate polarization; one of the most
common of these in use today is the liquid crystal display. Liquid crystals were
discovered in the late l 800s and have only recently become the primary
display technology.4 More traditional devices based on polarization include
Pockels cells, Nicol prism, Glan-Thompson prism, and more.3
Polarization, which can be induced by reflection, is found in nature, an
example of which is sunlight glancing off of a body of water. A similar effect
can be created by light interacting with a collection of thin glass plates. It is
important to appreciate that there is a difference between simple reflection
and a polarization effect on reflected light.
Polarization of light is an important topic and often does not receive the
consideration that it should be accorded in many optic courses. Here, we are
interested in the mathematics involved in calculating polarization using
matrix methods. The two formalisms, the Jones calculus and the Mueller
calculus provide an effective means of determining the influence of a polarizer
on a beam of light.
In this chapter we will see how two different yet related matrix approaches
are applied in polarization calculations and how to set up the calculations in
MATLAB®. Interestingly, under certain conditions these two matrix
approaches can be transformed from one to the other.

11.1 Polarized Light

The double image seen in a calcite crystal placed on a typed page from a book
is one of the more visually striking images associated with the phenomenon of
polarization. Double images were first reported in 1669 by Erasmus

155