Design History Society

The Problem of Furniture

Source: Journal of Design History, Vol. 3, No. 2/3 (1990), pp. 157-163
Published by: Oxford University Press on behalf of Design History Society
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DOCUMENTS
Editor's note: Although this selection of
texts on aspects of furniture design in
the 1920s may be read as self-contained,
it is intended primarily to complement
the articles by Benton and Macel else-
where in this issue.
The Problem of Furniture
The Adventure of Furniture
Renewal of the plan of the modern
house cannot be undertaken effectively
without examining the question of
furniture. This is the Gordian knot. It
must be cut, otherwise any pursuit of
the modern idea is in vain. We are about
to change tack: a machinist age has
followed the premachinist age; a new
spirit has replaced the old spirit . . .
Woman has got there before us. She
has brought about the reform of her
dress. She found herself in this
dilemma: to follow fashion and by doing
so give up what modern technology-
modern life-had to offer. To give up
sport and, more materially, the chance
of employment which has given her a
productive role in modern life and
enabled her to earn her living. By
following fashion she could have had
nothing to do with the motor car, she
would not have been able to take the
underground or the bus, nor rush
around in the office or in the shops. To
carry out the daily construction of her
toilet: hair-do, boots, buttoning her
dress, she would have had to give up
sleeping.
So woman cut off her hair and her
skirts and her sleeves. She goes around
bare headed, bare armed, with her legs
free, and she can dress in five minutes.
More over she is beautiful; she enchants
us with the grace of her figure, which
dress designers admit to have turned to
their advantage.
The courage, the enterprise, the
inventive spirit with which woman has
revolutionized her dress are a miracle of
modern times. Thank you!
What about us men? A dismal state of
affairs! In our clothes, we look like
generals of the Grand Army and we
wear starched collars! We are uncom-
fortable in our working clothes. We
need to carry about us an arsenal of
papers and small utensils. The pocket-
Journal of Design History Vol. 3 Nos. 2-3 ? 1990 The Design History Society 0952-4649/90
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pockets should be the key to modern
dress. If you try to equip yourself with
what you need you destroy the line of
your clothes; you are no longer well
dressed. You have to choose between
working or being elegant.
The English costume which we wear
has nevertheless achieved one import-
ant thing. It has neutralized us. It is use-
ful to cultivate a neutral appearance in
the city. The main means of expression
is no longer in the ostrich plumes of the
hat, it is in the face. This is enough.
Monsieur Waleffe, in Paris, disgusted
with the English, preached a gigantic
crusade: silk breeches and silk stock-
ings, buckled shoes and suspenders,
'French' elegance, Latin spirit! and
display of calves everywhere! This mis-
fired; everyone just laughed.
At St. Moritz, in the snow, modern
man comes into his own. At Levallois-
Perret, the headquarters of the motor
car industry, the mechanic is a pioneer.
We, office men, have been beaten by a
considerable length by women.
The spirit of reform, then, has made
an appearnace, but no more. It still has
to make its impact on every aspect of life
So, what do we mean by furniture?
'The means by which we make our social
rank known.'
This, very precisely, is the way kings
think: Louis XIV was a brilliant expo-
nent of this mentality. Shall we be
Louis XIVs? How about that! If there are
millions of Louis XIVs on the earth,
there will no longer be a Sun King.
Seriously, are we determined to be
Sun Kings?
Furniture consists of:
Tables for working and eating. Chairs
for dining and for working. Armchairs
of various shapes for resting in various
ways and boxes in which to stack the
objects we use.
Furniture consists of tools, and ser-
vants, too. Furniture serves our needs.
Our needs are everyday ones, regular,
always the same; yes, always the same.
Our furniture fulfils constant, daily,
regular functions.
All men have the same needs, at the
same times, every day, all their lives.
The tools which would fulfil these
functions are easy to define, and pro-
gress, which brings us new techniques
$3.00
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(tubular steel, pliable metal sheeting,
autogenous welding) provides us with
means of production which are infi-
nitely more perfect and more effective
than before.
The insides of houses will no longer
look like those of the time of Louis XIV.
Hence the adventure.
Our needs are human needs. We all
have the same number of limbs, with
the same shape and the same dimen-
sions. If there are differences on the
latter point, an average measurement is
easy to find.
Standard functions. Standard needs.
Standard objects. Standard dimensions.
The idea of the standard is already
well advanced. It is as old as the hills
and it has established the form of every
civilization ... The question of the
modern standard is already well
advanced, but we take no notice of it.
The whole world has agreed on the
format and dimensions of writing paper.
Office furniture throughout the world is
adjusted to the format of writing paper.
The spirit of the machine age has
used its ingenuity. What we have done
for the motor car we have done for office
furniture. A revolution has taken place:
the cabinet makers' workshops have
been closed and in other parts of the
town we have created the steel furniture
industry.
Accuracy, efficiency, purity of shapes
and lines have arisen ...
I am going to maintain that apart from
chairs and tables, furniture is in fact
nothing more than pigeon-hole boxes.
Now for the most part, these pigeon-
holes at the moment are badly dimen-
sioned and of doubtful utility: at this
point I denounce waste, I will push the
enemy back into his trenches, and find
out what this furniture is really for. I
will make certain that, with the new
wood and metal industries, it is possible
to construct accurate pigeon-hole fit-
ments with an admirable functionality,
of a size which is not approximate but
definite and I will be led to conclude that
the traditional furniture of the cabinet
maker and the salesman does not serve
us well at all, that it is a cumbersome
relic, which opposes the economical and
efficient solution, since it obliges us to
build houses which are too large, and it
complicates existence by preventing
157
rational administration of the house-
hold. Finally, its only purpose is an
aesthetic one. Now when an object of
utility no longer fulfils a function,when
its rationaleis aesthetic,it has become a
parasite and must be rejected.We will
seek a kind of aestheticswhich will suit
us better; we will look for something
which will conquer the heart and the
sensibilityof a modernman.
Let us play the game:
I draw a shelf with glasses on it; a
shelf with plates, soup dishes, etc.; a
shelf with bottles, decanters, etc.
Drawers with an automatic arrange-
ment of cutlery. This is the end of the '

chapterso far as eating utensils are con- u .

.-.' ^

cerned.
I draw a shelf with household linen,
sheets, table napkins, etc., a shelf with
personal linen, drawers with under-
clothes, stockings, etc.
I draw a shelf with shoes, a shelf with
hats.
I draw a garment hanging on a coat-
hanger;a dress.
That is all.
I have just made an inventory of the
objects in our daily use [1].
These objects are all in proportionto
our limbs, adaptedto our gestures.They
have a common scale, they obey a
standard. If I study the question-and 1 'C'est tout ...' Sketch illustrating that the 'casier', or pigeon-hole system of storage,
for twenty years I have been obsessed can accommodate every type of domestic object
by the anomaly of furniture(I formerly
earned my living by fitting out various
apartment houses)-I find a common problem of furniture and that of the production, which could be sold both to
measurement. I find the pigeon-hole aesthetic content of the home. After a the individual who is doing his own
which effectively contains all these rigorous analysis, we then came up with furnishing and to the architect at the
objects. the same dimensions again. planning stage. The former will deploy
I draw this pigeon-hole. It measures In 1925, the Esprit Nouveau Pavilion his pigeon-hole fitment against the
75 cm for the sides and 372 to 50 cm seemed to shed light, thought by many walls of his rooms or will use them to
depth or 150 X 75 at the front and 372to to be a pretty glaring light-on this establish either full-height or half-
75 for the depth. The variabilityof the question. height partitions (see the Esprit
depth measurement results from the Finally, in 1928, our expert in domes- Nouveau Pavilion, 1925); the latter will
variousmethods of the interiorarrange- tic interior design, Mme. Charlotte build the pigeon-holes into the walls.
ment of this pigeon-hole fitment. Perriand, also arrived at the same All that remains is to fit out the inside
In 1913, when I had to design collap- dimensions. While I am talking to you of these pigeon-holes. These 'fittings'
sible equipment for a travellingexhibi- now, in Buenos Aires, we should have a can range from the most simple, like
tion for decorative art (and decorative vast stand at the Salon d'Automne in available office furniture, to the greatest
art meant the whole bag of tricks from Paris demonstrating in peremptory possible refinement. These 'fittings', to
the office to the drawing-roomor the fashion the principle of the 'Equipment be installed later in the standard pigeon-
sitting-room),I discoveredthis standard of a modern dwelling' by standard hole boxes, can be sold at the Bazar de
formatof 75 cm and 150 cm. And I pro- pigeon-hole fitments. l'Hotel-de-Ville or in the Champs-
ceeded to forget about it. This has constructional, architectural, Elysees.
In 1924, we were preparing our Esprit economic and industrial implications: it When the house is completed, while
Nouveau Pavilion-in which we wished would be sensible to make pigeon-holes the painters are putting on the final
to solve once and for all both the industrially: containers in large scale coat, the day before the occupier moves

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in his books and his cases, the appropri-
ate fittings for the different functions
are slotted into the pigeon-holes. The
doors will be added-sliding panels in
sheet steel, in plywood, marble, glass,
aluminium, etc.; a taste for simplicity or
opulence can be displayed according to
wish.
And if the house is built by dry
assembly, you can see how simple it all
is.
Try to imagine the new dwelling.
Each room is reduced to the adequate
minimum and its source of light (a long
window or a wall of glass) is perfect. Its
shape is suited to its purpose: the doors
open in such a way as to guarantee easy
circulation. In the bedroom, the library,
the drawing-room, the office, the
kitchen, shutters are raised or lowered
and screens are slid at arm's reach.
Behind these appear compartments
suitable for what they should contain.
Every object is arranged as in a jewel
casket; certain fittings can be brought
I -
2 Sketches showing dimensions of casiers and varieties of interior fitting
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forward smoothly on ball bearings; your
clothes are spread out before your eyes,
etc. [2].
Hence there is no longer any cabinet
markers' furniture in the house! I am
grieved to think about so many good
craftsmen, but I feel that there is a need
to adapt ourselves to the new conditions
of modern life.
The reduction of furniture to the state
of pigeon-holes which, if necessary,
form the wall itself, can also be obtained
by basic methods of construction in
reinforced concrete ...
In the office or drawing-room,
sewing-room or boudoir; always and
everywhere, standard and accurate
functions are accomplished and ful-
filled; objects of human dimensions, of
standard measurements are put in
order. Farewell, treasure-chests of
yesteryear! . ..
Seats?
Let us present a new heresy: seats are
for relaxingin.
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I have omitted to mention the 'style'
in which-or accordingto which-we
have to relax!
On the contrary,I have noticed that,
accordingto the hours of the day, the
nature of our preoccupations, the
posture we adopt in a drawing-room
(and which we change 3 or 4 times
during an evening), there are several
ways of being seated. You sit 'actively'
for working. The chair is an instrument
of torture which keeps you admirably
wide awake. I need a chair when I am
working.
I sit down to chat: a certainarmchair
gives me a decent and polite position. I
sit down 'actively'to delivera speech, to
propounda thesis, to outline my point
of view: how suitable this high stool is
for my posture!I sit blissfully and I am
relaxed:this Turkishstool of the cavedjis
of Constantinople, 35 cm high and
30 cm in diameteris a marvel;I could sit
on it forhours without tiring,just sitting
on my backside!And if there are 15 of
us in the small drawing-roomof our
little house, and we want to sit and do
nothing, the lady of the house takes
from a cupboard the 15 stools stacked
one inside the other. I incline towardsa
more complete kief; I remember that
Noel, the head of the Voisin (Automo-
bile Company) coachworkdepartment,
equipped his 14-horsepower sports
model with a spring cushion arranged
on the floor;and I travelled500 km at a
stretchon it without feeling tired;I bear
it in mind when I furnish my drawing-
room.Herewe have the machineat rest.
We built it with bicycle frametubes and
we covered it with a magnificentpony
skin; it is so light that it can be pushed
with the foot, it can be movedby a child.
I thought of the cowboy from the Wild
West, smoking his pipe, his feet in the
air higher than his head, against the
chimney piece: complete rest. Our
recliningchaircan be put into any posi-
tion; my weight alone is enough to keep
it in the position chosen: no mechanics.
This is the real machinefor rest, etc. [3].
Modernwoman has cut her hair. Our
eyes have become acquaintedwith the
shape of her legs. The corset has gone.
Etiquette has fallen from favour.
Etiquettewas born in the Court. Only
certainpeople had the right to sit down
and then only in a certainway. Then in
159

(_......Ly^:-- t:. ,-^-
_ *-i---
^
-
--~---
AI
showing varieties of sitting
33 Sketch showing
the nineteenth century, the bourgeois
became king and ordered for himself
armchairs infinitely more sculptured
and gilded than any the princes of the
blood had ever had. 'Good manners'
were taught at the convent. Nowadays
this is nothing but a bore! A person of
distinction never loses his distinction,
even at the Carnival. This reassures us!
And, above all, we are about to sit
down better!
And the house has been stripped of
its furniture.
Space and light abound.
We move about, we act quickly.
And perhaps we will take pleasure in
contemplation, during this hour of rest,
this hour of relaxation at home?
This is the root of the matter, having a
think.
About the harmony of proportions,
or about some poem of mechanics,
about the life of ancient or modern
peoples, even a poem in verse.
or some music
a piece of sculpture, a painting
or a diagram,
or about such and such a photograph
of a simple, sublime, fundamental or
exceptional phenomenon.
160
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k L
sitting position
position
Lifeis full of opportunitiesfor collect-
ing ornaments which can serve to
promotethought:
This pebble from the seaside
this admirablepine cone
these butterflies,these beetles
this polished steel machine com-
ponent
or this piece of ore.
The Gods? It is the mind which
createsthem out of things of the earth.
The adventure?Ah, yes, the furniture
adventure!Events are moving forward:
the concept of furniture has dis-
appeared.It has been replacedby a new
word 'domesticequipment'.
Le Corbusier,'L'aventuredu mobilier',
Precisions, Cres, Paris, 1929. Translated
by Jenny Monk.
J10;II,:R1IJT
EICOI)
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st. . d
()4SSnJ1'Problem-solvig
4 Problem-solving diagram: need + means = solution
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Furniture
To make furnitureis the equivalent of
resolving a problem in which on one
side there are the needs of the consumer
and, on the other, the possibilities
offered by the manufacturerof satisfy-
ing those needs: to offer objects which
in theirmakingand usage correspondto
the economic exigencies of their time
[41.
This equation has ruled architecture
and the production of furniture and
utensils throughout time. Needs and
possibilities have changed over time
and it is these changes which have
produceddifferentnew solutions which
we call styles (les styles).
To makenew furnituredoes not mean
inventing new, bizarre, or unprece-
dented forms. In times past the artisan
followed establishment tradition. He
conceived and made the furniture.He
satisfied the needs and the desire for
luxury of one class. Outside influences
modified these desires-furniture
changed, the styles changed. Creation
was a logical sequence, the artisan
followed a well-wornpath, he made one
piece of furnitureafteranother,and per-
fected them. What characterizedthese
periods was: the artisan (creator and
executant),the desire for luxury of one
class and, as a result, uniquepieces of
furniturecreated to satisfy the desires
and whims of an individual.
Which features of this system still
survive? Which are no longer valid?
Whichhave changed?
The consumers are composed of all
classes of the population. Their needs
conform to well defined types. The
furniturethey requireis an economical
one, that is to say a type of furniture
whose form and material allow it to
perform the functions for which it is
intendedin the best possible way, with-
out wasting time or being tiring to use,
and whose price does not exceed the
consumer'sbuying power.
: n d: m s =
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 The artisanhas doubledup as creator
and executant.The creatoranalyses and
synthesizes. He analyses the require-
ments, the physiological functions, the
economic capacity. He synthesizes in
knowingly interpreting the results of
the analysis, and thus performs the
work of a creator.
The executantis industry. Its modern
tools, its methods of production, its
organization, allow it to achieve a
perfectionin the executionwhich would
have been impossible with the old
methods. It has at its disposal machined
raw materials.Manufacture,to be econ-
omic, has been broken down into its
component parts. The factory produc-
tion of an objectfollows a long chain of
development in which everything is
minutely regulated. It is through the
careful study of each detail and by
judicious assembly that modern furni-
ture achieves its perfection,its beauty.
Chairs
The function of chairs is to support the
human body in the most favourable
position to carry out a particulartask.
The diagram shows some of the types
[5]. The line of the humanbody dictates
the theoretical solution of the piece of
furniture.
To makethese chairswe have various
materialsat our disposal. The mannerof
employing these materials is quite
different to that of the past. Wood, for
I i'JSOIiN
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All IRAVAI.
AU REPAS EN CONVERSATION
j
,tOSSIl I/TE!
, for use at school and at home is one of
r'l
SOIJ
5 Four requirements
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example: in times past one sawed it,
planed it, and assembledit. Todaythere
are bentwoods which can be given
infinitely varied forms (according to
requirements);they are assembledwith
the aid of a vice, with nails, and
dowels-this results in an economy of
work and the judicious employment of
the material.Thereareplywoods, which
can be used to make large continuous
surfaces. The infinite variety of pro-
cessed metals opens up new perspec-
tives for the makingof chairs,as do new
materials such as bakelised cardboard,
fibre, ebonite and others. Rubber,foam
rubber,and inflated rubber,ensure the
elasticityof chairs.
In a following article we shall
examine some solutions for chairs. We
shall attemptto outline the principlesof
other furnitureand to show their rela-
tionship with the rest of the dwelling,
and with the people who use them.
Ern6 Goldfinger and Andre Szivessy,
'Meubles', L'Organisation Menagere,
June 1928. Translated by Charlotte
Benton.
Furniture: Chairs
In an earlier article we indicated the
need for different types of chairs for
different types of daily use. We chose
quite briefly four use-functions and we
tried to find a theoretical solution in
LEjS SIEG9ES
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diagrammaticform. Now we want to
look at the question in more detail and
to examinethese solutionsone by one to
see how they can be interpreted in
practice.
At work
There are numerous types of work
which, in the more or less distant past,
did not requireseats. Today,in orderto
avoid fatigue, to concentrate more
energy on the work to be done, one
selects the most appropriate sitting
position.
The diagram[6] shows us the excess
of energy expended in different posi-
tions comparedwith that of lying down.
One can easily imagine the advantages
of working in a sitting position,
compared with standing upright,
squatting,or bent over.
Let us take the example of office
work: writing. In antiquitypeople used
to write standing up or squatting,with
the wax tablet or papyrus balanced on
an arm or the knees. Not so long ago-
and even today in certainoffices which
are immune to progress-people wrote
at tall desks, either standing up or
perchedon high stools.
This irrational mode of work is
unhealthy and needlessly tiring. One
should sit at a particular height in
relation to the table: the chair's height
should be adjustable.One should retain
freedomof movementand be able to get
up easily: revolving chairs. One should
be able to relaxfromtime to time during
the course of work:a comfortableback-
rest, a rockingchair [7].
The problem of the work chair is
perhaps the most important,and it has
been the most widely researchedwith
the most comprehensive results. In
practice, office workers, etc., stay on
their chairsfor most of theirday. So one
can easily see how importantit is that
these chairs should be well suited to
their function.
I The constructionof children'schairs
the most sensitive problemsof furnish-
ing. It has been emphasized time again
how importantthe seat is for the grow-
ing body, and how harmfulthe effect of
chairs which are too big or too small;
despite this, not enough attention is
paid to the question. In general,concern
is concentrated only in those areas
161
 action, fixed by conventions, which
determines the degree of repose which
in turn determinesthe form of the seat.
The most comfortableposition should
not prevent the seated person from
thatof lying down
gettingup easily to fetch a cup of tea, for
example,or to look at objects [9].
Resting
6 Diagram indicating surplus expenditure of energy in various positions compared with No effort from the body. Relaxationof
that of lying down muscles and consequently nerves. The
means are the best formwhich supports
the posture without effort, and supple-
ness of materialwhich allows, as far as
possible, one to find a particularposi-
tion which is the opposite of that taken
at work. Some examples show how to
achieve this [0o].
7 Seats
suitable for work
Erno Goldfinger and Andre Szivessy,
'Meubles: les sieges', L'Organisation
Menagere, Oct. 1928. Translated by
CharlotteBenton.

The Materials of Furniture:

Siige, de Wood or Metal?
Tbonet, Fia.b.
Thenel. Flb bo.

Furniturein woodor metalor?

7 Seats suitable for work
Modern house construction no longer
relies on wood for roofs, floors or
window framesbut in the main turns to
which result in greater commercialor concrete and steel. Recently, wood has
only a question of materials and con-
industrialoutput. structionalmethods [8]. been increasingly dispensed with in
And this problem which has been interiordecorationand furniture.Floor-
well solved when it is a question of In conversation ing and wall surfaces which invariably
office work becomes complicated and The conversation position corresponds used to be treated in wood are nowa-
almost unrealizable when it comes to to an intermediate state, tending days more usually faced in artificial
domestic work. It is not only a question towardsrepose. It is no longer essential materials (Eternit). Even glass is fre-
of a lackof machinery,but of lackof will that all parts of the body-and even less quently employed. To an increasing
and a lack of understanding of the certain parts of the body-are concen- extent metal furniture is taking on
trated to their utmost on a particular various forms: chairs and tables in
problem, which results in one working
in undesirable conditions. The great objective.It is the relationbetween the tubular steel, office furniture in sheet
seated person and their freedom of steel.
variety of domestic work accentuates
the loss of vitality caused by unsuitable
furnishing.Fora fairlymodest priceone
could acquire mass-produced seats
whose height can be adjustedto suit the
work in hand, and whose simplicityand
qualityof materialrequirelittle upkeep.
At meals li-
I
Much less complicatedthan the condi-
tions of work are those of meals. Never- AL I
theless a good body position for the
consumption of food is in the interests
of health. Given that this position is
determined only by the human body
and can be consideredas a constant at
any given time the differences will be 8 Chairs suitable for use as dining chairs

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 understoodin successfulapplicationsin
other fields, has until recentlynot been
exploitedin wood manufactureis due to
the vagariesof the material:
Wood is changeable, it swells, dries
out,
permanentlychanges shape.
Wood is vulnerable to water and
I , a damp.
Wood is heavy, because of its high
watercontent (the wood in the coach-
work of a Ford car weighs, for
example, 14 kilos).
9 Easy chairs Wood is flammable.
Some of these defects can be counter-
acted by expensive treatments of the
wood and protractedand complicated
forms of assembly: composite sheets,
plywood, zinc, cross-grainingand glue.
But every theoretical or practical
Al IHEM
attempt to create a durableand homo-
geneous materialhas been more or less
frustrated, either because of cost or
practicalities.
The search for newer materials-
waterproof veneers, linoleum, glass,
marble-entails a complication of
manufactureand thus expense.
That there is a need for a new, better
and homogeneousmaterialis provedby
the even greater stress placed on new
artificialmaterials such as wood-metal
Goldfinge et Szivessy.
Mintyelair, (a bond of wood and metal), Xylotekt,
Eternit, Galalith, vulcanized fibre,
pasteboard,resinous products.In appli-
o1 Chairs for relaxing in. Top right: chaise-longue by Goldfinger and Szivessy; centre: cation, these sometimes produce good
Minty wicker chair surfaces,cheaperand betterthan wood.
Butjuxtaposinglayersof these materials
This proves that wood in its present machine-madesides, doors and tops of does not yet produce a homogeneous
varieties can no longer serve modern cupboards. From this has followed material. And furthermore, the new
requirements. quickerand cheaperproduction. materialshave eitherprovedthemselves
To test the correctnessof this obser- Quick, because each prefabricated hygroscopic or for various reasons
vation, we must look more closely at the component can be assembled and impracticalfor construction.
heightened demands made on wood delivered in the shortest time, without Researchinto metal box furniturehas
today. the transportation of the production shown that steel furnitureis cheaperto
It is characteristicof the tempo and process from A to B. manufacturethan wood. Apartfromthe
rationalmentalityof our time that even Cheap because of the piece-work greaterweight and the consequent dis-
the furnitureindustry is undergoing a system and the standard packing in advantages of transportation, metal
process of standardizationand normal- storage. furniture has in its favour greater
ization. Office furniture, kitchens and Another advantage is the possibility durability and fire-resistance. These
special fittings for hotels, hospitals and of respondingto changed conditionsby factors must inevitably lead to the
such-like give plenty of evidence of the enlargingor alteringinstallations,using virtual eradication of wood for wall
applicationof this principle. From this standard parts whose normalized surfacesand the furnitureindustry.The
specializationand normalizationin the dimensions for height, breadth and characteristicsof the new materials of
manufactureof cars and machines and, depth allow for simple and convenient the futurecan be identifiedas:
lately, dry-assembly house building, combinations. Absolute reliability, exact dimen-
there have emerged some examples of That this kind of modern manufac- sional stability,high durability.
standard furniture parts such as the ture, whose advantageshave long been Resistanceto water and fire.

Journalof Design HistoryVol.3 Nos. 2-3 ? 1990 TheDesignHistorySocietyo952-4649/90 $3.oo 163

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