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The Permian through Jurassic lithostratigraphy of the Colorado Plateau area of southeastern Utah that makes
up much of the famous prominent rock formations in protected areas such as Capitol Reef National Park and
Canyonlands National Park. From top to bottom: Rounded tan domes of the Navajo Sandstone, layered red
Kayenta Formation, cliff-forming, vertically-jointed, red Wingate Sandstone, slope-forming, purplish Chinle
Formation, layered, lighter-red Moenkopi Formation, and white, layered Cutler Formation sandstone. Picture
from Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, Utah.
Strata in Salta (Argentina)
In general, strata are primarily igneous or sedimentary relating to how the rock was
formed. Sedimentary layers are laid down by deposition of sediment associated with
weathering processes, decaying organic matter (biogenic) or through chemical
precipitation. These layers are often distinguishable as having many fossils and are
important for the study of biostratigraphy. Igneous layers occur as stacks of lava flows,
layers of lava fragments (called tephra) both erupted onto the Earth's surface by
volcanoes, and in layered intrusions formed deep underground. Igneous layers are
generally devoid of fossils and represent magmatic or volcanic activity that occurred
during the geologic history of an area.
There are a number of principles that are used to explain the appearance of stratum. When
an igneous rock cuts across a formation of sedimentary rock, then we can say that the
igneous intrusion is younger than the sedimentary rock. The principle of superposition
states that a sedimentary rock layer in a tectonically undisturbed stratum is younger
than the one beneath and older than the one above it. The principle of original
horizontality states that the deposition of sediments occurs as essentially horizontal beds.
The principles of lithostratigraphy were first established by the Danish naturalist, Nicolas
Steno, in his 1669 Dissertationis prodromus.[1] A lithostratigraphic unit conforms to the law
of superposition, which in its modern form states that in any succession of strata, not
disturbed or overturned since deposition, younger rocks lies above older rocks.[2] The
principle of lateral continuity states that a set of bed extends and can be traceable over
a large area.[3]
Lithostratigraphic units are recognized and defined on the basis of observable physical
rock characteristics (lithology). The lithology of a unit includes characteristics such as
chemical and mineralogical composition, texture, color, primary depositional structures,
fossils regarded as rock-forming particles, or other organic materials such as coal or
kerogen. The taxonomy of fossils is not a valid lithological basis for defining a
lithostratigraphic unit. The descriptions of strata based on physical appearance define
facies.[4]
Stratigraphic relationship
Diagrams showing stratigraphic relations: A: an angular unconformity; B: a disconformity; C: a nonconformity.
Disconformity with the Lower Cretaceous Edwards Formation overlying a Lower Permian limestone; hiatus is
about 165 million years; Texas.
Two types of contact between conformable strata: abrupt contacts (directly separate
beds of distinctly different lithology, minor depositional break, called diastems) and
gradational contact (gradual change in deposition, mixing zone).
Angular unconformity: younger sediment lies upon an eroded surface of tilted or folded
older rocks. The older rock dips at a different angle from the younger.
Disconformity: the contact between younger and older beds is marked by visible,
irregular erosional surfaces. Paleosol might develop right above the disconformity
surface because of the non-deposition setting.
Paraconformity: the bedding planes below and above the unconformity are parallel. A
time gap is present, as shown by a faunal break, but there is no erosion, just a period of
non-deposition.
Nonconformity: relatively young sediments are deposited right above older igneous or
metamorphic rocks.
Lithostratigraphic correlation
To correlate lithostratigraphic units, geologists define facies, and look for key beds or key
sequences that can be used as a datum.
Geological correlation[7] is the main tool for reconstructing the geometry of layering in
sedimentary basins. The lithological correlation is a procedure, decisive what layers
(strata) in geological cross-sections located in different places belong to the same
geological body now (or belonged in the past).[8] The identification is based on comparison
of physical and mineralogical characteristics of the rocks, and on general assumptions
known as the Steno's principles (http://www.geologyin.com/2014/03/stenos-principles-of-st
ratigraphy.html) :
1. The sedimentary strata occurred sequentially in time: the youngest at the top.
2. The strata are originally horizontal.
3. The stratum extends in all directions until it thins out or encounters a barrier.
The results are presented as a correlation scheme (A). Practical correlation has a lot of
difficulties: fuzzy borders of the layers, variations in composition and structure of the
rocks in the layer, unconformities in the sequence of layers , etc. This is why errors in
correlation schemes are not seldom. When the distances between available cross-sections
are decreasing (for example, by drilling new wells) the quality of correlation is improving,
but meanwhile the wrong geological decisions could be made that increases the expenses of
geological projects.
Lithodemic stratigraphy
Supersuite Supercomplex
Suite Complex
Similar rules have been adopted in Sweden.[10] However, the 1994 International
Stratigraphic Guide regards plutons and non-layered metamorphic rocks of undetermined
origin as special cases within lithostratigraphy.[9]
See also
Biostratigraphy
Chronostratigraphy
Topostratigraphy
Earth science
Footnotes
1. Steno 1916.
8. Voronin 1973.
References
Boggs, Sam (2006). Principles of sedimentology and stratigraphy (4th ed.). Upper Saddle
River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 0131547283.
Kumpulainen, Risto A. (17 October 2016). "Guide for geological nomenclature in Sweden" (ht
tps://doi.org/10.1080%2F11035897.2016.1178666) . GFF. 139 (1): 3–20.
doi:10.1080/11035897.2016.1178666 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F11035897.2016.1178666) .
North American Commission on Stratigraphic Nomenclature (November 2005). "North
American Stratigraphic Code" (https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Geolex/resources/docs/AAPG_Bull-8
9_NACSN-Code.pdf) (PDF). AAPG Bulletin. 89 (11): 1547–1591. doi:10.1306/07050504129 (http
s://doi.org/10.1306%2F07050504129) . Retrieved 8 August 2020.
Steno, Nicolas (1916) [1669]. Nicolas Steno's Dissertation Concerning a Solid Body Enclosed
by Process of Nature within a Solid: An English Version with an Introduction and
Explanatory Notes (https://archive.org/details/cu31924012131458) . Translated by
Winter, John. New York, The Macmillan company; London, Macmillan and company, limited.
External links
Agenames (http://www.agenames.org)
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