ACA F
WBIMCNRLRCI

C. Lctcr Ablchcid Ecsclcn

Mclce rcidhc
Mclce rcidhc ebebiu
ebebiunfnf hbautu
hbautunci
nci nfmup
nfmup sbncrf
sbncrf-nc
-ncrf
rf ycid
ycid sbechfi
sbechfi ebifid
ebifidhct
hct sblcrc
sblcrcss
mbidci hbeckuci fleu pbidbtcnuci mci tbhiolodf eombri eciusfc tfmch chci lbpcs mcrf juidsf
iorecl
iorecl systbe
systbe eus`ul
eus`ulosh
oshblb
blbtcl
tcl.. Pclcn
Pclcn sctuiyc
sctuiyc tul
tulcid
cid ycid
ycid ebrupc
ebrupchci
hci clct
clct dbr
dbrch
ch utcec
utcec pcmc
pcmc
eciusfc, iceui mcrf hblcfici ctcupui hbtfmchsfplfici mcrf eciusfc ftu sbimfrf (pctcn tulcid) jrchtur 
cmclcn nflcidiyc hoitfiuftcs kcrfidci tulcid, tulcid rcwci sbimf, tulcid rcwci bpfjfsfs acfh ycid
 abrsfjct totcl ecupui pcrtfcl . jrchtur afcsciyc tbrkcmf pcmc `rurfs, hcrbic `rurfs scidct hurcid mf
lfimuidf olbn kcrfidci luich, sbnfiddc eumcn sbhclf ebidclcef hbruschci (Qcskcm, 366>).
Abracdcf pbiblftfci mf Bropc, Cebrfhc Pbrfhct, mci Custrclfc ebiuikuhhci acnwc rbsfho tbrkcmfiyc
 pctcn tulcid tfmch nciyc mftbituhci olbn mbisftcs ecssc tulcid eblcfihci kudc olbn jchtor-jchtor lcfi
ycid abrhcftci mbidci hbrcpunci
hbrcpunci jfsfh (jrcflty)
(jrcflty) mci ebifidhcth
ebifidhcthciiyc
ciiyc rbsfho uituh kctun. (Pumoyo;
(Pumoyo;

1737)
Hbec
Hbectfc
tfci
i mc
mci
i hb
hbsc
schf
hftc
tci
i yc
ycid
id tb
tbrk
rkcm
cmff ch
chfa
fact
ct pc
pctc
tcn
n tulc
tulcid
id ueue
ueueiy
iycc mfsba
mfsbaca
cahc
hci
i olbn
olbn
hoeplfhcsf chfact pctcn tulcid mci feoaflfscsf ycid mftfeaulhciiyc. Ababrcpc mfcitcrc hoeplfhcsf
tbrsbaut cmclcn tfeauliyc mfhuaftus chfact tfrcn acrfid abrhbpcikcidci, pbrmcrcnci, troeaosfs vbic
mclce mci beaolf pcru8 fijbhsf pibueoifc ctcu fijbhsf sclurci hbefn chfact tfrcn acrfid lcec8
dcidduci iutrfsf mci sbacdcfiyc. (Pumoyo; 1737)
Tclcupui mclce hcsus ycid kcrcid tbrkcmf hbectfci, iceui aflc tfmch mftcidcif sb`crc tbpct
ctcu `bpct mcpct ebifeaulhci hoeplfhcsf ycid chci ebepbrauruh hbcmcci pbimbrftc. Pbnfiddc
 pbrcwct pbrlu ebepbrnctfhci lcidhcn-lcidhcn ycid ncrus mfpbrnctfhci mclce ebicidcif pcsfbi
mbidci hcsus hbdcwct mcrurctci jrchtur.

A. ]ukuci
Echclcn fif mfsusui mbidci tukuci ;
Reue ; Ecncsfswc ecepu ebibrcphci hoisbp csunci hbpbrcwctci hbdcwct mcrurctci pcmc pcsfbi
mbidci jrchtur 
Hnusus;
3. Ecncsfswc ecepu ebikblcshci hoisbp jrchtur 
 1. Ecncsfswc ecepu ebikblcshci hoisbp ebtomolodf csunci hbpbrcwctci hbdcwct mcrurctci pcmc
 pcsfbi jrchtur

3
 

ACA FF
HOIPBW ]BOQF

C. Cictoef Jfsfolodf ]ulcid

]ulcid ebeabituh rcidhc pbiuikcid mci pblfimuid acdf tuaun mci tbepct uituh eblbhctiyc
otot-otot ycid ebiddbrchhci hbrcidhc tuaun. Qucid mf tbidcn tulcid-tulcid tbrtbitu abrfsf kcrfidci
nbectopofbtfh, ycid ebeabituh sbl mcrcn. ]ulcid kudc ebrupchci tbepct prfebr uituh ebyfepci
mci ebidctur hclsfue mci pospct.
Hoepoi
Hoepoibi-
bi-ho
hoepo
epoibi
ibi utcec
utcec mcrf
mcrf kcr
kcrfid
fidci
ci tul
tulcid
cid cmclcn
cmclcn efibrc
efibrcl-e
l-efib
fibrcl
rcl mci kcr
kcrfid
fidci
ci
ordcifh (holcdbi, protbodlfhci). Hclsfue mci pnospct ebeabiuh suctu hrfstcl dcrce (nfmrohsfcpctft),
ycid tbrtfeaui pcmc ectrfhs holcdbi mci protbodlfhci. Ectrfhs ordcifh tulcid mfsbaut kudc sbacdcf
suctu ostbofm. Pbhftcr 47 % mcrf ostbofm cmclcn holcdbi tfpb 3 ycid hchu mci ebeabrfhci hbtbdcrci
tfiddf pcmc tulcid. Ectbrf ordcifh lcfi ycid kudc ebiyusui tulcid abrupc protbodlfhci sbpbrtf csce
nfcluroict.

Ncepfr sbeuc tulcid

tulcid abroiddc
abroiddc mfacdfci
mfacdfci tbidcniyc.
tbidcniyc. Ptruhtur mbefhfci ebechsfeclh
ebechsfeclhci
ci
hbhuctci struhturcl tulcid mbidci acnci ycid rblctfj hb`fl ctcu rfidci. Hbhuctci tceacnci mfpbrolbn
mcrf susuici holcdbi mciefibrcl mclce kcrfidci tulcid. Kcrfidci tulcid mcpct abrabituh ciyceci
ctcu lcebrcl. ]ulcid ycid abrabituh
abrabituh ciyceci tbrlfnct scct pbrtueaunc
pbrtueaunci
i `bpct,
`bpct, sbpbrtf
sbpbrtf sbwcht
sbwchtu
u
 pbrhbeacidci kcifi ctcu sbsumcn tbrkcmfiyc pctcn tulcid, sblcikutiyc hbcmcci fif
f if chci mfdcitf olbn
tulcid ycid lbafn mbwcsc ycid abrabituh lcebrcl. Wcmc orcid mbwcsc tulcid ciyceci mftbeuhci
 pcmc fisbrsf lfdcebitue
l fdcebitue ctcu tbimoi. ]ueor scrhoec ostbodbifh tbrmfrf mcrf tulcid ciyceci . tulcid
lcebrcl tbrmcpct sblurun tuaun orcid mbwcsc.tulcid lcebrcl tbrsusui mcrf lbepbidci-lbepbidci ycid
scidct pcmct, mci auhci ebrupchci suctu ecssc hrfstcl. Wolc susuici sbec`ce fif eblbidhcpf tulcid
mbidci hbhuctci ycid abscr.
]ulcid cmclcn suctu kcrfidci mficefs
mficefs ycid tbrsusui mcrf 0 kbifs sbl; ostboalcs,
ostboalcs, ostbosfm mci
ostbohlcs. Ostboalcs ebeacidui tulcid mbidci ebeabituh holcdbi tfpb 3 mci protbodlfhci sbacdcf
ectrfhs tulcid ctcu kcrfidci ostbofm eblcluf suctu prosbs ycid mfsbaut osfjfhcsf. Hbtfhc sbmcid chtfj 
ebidnc
ebidncsflh
sflhci
ci kcr
kcrfid
fidci
ci ostbof
ostbofm,
m, ostboa
ostboalcs
lcs ebisbh
ebisbhrbs
rbsfhc
fhci
i sbkuel
sbkuelcn
cn abs
abscr
cr josjct
josjctcsb
csb clhclf
clhclf,, yci
ycid
d
ebebdcid pbrcici pbitfid mclce ebidbimcphci hclsfue mci josjct hb mclce ectrfhs tulcid.
Ostbosft cmclcn sbl-sbl tulcid mbwcsc ycid abrtfimch sbacdcf suctu lfitcsci uituh pbrtuhcrci
hfefcwf eblcluf tulcid ycid pcmct.
Ostbohlcs cmclcn sbl-sbl abscr abrfitf aciych ycid ebeuidhfihci efibrcl mci ectrfhs tulcid
mcpct mfcasorasf.
Zftcefi M ebepbidcrunf mbposfsf mci casorasf tulcid. Zftcefi M mclce kuelcn abscr mcpct
ebiybacahci casorasf tulcid sbpbrtf ycid tbrlfnct pcmc hcmcr noreoi pcrctfrofm ycid tfiddf. Aflc

1
 

tfmch cmc vftcefi M noreoi pcrctfrofm tfmch chci ebiybacahci casorasf tulcid. Zftcefi M mclce
 kuelcn ycid sbmfhft ebeacitu hclsfjfhcsf tulcid, citcrc lcfi mbidci ebifidhctlci casorasf hclsfue
mci josjct olbn usus nclus.
(Wrf`b mci Tflsoi; 3662)

A. Wbidbrtfci
Jrchtur cmclcn tbrputusiyc hoitfiuftcs tulcid mci mftbituhci sbsucf kbifs mci lucsiyc ycid
ueueiyc mfsbacahci olbn rumc pchsc (Aruiibr&Pummcrtn; 1771). Jrchtur cmclcn pbefscnci ctcu
 pctcniyc tulcid (Mobidbs, 3666).
3666).
Jrchtur cmclcn tbrputusiyc hbutunci tulcid, ueueiyc chfact trcuec (]ceacyoid; 1777).
Jrchtur cmclcn pctcn tulcid ycid afcsciyc mfsbacahci olbn trcuec ctcu tbicdc jfsfh ( Wrf`b, 3662)
Pbnfiddc mcpct mfsfepulhci acnwc jrchtur cmclcn tbrputusiyc hoitfiuftcs tulcid ycid mfsbacahci
trcuec ctcu tbicdc jfsfh mci ebifeaulhci iybrf sbrtc dcidduci juidsf.

@. Btfolodf

Btfolodf mcrf jrchtur ebiurut Wrf`b mci Tflsoi (3662) cmc 0 ycftu;
3. @fmbrc ctcu abiturci
1. Jrchtur pctolodfh 
Jrchtur pctolodfh tbrkcmf pcmc mcbrcn-mcbrcn tulcid ycid tblcn ebikcmf lbecn olbn hcrbic tueor,
hcihbr mci ostboporosfs.
0. Jrchtur abaci
Jrchturr abaci ctcu jrchtur
Jrchtu jrchtur hblblcnci
hblblcnci tbrcmf pcmc orcid-orcid
orcid-orcid ycid acru sckc ebiceacn tfidhct
chtfjftcs ebrbhc, sbpbrtf acru mftbrfec mclce cidhctci abrsbikctc ctcu orcid-orcid ycid acru eulcf
lctfnci lcrf.

M. Ecifjbstcsf Hlfifs
Cmcpui tcimc mci dbkclc mcrf jrchtur, sbacdcf abrfhut ;
3. Iybrf
 Iybrf tbrus ebibrus mci abrtceacn abrctiyc scepcf jrcdebi tulcid mffeoaflfscsf. Ppcseb otot ycid
ebiybrtcf
ebiybrtcf jrchtur
jrchtur ebrupchci
ebrupchci afmcf clcefcn
clcefcn ycid mfrci`cid
mfrci`cid uituh ebefifeclhci
ebefifeclhci dbrchci
dbrchci citcr 
jrcdebi tulcid.
1. Nflcidiyc juidsf mci mbjoreftcs
Pbtblcn
Pbtblcn tbrkcmf
tbrkcmf jrchtur,
jrchtur, acdfci-acd
acdfci-acdfci
fci tch mcpct mfduichci
mfduichci mci `bimbruid abrdbrch
abrdbrch sb`crc tfmch 
clcefcn. @rurfs tch mcpct abrjuidsf mbidci acfh hcrbic juidsf iorecl otot abrrdcituid pcmc fitbdrftcs
tulcid tbepct eblbidhbtiyc otot.
0. Wbebimbhci bhstrbeftcs

0
 

]brkcmfiyc pbebimbhci tulcid ycid sbabicriyc hcrbic hoistrchsf otot ycid eblbidhbt mf ctcs mci
 acwcn tbepct jrchtur.
=. Hrbpftus
Pcct acdfci tfafc mci jfaulc mfpbrfhsc, tbrcac cmciyc mbrfh tulcid mficechci hrbpftus ycid tbrcac
chfact dbsbhci citcrc jrcdebi sctu mbidci lcfiyc.
2. Wbeabidhchci lohcl mci Wbruacnci wcric
]brkcmf sbacdcf chfact trcuec mci pbrmcrcnci ycid ebidfhutf jrchtur. ]cimc fif acru tbrkcmf sbtblcn
 ababrcpc kce ctcu ncrf sbtblcn `fmbrc.

B. Hlcsfjfhcsf Jrchtur
3. Ebiurut cmc tfmchiyc nuauidci citcrc pctcnci tulcid mbidci muifc lucr mf acdf ebikcmf 1 citcrc
lcfi;
c) Jrchtur tbrtutup (`losbm)
Mfhctchci tbrtutup aflc tfmch tbrmcpct nuauidci citcrc jrcdebi tulcid mbidci muifc lucr,
mfsbautt mbidci
mfsbau mbidci jrchtur
jrchtur abrsfn (hcrbic
(hcrbic hulft ecsfn utun) tcipc hoeplfhcsf.
hoeplfhcsf. Wcmc jrchtur tbrtutup cmc
hlcsfjfhcsf tbrsbimfrf ycid abrmcscrhci hbcmcci kcrfidci luich sbhftcr trcuec, ycftu;
f. ]fidhct 7 ; jrchtur afcsc mbidci sbmfhft ctcu tcipc `bmbrc kcrfidci luich sbhftcriyc.
ff. ]fidhct 3 ; jrchtur mbidci carcsf mcidhcl ctcu ebecr hulft mci kcrfidci suahutci.
ff
fff.
f. ]fid
]fidhc
hctt 1 ; jrch
jrchtu
turr ycid
ycid lb
lbaf
afn
n ab
abrc
rctt mb
mbid
idci
ci ho
hoit
itus
usfo
fo kcrfi
kcrfidc
dci
i luic
luich
h ac
acdf
dfci
ci mc
mclce
lce mc
mci
i
 pbeabidhchci.
fv. ]fidhct 0 ; @bmbrc abrct mbidci hbruschci kcrfidci luich ycid iyctc mci ci`ceci sfimroec
hoepcrtbebit.
 a) Jrchtur tbrauhc (opbibm)
(opbibm)
Mfhctchci tbrauhc aflc tulcid ycid pctcn ebibeaus otot mci hulft ycid ebeuidhfihci /
 potbisfcl uituh tbrkcmf fijbhsf mfecic hueci mcrf lucr
l ucr mcpct ecsuh hb mclce luhc scepcf hb tulcid

ycid pctcn. Mbrckct pctcn tulcid tbrauhc ;

f. Mbrckct F Lcsbrcsf < 1 `e, jrchtur sbmbrncic, mfslohcsf jrcdebi efifecl.
ff. Mbrckct FF Lcsbrcsf 9 1 `e, hoitusfo otot mci sbhftcriyc, mfslohcsf jrcdebi kblcs.
fff. Mbrckct FFF Luhc lbacr, rusch nbact, ctcu nflcid kcrfidci sbhftcr.
1. Ebiurut mbrckct hbruschci tulcid mfacdf ebikcmf 1 ycftu;
c) Wctcn tulcid lbidhcp (@oeplbtb jrchtur)
Mfhctchci lbidhcp aflc pctcnci tulcid tbrpfscn sctu mbidci ycid lcfiyc, ctcu dcrfs jrchtur eblfacthci
sblurun potoidci ebiyflcid mcrf tulcid mci jrcdebi tulcid afcsciyc abruach tbepct.
 a) Wctcn tulcid tfmch lbidhcp ( Fi`oeplbtb
Fi`oeplbtb jrchtur )
Aflc citcrc octcnci tulcid ecsfn cmc nuauidci sbacdfci. Pclcn sctu sfsf pctcn ycid lcfiyc afcsciyc

nciyc abidhoh ycid sbrfid mfsbaut drbbi stf`h. Ebiurut Wrf`b mci Tflsoi ( 177:) hbhuctci mci sumut
mcrf tbicdc jfsfh,hbcmcci tulcid, mci kcrfidci luich mf sbhftcr tulcid chci ebibituhci cpchcn jrchtur 

=
 

ycid tbrkcmf ftu lbidhcp ctcu tfmch lbidhcp. Jrchtur lbidhcp tbrkcmf cpcaflc sblurun tulcid pctcn,
sbmcidhci pcmc jrchtur tfmch lbidhcp tfmch eblfacthci sblurun hbtbaclci tulcid.
0. Ebiurut abituh dcrfs pctcn mci nuauidciiyc mbidci ebhcifseb trcuec cmc 2 ycftu;
c) Jrchtur ]rcisvbrscl ; jrchtur ycid crcniyc eclfitcid pcmc tulcid mci ebrupchci chfact trcuec
cidulcsf ctcu lcidsuid.
 a) Jrchtur Oalfh ; jrchtur ycid crcn dcrfs pctcniyc ebeabituh sumut tbrncmcp sueau tulcid mci
ebrupchci chfact mcrf trcuec cidulcsf kudc.
`) Jrchtur Ppfrcl ; jrchtur ycid crcn dcrfs pctcniyc sbpfrcl ycid mf sbacahci olbn trcuec rotcsf.
m) Jrchtur Hoeprbsf ; jrchtur ycid tbrkcmf hcrbic trcuec chsfcl jlbhsf ycid ebimoroid tulcid hbc rcn
 pbreuhcci lcfi.
b) Jrchtur Cjulsf ; jrchtur ycid mf chfacthci hcrbic trcuec tcrfhci ctcu trchsf otot pcmc fisbrsfiyc
 pcmc tulcid.
=. Ebiurut kuelcn dcrfs pctcnci cmc 0 citcrc lcfi;
c) Jrchtur Hoeuiftfj ; jrchtur mfecic dcrfs pctcn lbafn mcrf sctu mci sclfid abrnuauidci.
 a) Jrchtur Pbdebitcl; jrchtur mfecic
mfecic dcrfs pctcn lbafn mcrf sctu tcpf tfmch abrnu
abrnuauidci.
auidci.
`) Jrchtur Eultfplb ; jrchtur mfeci dcrfs pctcn lbafn mcrf sctu tcpf tfmch pcmc tulcid ycid scec.
(Eciskobr; 1777)

J. Wctojfsfolodf
Jrchturr mfacdf
Jrchtu mfacdf ebikcmf
ebikcmf jrchtur
jrchtur tbrauhc
tbrauhc mci jrchtur
jrchtur tbrtutup.
tbrtutup. ]brtutup aflc tfmch tbrmcpct
nuauidci citcrc jrcdebi tulcid mbidci muifc lucr. Pbmcidhci jrchtur tbrauhc aflc tbrmcpct nuauidci
citcrc
citcrc jrcdeb
jrcdebi
i tul
tulcid
cid mbidci
mbidci muifc
muifc lucr
lucr olbn
olbn hcrbic
hcrbic pbrluh
pbrluhcci
cci mf hulft.
hulft. Pbw
Pbwcht
chtu
u tul
tulcid
cid pct
pctcn
cn
 pbrmcrcnci afcsciyc tbrkcmf mf sbhftcr tbepct pctcn hb mclce kcrfidci luich sbhftcr tulcid tbrsbaut,
 kcrfidci luich kudc
k udc afcsciyc ebidclcef hbruschci. Qbchsf pbrmcrcnci afcsciyc tfeaul nbact sbtblcn
jrchtur.
jrchtur. Pbl- sbl mcrcn putfn mci sbl cicst abrchueulc
abrchueulcsf
sf ebiybacah
ebiybacahci
ci pbifidhctci
pbifidhctci clfrci mcrcn

hbtbepct tbrsbaut chtfvftcs ostboalcst tbrcidscid mci tbrabituh tulcid acru uectur ycid mfsbaut
`cllus. Abhuci jfarfi mfrbcasorasfmci sbl- sbl tulcid acru ebidclcef rbeomblfid uituh ebeabituh 
tulcid
tulcid sbkctf. Fisujfsfbisf
Fisujfsfbisf pbeaulun mcrcn ctcu pbibhcic
pbibhcici
i sbrcaut
sbrcaut sycrcj
sycrcj ycid abrhcftc
abrhcftci
i mbidci
mbidci
 pbeabidhchci ycid tfmch mf tcidcif mcpct ebiuruihci csupci mcrcn hb bhstrfeftcs mci
ebidchfacthci hbruschci sycrcj pbrfjbr. Aflc tfmch tbrhoitrol pbeabidhchci chci ebidchfacthci
 pbifidhctci tbhcici kcrfidci, ohlusf mcrcn totcl mci abrchfact ciorbhsfc ebidchfacthci ruschiyc
sbrcaut sycrcj ecupui kcrfidci otot. Hoeplfhcsf fif mf icechci sfimroe `oepcrtebit (Aruiibr mci
Pummcrtn, 1771).
]rcuec pcmc tulcid mcpct ebiybacahci hbtbractcsci dbrch mci hbtfmch sbfeacidci, jrchtur 
tbrkcmf mcpct abrupc jrchtur tbrauhc mci jrchtur tbrtutup. Jrchtur tbrtutup tfmch mfsbrtcf hbruschci

 kcrfidci luich sbpbrtf

s bpbrtf tbimoi, otot, lfdcebit mci pbeaulun mcrcn ( Pebltzbr mci Acrb, 1773). Wcsfbi
Wcs fbi
ycid ncrus feoaflfscsf sbtblcn pctcn tulcid chci ebimbrftc hoeplfhcsf citcrc lcfi ; iybrf, frftcsf hulft

2
 

hcrbic pbibhcici, nflcidiyc hbhuctci otot. Hurcid pbrcwctci mfrf mcpct tbrkcmf aflc sbacdfci tuaun
mf feoaflfscsf, ebidchfacthci abrhurcidiyci hbecepuci prcwctci mfrf.
Qbmuhsf tbrauhc mci jfhscsf fitbric (OQFJ) jrcdebi- jrcdebi tulcid mf pbrtcncihci mbidci
 pbi, sbhrup, plct, pchu. Iceui pbeabmcnci ebifidhcthci hbeuidhfici tbrkcmfiyc fijbhsf.
Wbeabmcnci ftu sbimfrf ebrupchci trcuec pcmc kcrfidci luich mci struhtur ycid sbluruniyc tfmch 
ebidclcef `bmbrc euidhfi chci tbrpotoid ctcu ebidclcef hbruschci sblcec tfimchci opbrcsf (Wrf`b
mci Tflsoi; 3662).

D. Hoeplfhcsf
Hoeplfhcsf jrchtur ebiurut Pebltzbr mci Acrb (1773) citcrc lcfi;
3. Hoeplf
Hoeplfhcs
hcsff cwcl
cwcl jrchtu
jrchturr citcrc
citcrc lcfi;
lcfi; syoh,
syoh, sfimroe
sfimroe beaolf
beaolf lbech,
lbech, sfimro
sfimroe
e hoepcr
hoepcrtbe
tbebit
bit,,
hbruschci crtbrf, fijbhsf, cvcshulbr ibhrosfs.
c) Pyoh 
Pyoh nfpovolbef
nfpovolbefh
h ctcu trcuectf`, chfact pbrmcrcnci
pbrmcrcnci (aciych hbnflcidci
hbnflcidci mcrcn bhstbricl
bhstbricl
ecupui ycid tfmch hblfnctci ycid afcsc ebiybacahci pbiuruici ohsfdbicsf) mci hbnflcidci `cfrci
bhstrc sbl hb kcrfidci ycid rusch, mcpct tbrkcmf pcmc jrchtur bhstrfeftcs, tnorchs, pblvfs mci vbrtbarc.
 a) Pfimroe beaolf lbech 
Wcmc scct tbrkcmf jrchtur dloaulc lbech mcpct ecsuh hbmclce pbeaulun mcrcn hcrbic tbhcici
suesue tulcid lbafn tfiddf mcrf tbhcici hcpflbr ctcu hcrbic hctbholcefi ycid mf lbpcshci olbn rbchsf
strbss pcsfbi chci ebeoaflfscsf csce lbech mci ebeumcnhci tbrkcmfiyc dloaulc lbech pcmc clfrci
mcrcn.
`) Pfimroec Hoepcrtbebit
Pfimroe hoepcrtbebi mftcimcf olbn hbruschci ctcu mbstruhsf scrcj mci pbeaulun mcrcn ycid
mfsbacahci olbn pbeabidhchci mci bmbec mf mcbrcn jrchtur. Mbidci pbeabidhchci fitbrstfsfcl ycid
fitbis, tbhcici pcmc pbeaulun mcrcn ycid ebiyuplcf mcbrcn tbrsbaut mcpct ebiybacahci pbeaulun

mcrcn tbrsbaut holcps. Ncl fif ebifeaulhci nfpohsfc kcrfidci mci mcpct ebiybacahci hbectfci
sycrcj ycid ebepbrsycrcjf mcbrcn tbrsbaut. Afcsciyc tfeaul iybrf nbact. Fimfvfmu euidhfi tfmch 
mcpct
mcpct ebiddb
ebiddbrch
rchhci
hci kcr
kcrff tcidci
tcidci ctcu
ctcu hchfiy
hchfiyc.
c. Pfimroe
Pfimroe hoepcr
hoepcrtbe
tbebi
bi afcsci
afcsciyc
yc tbr
tbrkcm
kcmff pcmc
pcmc
bhstrbeftcs
bhstrbeftcs ycid ebeflfhf
ebeflfhf rbstrfhsf
rbstrfhsf volueb
volueb ycid hbtct, sbpbrtf
sbpbrtf lbidc
lbidci.rbs
i.rbsfho
fho tbrkcmfiyc
tbrkcmfiyc sfiroeb
sfiroeb
hoepcrtbebi pclfid abscr cpcaflc tbrkcmf trcuec otot mbidci pctcn tulcid hcrbic pbeabidhchci
ycid tbrkcmf chci nbact. Wbecscidci dfps pcmc bhstrbeftcs ycid jrchtur ycid tbrlclu mfif ctcu tbrlclu
hbtct mcpct ebiybacah
ebiybacahci
ci pbifidhctc
pbifidhctci
i mf hoepcrtbe
hoepcrtbebi
bi bhstrbeftcs,
bhstrbeftcs, mci nflcidiyc
nflcidiyc juidsf
juidsf sb`crc
 pbrecibi ctcu nflcidiyc bhstrbeftcs mcpct
mcpct tbrkcmf. (@orwfi; 1776)
m) Hbruschci Crtbrf
Wb`cniy
Wb`cniycc crt
crtbrf
brf hcrbic
hcrbic trc
trcuec
uec afcsciy
afcsciycc mft
mftcim
cimcf
cf mbidci
mbidci tfm
tfmch
ch cmc icmf,
icmf, @Q] ebiuru
ebiurui,
i,

syciosfs
syciosfs acdfci
acdfci mfstcl
mfstcl,, nbecto
nbectoec
ec ycid
ycid lbacr,
lbacr, mci mfidfi
mfidfi pcmc
pcmc bhstrf
bhstrfeft
eftcs
cs yci
ycidd mfsaca
mfsacahci
hci olbn
olbn
tfimchci bebrdbisf splfitfid, pbruacnci posfsf pcmc ycid schft, tfimchci rbmuhsf, mci pbeabmcnci.

:
 

b) Fijbhsf
Pfstbe pbrtcncici tuaun rusch aflc cmc trcuec pcmc kcrfidci. Wcmc trcuec ortnopbmf` fijbhsf
mfeulcf pcmc hulft (supbrjf`fcl) mci ecsuh hb mclce. Fif afcsciyc tbrkcmf pcmc hcsus jrchtur tbrauhc,
tcpf afsc kudc hcrbic pbidduicci acnci lcfi mclce pbeabmcnci sbpbrtf pfi mci plct.
j) Cvcshulbr ibhrosfs
Cvcshulbr ibhrosfs (CZI) tbrkcmf hcrbic clfrci mcrcn hb tulcid rusch ctcu tbrdciddu ycid
 afcs ebiybacahci ibhrosfs tulcid mci mf cwclf mbidci cmciyc Zolheci‖s Fs`nbefc (Pebltzbr mci
Acrb, 1773).
1. Hoeplfhcsf mclce wchtu lcec ctcu lcikut jrchtur citcrc lcfi; ecl uifoi, mblcybm uifoi, mci ioi
uifoi.
c) Ecluifoi
Ecluifoi mclce suctu hbcmcci mfecic tulcid ycid pctcn tblcn sbeaun mclce posfsf ycid
tfmch sbncrusiyc,
sbncrusiyc, ebeabituh sumut, ctcu efrfid.
efrfid. @oiyon ycid hncs cmclcn pctcn tulcid pcnc ycid
mfrcwct mbidci trchsf, mci hbeumfci mfabrf dfps uituh feoaflfscsf mfecic hbeuidhfici dbrchci
rotcsf mcrf jrcdebi-jrcdebi tulcid ycid pctcn hurcid mfpbrnctfhci. Chfactiyc sbsumcn dfas mfauid
tbriyctc ciddotc tuaun acdfci mfstcl ebeutcr hb mclce ctcu hb lucr, mci pbimbrftc tfmch mcpct
ebepbrtcncihci tuauniyc uituh abrcmc mclce posfsf ibtrcl. Hoeplfhcsf sbpbrtf fif mcpct mf`bdcn
mbidci eblchuhci ciclfsfs ycid `brect sbwchtu
s bwchtu eblchuhci rbmuhsf, mci ebepbrtcncihci rbmuhsf ftu
sbacfh euidhfi tbrutcec pcmc ecsc cwcl pbrfomb pbiybeaunci.
Dfas ycid ebikcmf loiddcr ncrus mfdcitf sbpbrluiyc. Jrcdebi-jrcdebi tulcid ycid pctcn mi abrdbsbr 
sbsumcn mfrbmuhsf ncrus mfhbtcnuf sbmfif euidhfi mbidci eblchuhci pbebrfhscci rcmfodrcjf sbrfcl.
Hbcmcci
Hbcmcci fif ncrus mfpulfnhci
mfpulfnhci hbeaclf mbidci rbmuhsf abrulcid mci feoaflfscsf,
feoaflfscsf, ctcu euidh
euidhfi
fi kudc
mbidci tfimchci opbrcsf.
 a) Mblcybm Rifoi
Mblcybm uifoi cmclcn prosbs pbiybeaunci ycid tbrus abrkclci mbidci hb`bpctci ycid lbafn

lceact mcrf hbcmcci

lceact hbcmcci iorecl.
iorecl. Mblcybm
Mblcybm uifoi
uifoi ebrupchci
ebrupchci hbdcdclci jrchtur abrho
abrhoisolfm
isolfmcsf
csf sbsucf
mbidci wchtu ycid mfautunhci tulcid uituh ebiyceauid. Fif mfsbacahci hcrbic pbiuruici suplcf
mcrcn hb tulcid.
`) Ioiuifoi
 Ioiuifoi ebrupchci hbdcdclci jrchtur abrhoisolfmcsf mci ebepromuhsf sceauidci ycid
lbidhcp, huct, mci stcafl sbtblcn :-6 aulci. Ioiuifoi mf tcimcf mbidci cmciyc pbrdbrchci ycid
 abrlbafn pcmc sfsf jrchtur ycid ebeabituh sbimf pclsu ctcu psbucrmocrtnrosfs. Aciych hbcmcci ycid
ebrupchci
ebrupchci jchtor prbmfsposfs
prbmfsposfsff mcrf ioiuifoi,
ioiuifoi, mfcitcrciy
mfcitcrciycc cmclcn rbmuhsf ycid tfmch abicr chci
ebiybacahci acdfci-acdfci tulcid ycid pctcn tbtcp tfmch ebiyctu, feoaflfscsf ycid hurcid tbpct
 acfh mbidci `crc tbrauhc ecupui tbrtutup, cmciyc fitbrposfsf kcrfidci luich (afcsciyc otot) mfcitcrc

hbmuc jrcdebi tulcid ycid pctcn, `bmbrc kcrfidci luich ycid scidct abrct, fijbhsf, polc spbsfjfh 

4
 

 pbrbmcrci mcrcn mfecic tulcid ycid pctcn tbrsbaut mcpct ebrusch suplcf mcrcn hb sctu ctcu lbafn
jrcdebi tulcid.

N. Wbiybeaunci Jrchtur
Kfhc sctu tul
tulcid
cid sumcn
sumcn pctcn,
pctcn, echc
echc kcr
kcrfid
fidci
ci luich
luich mf sbhftc
sbhftcriy
riycc kudc
kudc rusch
rusch,, pbrfos
pbrfostbu
tbue
e
tbrpfscn mcrf tulcid, mci tbrkcmf pbrmcrcnci ycid `uhup abrct. Abhuci mcrcn tbrabituh pcmc mcbrcn
tbrsbaut,
tbrsbaut, abhuci
abhuci chci ebeabituh kcrfidci drciulcsf,
drciulcsf, mfecic
mfecic sbl-sbl
sbl-sbl pbeab
pbeabituh
ituh tulcid
tulcid prfeftfj 
prfeftfj 
(ostbodbifh) abrmfjbrbisfcsf ebikcmf hoimroalcs mci ostboalcs. Hoimroalcs mci ostboalcs. Hoimroalcs
chci ebisbhrbsf josjct ycid ebrcidscid mbposfsf hclsfue. ]brabituh lcpfsci tbacl (hclus) mf sbhftcr 
lohcsf jrchtur. Lcpfsci fif tbrus ebibacl mci eblucs, abrtbeu mbidci lcpfsci hclus mcrf jrcdebi
sctuiyc
sctuiyc mci ebiyct
ebiyctu.
u. Jusf
Jusf mcrf
mcrf hbmuc
hbmuc jrcdeb
jrcdebi
i (pbiyb
(pbiybeau
eaunci
nci jrchtu
jrchtur)
r) tbr
tbrus
us abrlci
abrlcikut
kut mbidci
mbidci
tbrabituhiyc trcabhulc olbn ostboalcs, ycid eblbhct pcmc tulcid mci eblucs ebiybarcidf lohcsf
jrchtur.
jrchtur. Wbrsctuci
Wbrsctuci (uifoi)
(uifoi) tulcid
tulcid provfsfoic
provfsfoicll fif chci ebikclcif trcisjorecsf
trcisjorecsf ebtcpl
ebtcplcstfh
cstfh uituh 
ebikcmf lbafn huct mci lbafn tbrordcifscsf. Hclus tulcid chci ebidclcef rb-ebmollfid mf ecic
ostboalcs chci ebeabituh tulcid acru sbebitcrc ostbohlcs chci ebiyfidhfrhci acdfci ycid rusch 

sbnfiddc chnfriyc chci tbrabituh tulcid ycid ebiybrupcf hbcmcci tulcid cslfiyc. (Wrf`b;
(W rf`b; 3662)
Wbiybeaunci tulcid.

F. Wbictclchscicci
Wbictclchscicci
3. Wbictclchscicci hbmcrurctci
Jrchtur afcsciyc ebiybrtcf trcuec. Rituh ftu scidct pbitfid uituh eblchuhci pbebrfhscci
tbrncmcp kclci icpcs (cfrwcy), prosbs pbricjcsci (arbctnfid) mci sfrhulcsf (`fr`ulctfoi), cpchcn tbrkcmf
syoh
syoh ctcu
ctcu tfm
tfmch.
ch. Aflc sumcn
sumcn mfiyct
mfiyctchc
chci
i tfm
tfmch
ch cmc ecsclc
ecsclcn
n lcd
lcdf,
f, acr
acru
u lch
lchuh
uhci
ci cic
ciceib
eibsfs
sfs mci
 pbebrfhscci jfsfs sb`crc tbrpbrfi`f. Tchtu tbkcmfiyc hb`blchcci pbitfid mftciychci uituh ebidbtcnuf
ebidbtcnuf
 abrcpc lcec scepcf mf QP, ebidfidct dolmbi pbrfom
pbrfom 3-: kce. Aflc lbafn mcrf : kce, hoeplfhcsf fijbhsf

sbechf
sbechfi
i abscr.
abscr. Lchuh
Lchuhci
ci ciceib
ciceibsfs
sfs mci pbebrf
pbebrfhscc
hscci
i jfsfs
jfsfs sb`
sb`crc
crc `bp
`bpct,
ct, sfi
sfidhc
dhctt mci lbidhc
lbidhcp.
p.
Hbeumfci lchuhci joto rcmfolodfs. Wbecscidci afmcf mflchuhci uituh ebidurcidf rcsc schft mci
ebi`bdcn tbrkcmfiyc hbruschci ycid lbafn abrct pcmc kcrfidci luich sblcfi ebeumcnhci prosbs
 pbeauctci joto.
Pbdbrc sbtblcn `bmbrc, pcsfbi abrcmc mclce hbcmcci afiduid, tfmch ebiycmcrf cmciyc jrchtur 
mci abruscnc abrkclci mbidci tuidhcf ycid pctcn, echc aflc mf`urfdcf cmciyc jrchtur, pbitfid uituh 
ebidfeoafl
ebidfeoaflfscsf
fscsf acdcfi
acdcfi tuaun sbdcrc sbablue
sbablue pcsfbi mfpfimcnhci.
mfpfimcnhci. Aflc pcsfbi ycid ebidclcef
ebidclcef
`bmbrc ncrus mfpfimcnhci mcrf hbimcrcci sbablue mcpct mflchuhci pbeafmcfci, bhstrbeftcs ncrus
mfsciddc mfctcs mci mfacwcn tbepct pctcn uituh ebi`bdcn dbrchci rotcsf ecupui cidulcsf. Dbrchci
jrcdebi pctcnci tulcid mcpct ebiybacahci iybrf, hbruschci kcrfidci luich mci pbrmcrcnci lbafn
lcikut.

>
 

 Iybrf sbnuauidci mbidci jrchtur scidct abrct mci mcpct mfhurcidf mbidci ebidnfimcrf
dbrchci jrcdebi tulcid mci sbimf sbhftcr jrchtur. Wbeafmcfci ycid ebecmcf scidct pbitfid uituh 
ebi`bdcn hbruschci kcrfidci luich olbn jrcdebi tulcid.
Mcbrcn ycid `bmbrc
`bmbrc mffeoaflfscsf
mffeoaflfscsf mbidci ebecscid afmcf sbebitcrc
sbebitcrc mbidci acitclci
acitclci ycid
ebecmcf, ycid hbeumfci mfabact mbidci hbi`cid. Feoaflfscsf tulcid pcikcid bhstrbeftcs acwcn
mcpct
mcpct kudc
kudc mfl
mflchu
chuhci
hci mbidci
mbidci ebeaba
ebeabact
ct hbmuc
hbmuc tuidhc
tuidhcff abr
abrsce
scec,
c, mbi
mbidci
dci bhtrbe
bhtrbeftc
ftcss yci
ycid
d sbnct
sbnct
 abrtfimch sbacdcf afmcf acdf bhstrbeftcs ycid `bmbrc. Wcmc `bmbrc bhtrbeftcs ctcs, lbidci mcpct
mfabacthci hb mcmc, ctcu lbidci acwcn ycid `bmbrc mfdcituid pcmc slfid. Wbrbmcrci mf mfstcl `bmbrc
ncrus mfhckf uituh ebiituhci hb`uhupci pbrjusf kcrfidci pbrfjbr.
Wcmcc jrch
Wcm jrchtu
turr tb
tbra
rauh
uhc,
c, luhc
luhc mf
mftu
tutup
tup mb
mbid
idci
ci pb
pbea
eacl
clut
ut ab
abrs
rsfn
fn (stb
(stbrf
rfl)
l) ui
uitu
tuh
h ebi`
ebi`bd
bdcn
cn
hoitceficsf kcrfidci ycid lbafn mclce. Kcidci sbhclf-hclf
s bhclf-hclf eblchuhci rbmuhsf jrchtur, acnhci aflc cmc
jrcdebi tulcid ycid hblucr eblcluf luhc. Wcscidlcn afmcf sbsucf ycid mftbrcidhci mfctcs.
Wcmc acdfci dcwct mcrurct, pcsfbi mfbvclucsf mbidci lbidhcp. Wchcfci mflbpcshci mbidci lbeaut,
 pbrtcec pcmc acdfci tuaun sbnct mci hbeumfci mcrf sfsf `bmbrc. Wchcfci pcsfbi euidhfi ncrus
mfpotoid pcmc sfsf `bmbrc. Bhtrbeftcs sbafsc euidhfi kcidci scepcf mfdbrchhci uituh ebi`bdcn
hbruschci lbafn lcikut.
1. Wbictclchscicci abmcn ortopbmf
Aciych
Aciych pcsfbi ycid ebidclcef
ebidclcef mfsjuidsf
mfsjuidsf eushuloshbl
eushuloshblbtcl
btcl ncrus ebikclcif pbeabmcnci
pbeabmcnci
uituh ebidorbhsf ecsclcniyc. Ecsclcn ycid mcpct mfhorbhsf eblfputf stcaflfscsf jrchtur, mbjoreftcs,
 pbiychft sbimf, kcrfidci fijbhsf ctcu ibhrosfs, dcidduci pbrbmcrci mcrcn (efs8 sfimroe
hoepcrtbeci), cmciyc tueor. Wrpsbmur pbeabmcnci ycid sbrfid mflchuhci eblfputf Qbmuhsf ]brauhc
mbidci Jfhscsf Fitbric ctcu mfsfidhct OQFJ (Opbi Qbmu`tfoi cim Jfxctfoi). Abrfhut mfacwcn fif
 kbifs-kbifs pbeabmcnci ortopbm mci fimfhcsfiyc ycid lczfe mflchuhci ;
• Qbmuhsf
Qbmuhsf tbrauhc ; eblchuhci
eblchuhci rbmuhsf mci ebeauct
ebeauct hbsbkckcrci
hbsbkckcrci tulcid ycid pctcn sbtblcn tbrlbafn
mcnulu mflchuhci mfsbhsf mci pbeckcici tulcid ycid pctcn

• Jfhscsf fitbric ; stcaflfscsf tulcid pctcn ycid tblcn mfrbmuhsf mbidci shrup, plct, pchu mci pfi lodce
• Drcjt tulcid ; pbiddcitfci kcrfidci tulcid (drcjt cutolod ecupui nbtbrolod) uituh ebepbracfhf
 pbiybeaunci, uituh ebistcaflfscsf
ebistcaflfscsf ctcu ebiddcitf tulcid ycid abrpbiych
abrpbiychft.
ft.
• Ceputcsf ; pbidnflcidci acdfci tuaun
• Crtroplcstf ; ebepbracfhf ecsclcn sbimf mbidci crtroshop (suctu clct ycid ebeuidhfihci cnlf
 abmcn ebidopbrcsf mclceiyc sbimf tcipc frfsci ycid abscr) ctcu eblcluf pbeabm
pbeabmcnci
cnci sbimf tbrauhc
• Ebifsbhtoef ; bhsfsf jfarohcrtflcdo sbimf ycid tblcn rusch 
• Wbiddcitfci sbimf ; pbiddcitfci pbreuhcci sbimf mbidci acnci lodce ctcu sfitbtfs
• Wbiddcitfci sbimf totcl ; pbiddcitfci hbmuc pbreuhcci crtfhulbr mclce sbimf mbidci lodce ctcu
sfitbtfs

• ]rcisjbr tbimo ; pbefimcnci fisbrsf tbimo uituh ebepbracfhf juidsf

6
 

• Jcsfotoef ; pbeotoidci jcsfc otot uituh ebidnflcidhci hoistrfhsf otot ctcu ebidurcidf hoitrchtur 
jcsfc.
(Qcecmnci; 177>)

0. ]brcpf Ebmfs
Wbidoactci mci ]brcpf Ebmfs
c. Wbeabrfci citf oact citffijlcecsf sbpbrtf fauprojbi ctcu prbmifsoib
 a. Oact-oactci icrhosb euidhfi
euidhfi mfpbrluhci sbtblcn jcsb chut
`. Oact-oact rblchsci uituh ebidctcsf spcseb otot
m. Abmrbst, Jfsfotbrcpf
(Qcecmnci; 177>)

=. Wrfisfp = Q pcmc Jrchtur 

Ebiurutt Wrf`b (3662) hoisbp mcscr ycid ncrus mfpbrtfeaci
Ebiuru mfpbrtfeacidhci
dhci pcmc wchtu ebicidcif
ebicidcif
jrchtur ycftu ; rbhodifsf, rbmuhsf, rbtbisf, mci rbncaflftcsf.
3. Qbhodifsf (Wbidbiclci )
Qfwcyc
Qfwcyctt hb`blc
hb`blchcc
hcci,
i, mbrckc
mbrckctt hbpcrc
hbpcrcnci
nci,, ncrus
ncrus kbl
kblcs
cs uituh
uituh ebibit
ebibituhc
uhci
i mfcdio
mfcdiosc
sc mci tfi
tfimch
mchci
ci
sblcikutiyc. @oiton, pcmc tbepct jrchtur tuidhcf chci tbrcsc iybrf sbhclf mci abidhch. Hblcfici
 abituh ycid iyctc mcpct ebibituhci mfshoitfiuftcs fitbdrftcs rcidhc. jrchtur tuidhcf chci tbrcsc
iybrf sbhclf mci abidhch.
1. Qbmuhsf (ecifpulcsf/ rbposfsf)
Qbmuhsf cmclcn uscnc mci tfimchci uituh ebecifpulcsf jrcdebi jrcdebi tulcid ycid pctcn sbmcpct
euidhfi hbeaclf lcdf sbpbrtf lbtch cscliyc. Rpcyc uituh ebecifpulcsf jrcdebi tulcid sbnfiddc
hbeaclf sbpbrtf sbeulc sb`crc optfecl. Qbmuhsf jrchtur mcpct mflchuhci mbidci rbmuhsf tbrtutup,
trchsf,, ctcu rbmuhsf
trchsf rbmuhsf tbrauhc.
tbrauhc. Qbmuhsf
Qbmuhsf jrchtur
jrchtur mflchuhci
mflchuhci sbsbdbrc
sbsbdbrc euidhfi
euidhfi uituh ebi`bdcn kcrfidci

luich hbnflcidci
hbnflcidci blcstfsftcsiy
blcstfsftcsiycc chfact
chfact fijfltrcsf
fijfltrcsf hcrbic
hcrbic bmbec mci pbrmcrcnci
pbrmcrcnci.. Wcmc hbaciychc
hbaciychci
i
hcsus, rbmuhsf
hcsus, rbmuhsf jrchtur
jrchtur ebikcmf
ebikcmf sbechfi
sbechfi sulft aflc `bmbrc
`bmbrc sumcn eulcf ebidclcef
ebidclcef pbiybeaunci
pbiybeaunci
(Eciskobr, 1771).
0. Qbtbisf (Feeoaflfscsf)
Rpcyc
Rpcyc ycid
ycid mfl
mflchu
chuhci
hci uituh
uituh ebicnc
ebicnci
i jrcdeb
jrcdebi
i tul
tulcid
cid sbnfid
sbnfiddc
dc hbeacl
hbeaclff sbp
sbpbrt
brtff sbeulc
sbeulc sb`crc
sb`crc
optfecl. Pbtblcn jrchtur mfrbmuhsf, jrcdebi tulcid ncrus mffeoaflfscsf, ctcu mf pbrtcncihci mclce
 posfsf hbsbkckcrci ycid abicr scepcf tbrkcmf pbiyctuci. Feoaflfscsf mcpct mflchuhci mbidci jfhscsf
bhstbric ctcu fitbric. Ebtomb jfhscsf bhstbric eblfputf pbeaclutci, dfps, afmcf, trchsf hoitfiu, pfi,
mci tbhifh dfps, ctcu jfhsctor bhstbric. Feplci lodce mcpct mf duichci uituh jfhscsf fitrbric ycid
 arpbrci sbacdcf afmcf fitbric uituh ebidfeoaflfscsf jrchtur. Jfhscsf bhstbric cmclcn clct ycid

mflbtchhci mflucr hulft uituh ebistcaflfscsfhci jrcdebi tulcid mbidci ebecsuhhci muc ctcu tfdc pfi
ebtcl pbrhutcibus ebibeaus tulcid pcmc acdfci prohsfecl mci mfstcl mcrf tbepct jrchtur mci pfi

37
 

tbrsbaut
tbrsbaut mfnuauidh
mfnuauidhci
ci sctu scec lcfi mbidci ebidduichci
ebidduichci bhstbr
bhstbricl
icl acrs. ]bhifh fif tbrutcec
tbrutcec ctcu
hbaciychci mfduichci uituh jrchtur pcmc tulcid tfafc, tbtcpf kudc mcpct mflchuhci pcmc tulcid jbeur,
nuebrus mci pblvfs (Eciskobr, 1777).
=. Qbncaflftcsf
Ebidbeaclfhci chtfjftcs juidsfoicl sbechsfecl euidhfi uituh ebidnfimcrf ctropf ctcu hoitrchtur.
Aflc hbcmcci eebuidhfihci, ncrus sbdbrc mfeulcf eblchuhci lctfnci-lctfnci uituh ebepbrtcncihci
hbhuctci ciddotc tuaun mci eoaflfscsf (Eciskobr, 1777).

Wctcn ]ulcid Cich 

Wcmc cich sbrfid mftbeuhci pctcn tulcid mcnci nfkcu. Qbposfsf ueueiyc tfmch suhcr mci
 afcsciyc `bpct sbeaun sbrtc `bpct huct. Kcrcid mfautunhci rbposfsf ctcu feoaflfscsf mbidci jfhscsf
 abmcn. Rituh rbposfsf mcpct mfduichci trchsf hulft mci kcrcid mftbeuhci hbhchuci sbimf. Wcmc
 pbicidcici ncrus mfpbrnctfhci acnwc jrcdebi ncrus sbcrcn sueau, tbtcpf mfslohcsf cm lctftumfibe
tfmch pbitfid sbnfiddc rbposfsf ukuid hb ukuid tfmch mfncrushci. Wbiybeaunci mci pbeudcrci chci
ebepbracfhf mfslohcsf fif tcipc ebifiddclhci abhcs. Chci tbtcpf, rotcsf, ycftu mfslohcsf cm pbrfpbrce
ncrus mfnfimcrf. Cidulcsf ctcu mfslohcsf cm chsfe mcpct mfafcrhci aflc jrchtur tbrkcmf mf mbhct bpfjfsfs
 pcmc cich eumc. Mfslohcsf mbidci hoitrchsf pctcn tulcid mfcjfsfs ebiduituidhci hcrbic chci tbrkcmf
swcpudcr hcrbic nfpbrbefc sbnfiddc ciddotc ycid abrscidhutci tueaun lbafn `bpct mcrfpcmc ciddotc
dbrch sfsf lcfi. Wbrtcutci sfsf hbic sfsf abrlcidsuid `bpct mci pbeudcrci chci tbrkcmf lbafn `bpct.
Jrchtur tbrauhc acfh hcrbic `bmbrc mcrf lucr ecupui hcrbic tbeausiyc ukuid pctcn tulcid mcrf mclce,
tbrci`ce acncyc fijbhsf mci ostboeflftfs. Pbpbrtf afcsciyc pbicidcici tbrmfrf ctcs pbeaflcsci luhc,
 pbidblucrci abimc csfid, jrcdebi tulcid ycid tbrlbpcs, mci ibhrosfs. Luhc hbeumfci mfrcwct sb`crc
tbrauhc mbidci ciddotc ycid abrscidhutci mflbtchhci tfiddf. Hoitusfo hulft mfpbrnctfhci abtul hcrbic
ebidchfacthci ibhrosfs. Aflc ukuid pctcnci tulcid tbrlbtch abrkcunci chfact hbnflcidci pb`cnci
tulcid, hbmuc ukuid fif ncrus mfpbrtbeuhci cdcr tbtcp abrsbitunci. Vcid pclfid sbrfid mftbeuhci

 pcmc cich fclcn pctcn tulcid hlcvfhulc,

hlcvfhulc, nuebrus, suprchoimflbr, mci ci
citbarchfus.
tbarchfus.
(Pkcesunfmckct; 177=)

K. Wbebrfhscci Wbiuikcid
c. Wbebrfhscci roidbit; Ebibituhci lohcsf ctcu lucsiyc jrchtur ctcu trcuec .
 a. P`ci tulcid, toeodrce, s`ci @]/EQF; Ebepbrlfncthci jrchtur; kudc mcpct mfduichci uituh 
ebidfmbitfjfhcsf hbruschci kcrfidci luich.
`. Nftuid Mcrcn Lbidhcp;
Lbidhcp; Nt euidhfi
euidhfi ebifidhct
ebifidhct (nbeohoisbitrc
(nbeohoisbitrcsf)
sf) ctcu ebiurui (pbrmcrcnci
(pbrmcrcnci
 abrechic pcmc sfsf jrchtur ctcu ordci kcun pcmc trcuec eultfpbl). Wbifidhctci kuelcn PMW cmclcn
rbspoi strbss iorecl sbtblcn trcuec.

m. Crtbrfodrce; mflchuhci aflc hbruschci vcshulbr mf`urfdcf.

b. Hrbctfifi; ]rcuec otot ebifidhcthci abaci hrbctfifi uituh hlfrbis dfikcl.

33
 

j. Wrojfl Hocdulcsf ; Wbruacnci mcpct tbrkcmf pcmc hbnflcidci mcrcn, trcijusf eultfpbl, ctcu `bmbrc
nctf.
 (Moidobs; 3666)

31
 

ACA FZ
WBIR]RW

C. Pfepulci

Jrchtu
Jrchturr cmclcn
cmclcn tbr
tbrput
putusi
usiyc
yc hoitfiu
hoitfiuftc
ftcss tul
tulcid
cid ycid
ycid mfsbaca
mfsbacahci
hci trc
trcuec
uec ctc
ctcu
u tbicdc
tbicdc jfsfh
jfsfh mci
ebifeaulhci iybrf sbrtc dcidduci juidsf. Jrchtur mfsbacahci olbn `fmbrc, jrchtur pctolodf, mci
jrchtur abaci. Pb`crc ueue jrchtur mfabmchci ebikcmf 1 ycftu tbrauhc mci tbrtutup. Ecifjbstcsf
hlfifs mcrf jrchtur ftu sbimfrf ycftu iybrf, nflcidiyc juidsf mci mbjoreftcs, pbebimbhci bhstrbeftcs,
hrbpftus, Wbeabidhchci lohcl mci Wbruacnci wcric.
Wbictclchsci
Wbictclchscicci
cci jrchtur
jrchtur tbrmfrf
tbrmfrf mcrf =Q ycftu rbhodifsf,
rbhodifsf, rbmuhsf,
rbmuhsf, rbtbisf,
rbtbisf, mci rbncaflftc
rbncaflftcsf.
sf. Pbebitcrc
Pbebitcrc
mfcdiosc hbpbrcwctci ycid euidhfi eui`ul pcmc pcsfbi jrchtur cmclcn;
3. Iy
Iybr
brff abrn
abrnua
uaui
uidc
dci
i mbid
mbidci
ci spcs
spcseb
eb ot
otot
ot mci
mci hbru
hbrusc
schc
hci
i sb
sbhu
huim
imbr
br tbrn
tbrncm
cmcp
cp jrch
jrchtu
tur.
r.
1. Dcid
Dciddu
duci
ci eoaf
eoaflf
lftc
tcss jf
jfsf
sfh
h abrn
abrnua
uaui
uidc
dci
i mbid
mbidci
ci hbru
hbrusc
schc
hci
i rc
rcid
idhc
hc ibur
iburoe
oeus
ushu
hulb
lbr.
r.

0. Mbjfsf
Mbjfsftt pbrcwc
pbrcwctci
tci mfr
mfrff abrnua
abrnuauid
uidci
ci mbidci
mbidci hbtbra
hbtbractc
ctcsci
sci dbrch
dbrch sbhuimb
sbhuimbrr tbr
tbrncm
ncmcp
cp jrchtu
jrchtur.
r.
=. Qbsfho tfiddf hbruschci fitbdrftcs kcrfidci abrnuauidci mbidci jrchtur.
2. Qbsfh
fho
o tfi
fid
ddf fi
fijjbhsf abrnuauidci mbidci hbruschci hulft, trcuec kcrfidci.

A. Pcrci

Tclcupui mclce hcsus jrchtur kcrcid tbrkcmf hbectfci, iceui aflc tfmch mftcidcif sb`crc tbpct ctcu
`bpct mcpct ebifeaulhci hoeplfhcsf ycid chci ebepbrauruh hbcmcci pbimbrftc. Pbnfiddc pbrcwct
 pbrlu ebepbrnctfhci lcidhcn-lcidhcn ycid ncrus mfpbrnctfhci mclce ebicidcif pcsfbi mbidci
hcsus hbdcwct mcrurctci jrchtur. Wcsfbi ncrus ebimcpcthci pbrtoloidci sbsbdbrc euidhfi. Rituh ftu
mfautunhci pbrcwct ycid tciddcp mclce ebicidcif pcsfbi dcwct mcrurct, tbrutcec mclce ncl fif
cmclcn pcsfbi mbidci hbdcwct mcrurctci sfstbe eushuloshblbtcl, jrchtur.

30
 

MCJ]CQ WRP]CHC

Aruiibr & Pummcrtn. 1771. Auhu Ckcr Hbpbrcwctci ebmfhcl Abmcn. Bmfsf > Zol 0. Kchcrtc; BD@
@orwfi, Blfzcabtn K. 1776. Auhu Pchu Wctojfsfolodf Bm, 0. Kchcrtc; BD@
Bmftor, Cru T Pumoyo mhh. 1737. Auhu Ckcr Fleu Wbiychft Mclce Kflfm F bmfsf Z. Kchcrtc; Fitbric
Wualfsnfid
Moid
Moido
obs
bs,, Ecr
Ecrfl
fly
yii B. 366
666
6. Qbi
bi``ci
cicc Csu
Csunc
nci
i Hbpb
Hbpbrc
rcw
wctci
ctci Bm
Bmfs
fsff 0. Kc
Kch
hcrtc
crtc;; BD
BD@
@
Bmftor, Q. Pkcesunfmckct. 177=. Auhu Ckcr Fleu Abmcn, Bm.1. Kchcrtc; BD@
Ecisko
kobbr, Crfj. 1777. Hcpft
ftcc Pbl
Pblbhtc Hbmohtbr
tbrci. Kchcrtc; Ebmfc Cbs`ulcp
lcpfus
fus
Wbrry, Wottbr. 1772. Auhu Ckcr Juimcebitcl Hbpbrcwctci. Hoisbp, Wrosbs mci Wrchtfh Bmfsf = Zol.3.
Kchcrtc; BD@
Wrf`b, Pflvfc Cimbrsoi mci Lorrcfib E Tflsoi. 3662. Wctojfsfolodf. Hoisbp Hlfifs Wrosbs-Wrosbs
 pbiychft Bmfsf Zol. 1. Kchcrtc; BD@

Wrf`b C P, Tflsoi. 177:. Wctojfsfolod

Wctojfsfolodf.
f. Hoisbp Hlfifs Wrosbs-Wrosbs
Wrosbs-Wrosbs pbiychft Bmfsf Zol. 1. Kchcr
Kchcrtc;
tc;
BD@
Qcecmnci. 177>. Hoisbp Jrchtur (Wctcn ]ulcid.
nttp;//jora
nttp;//jorabttbrn
bttbrnbcltn
bcltn.worm
.wormprbss.
prbss.`oe/17
`oe/177>/31
7>/31/11/h
/11/hoisbp
oisbp-jrch
-jrchtur-p
tur-pctcn-
ctcn-tulcid
tulcid// mfchs
mfchsbs
bs tciddcl
tciddcl 07
ecrbt 1730
Qcsk
Qcskcm
cm,, @n
@ncf
cfru
rumf
mfi.
i. 366>
366>.. Fl
Fleu
eu Abmc
Abmcn
n Or
Ortn
tnop
opbm
bmf.
f. Rk
Rkui
uid
d Wcim
Wcimci
cid
d ; Afitc
fitcid
id Lc
Lceu
eupc
pctb
tb..
Pebl
Pebltz
tzbr
br Puzc
Puzcii
iib,
b, @ . 17
1773
73.. Auhu
Auhu Ck
Ckcr
cr Ebmf
Ebmfhc
hcll Ab
Abmc
mcn,
n, Ar
Arui
uiib
ibrr & Pumm
Pummcr
crt.
t. Kc
Kchc
hcrt
rtc;
c; BD
BD@
@
]ceacyoid, Kci. 1777 . Wctojfsfolodf. Kchcrtc; BD@
Tflhfisoi E K. 1774. Auhu Pchu Mfcdiosfs Hbpbrcwctci mbidci Fitbrvbisf IF@ mci Htrftbrfc Ncsfl
 IO@. Kchcrtc; BD@

3=