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    Chapter 3

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    Ritchel Conde Bohol

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    Problem Solving Most occupations require good problem-solving skills. For instance, architects and engineers must solve many compli 1 buile s that are aesthetically pleasing, functional, and that meet cated problems as they design and construct mod i stringent safety requirements. Two goals of this chapter are to help you become a better problem solver and to demonstrate that problem solving can be an enjoyable experience One problem that many haye enjoyed is the Monty Hall (host of the game show Let's Make a Deal) problem, which is stated as follows, The grand prize in Let's Make a Deal is behind one of three doors. Less desirable prizes Inductive and Deductive Reasoning (for instance, a goat and a box of candy) are behind the other two doors. You select one of the doors, say door 1, Monty Hall reveals one of the less desirable prizes behind one of the other doors. You are th the opportunity either Problem Solving to stay with your original choice or to choose the remaining closed door with Patterns Problem-Solving Strategies wor 1, Monty Hall reveals a goat behind mn slay with door 1 or switch to door 2 Example: You choose door 3. You Marilyn vos Savant, author of the “Ask Marilyn” column featured in Parade Magazine, analyzed this problem! claiming that you double your chances of winning the grand prize by switching to the other closed door. Many readers, . responded with arguments that contradicted including some mathematiciat | i Marilyn's analysis. i What do you think? Do you have a better chance of winning the grand prize | : _by switching to the other closed door or staying with your original choice? i Of course there is also the possibility that it does not matter, ifthe chances Marilyn vos Savant _ of winning are the same with either strategy. Discuss the Monty Hall problem with some of your friends and classmates, _ Iseveryone in agreement? Additional information on this problem is given in 55 BRS cuarren a | roviem song ‘section, 3.1, Inductive and Deductive Reasoning ————_ Inductive Reasoning The type of reasoning that forms Iles is called incictive reasoning a conjectinrs, singe iH may oF MAY He the examination of specitic exaq, ed hy using iHUUTIVE FeASOHing conclusion based ot The conclusion Orn ot be corrert I Inductive Reasoning a Inductive reasoning is the process of reaching & general conclusion by examining specific examples sand predict the next murber in the list according g ‘When you examine a list of number s ductive reasoning. ‘Some pattern you have observed, you are using i EXT aMIME Use inductive Reasoning to Predict a Number . 7 = Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of the following lists, BAGH INIT BAT, 10,15,7 Solution | ‘a, Bach successive number is 3 larger than the preceding number, Thus we predict ‘that the next number in the list is 3 langer than 1S, which is 18, 1 The first ovo numbers differ by 2, The seconel and the third numbers differ by 3 Teappears that the difference between any two numbers is always 1 more than the preceding difference. Since 1Qand 15 differ by 5, we predict that the next number {ithe list will be 6 tanger than 15, which is 21, | | ‘Use inductive reasoning | to lict ber in each of the following lists rod | | & 5,10, 15,20, 25,2 251012247 ' ihe behaves 4 {na list, In Example? procedure, SECTION 3.1 | inductive and Deavctve Reson SETA FIRENOTE WS ated with Sand ftlowed the proce wo proce 20. Starting with 6 3 or original number produces a final result of 24. Starting with 10 produces a final result of InExample 5, we will use a 40. Starting with 100 produces a final result of 400. In each of these cases the resulting deductive method to verify that number is four times the original number. We conjecture that follow pro the procedure in Example 2 cedure produces a number that is four times the original numibe always yields a result that is four times the original number EIS ‘onsider the following procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 9, add 15 to the product, divide the sum by 3. and suberact 5, Complete the above procedure for several different numbers. Use inductive reason. ing to make a conjecture about the relationship between the size of the resulting number and the size of the original number. > HISTORICAL ea Scientists often use inductive reasoning. For instance, Galileo Galilei (1564— e 1642) used inductive reasoning to discover that the time required for a pendulum to com- Galileo Galilei | plete one swing, called the period of the pendulum, depends on the length of the pendu- (gal-1ae) lum, Galileo did not have a dock, sohe measured the periods of pendulums in “heartbeats” Seer nee ny |The following table shows some results obtained for pendulums of various lengths. For versity of Pisa to sucicdcne the sake of convenience, a length of 10 inches has been designated as | unit. at the age of 17, but he soon reai- ized that he was more interested in the study of astronomy and the physical sciences. Galileo's study of pendulums assisted in the develop- ‘ment of pendulum clocks a > ss ‘The period of a pendulum is the time i takes for the pendulum to swing from left {to right and back to its original position. ASTUTE Use inductive Reasoning to Solve an Application ‘Use the data in the above table and inductive reasoning to answer each of the following | ‘questions. a. Ifa pendulum has a length of 49 units, what is its period? | ‘by If the length of a pendulum is quadrupled, what happens to its period? | | 3 Inthe table, each pendulum has a period that isthe square mot of its length Thus pendulum with a length of 49 units will have a period of length of 4 units has a period that is twice that (of I unit. A pendulum with a length of 16 units has | with a length of 4 units. It appears that doubles its period. | ‘A tsunami is a sea wave produced by an under- as itapproaches land depends on the velocity Jeft and inductive reasoning to answer cach of the MERE carrer 3 | movie sohing sy eincotect AS a Tain, ng may be i giments hav int cenit iene SHEN HAE een day ‘other dots on the cl he circles shown below. Por e ct each dot on the cincle with all the TAKE NOTE ‘To produce the maximum number of regions, the dots on a circle inuist be placed so that no three Aine segments that connect the dots intersect ata single point. “The maximum numbers of reghons formed by connecting dots on a circle For each circle, count the number of regions formed by the Tine segments that con rect the dots on the circle Your results should agree with the results in the followin, table. Number of dots “Maximum number ‘There appears to be a pattern, Bach additional dot seems to double the number of regions. Guess the maximum number of regions you expect for a circle with six dos. ‘Check your guess by counting the maximam number of regions formed by the lines ‘ments that connect six dots on a Jarge circle, Your drawing will show that for six dots, he ‘maximum number of regions is 31 (See the figure at the left), not 32 as you may have guessed. With seven dots the maximum number of regions is 57. This is a good example ‘The line segments connecting six to keep in mind. Just because a pattern holds true for a few cases, it does not mean the dots on a circle yield a maximum of Pattern will continue, When you use i rt Solution A sfatement may have many counterexamples, but we need only find one counter ‘example to verify thatthe statement is fase, & Let x = 0. Then [0] = 0, Because 0 is not greater than O, we have found a counter- example. Thus “for all numbers x, [s| > 0" is a false statement b. Forx = 1 wehave 1? = 1, Since 1 is not greater than 1, we have found a counter- example. Thus “for all numbers x, x° > x" isa false statement ¢ Consider x = —3, Then V(—3) = V0 = 3. Since 3 is not equal to ~3, we have found a counterexample. Thus “for all numbers x, Vx? = x” is false statement, CRT RMAY Verify that each of the following statements isa false statement by finding a counterexample for each. For all numbers x: ad we eg VEE Iaat4 Deductive Reasoning Another type of reasoning is called deductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning is distin- guished from inductive reasoning in that itis the process of reaching a conclusion by applying general principles and procedures. Deductive Reasoning ‘Deductive reasoning is the process of reaching a conclusion by applying general t ‘assumptions, procedures, or principles. Use Deductive Reasoning to Establish a Conjecture Use deductive reasoning to show thatthe following procedure produces @ number that is four times the original number, Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 3. SECTION. 3.1 | Inductive and Deductve Reasoning ON cuartens | Probiem solving how that ming t0 show that the fg Us deductive reas He ee mes the rina mmber vr Mi iply by 6, add 10 to the eM the number BY 5, Hine: Let sepresent pe ln, ‘procedure produces 1! Procedure: Pick «nus divide the sum by 2, and subtract the original number, ive Reasoning in Mathematics aie | jou that some of your math classes made extensive USe of deus, | You maybe here cra: a sve problems Te FHOWINE GLE by | mathematician Paul R. Halmos (1916-2006) advocates that you not limit yourself jg only using deductive reasoning to prove theorems. | Mathematics is nota deductive science—that’s a cliché. When you try t0 prow. a theorem, you don't just list the hypotheses, and then start to reason What you dois | trial and error, experimentation, guesswork.” + Want 10 be a Mathematician: An Automathography (1985) Inductive Reasoning vs. Deductive Reasoning {In Example 6 we analyze arguments to determine whether they use induetive or ded tive reasoning. EEENIIERGE Determine Types of Reasoning Determine whether each ofthe following arguments is an ex paper ample of inductive easo- a. During the past 10 years, a tree has produced ph plums every other year. Last year te tee id not rodoce plums this year re wl produce. ia a ’, All home improvements cost more than the estimate. : . The contractor estimated that my home improvement will cost i ay ns ‘$35,000. Thus my home improvement will cost | Solution ‘a. This argument reaches a conclusion of intone passe eAOR eae eee hemo SECTION 3.1 | inductive and deductive Reasoning TIN SEXIER solve a Logic Puzzle . Each of four neighbors, Sean, Maria, Sarah, and Brian, has a different occupation (edi- tor, banker, chef, or dentist), From the following clues, determine the occupation of each neighbor. 1. Maria gets home from work after the banker but before the dentist. 2. Sarah, who is the ast to get home from work, is not the editor. | 3. The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same time. , 4. ‘The banker lives next door to Brian, Solution , From clue 1, Maria is not the banker or the dentist. In the following chart, write XI (which stands for “ruled out by clue 1") in the Banker and the Dentist columns of Maria’s row. From clue 2, Sarah is not the editor. Write X2 (ruled out by clue 2) in the Editor column of Sarah’s row. We know from clue 1 that the banker is not the last to get home, and we know from clue 2 that Sarah is the last to get home; therefore, Sarah is not the banker. Write X2 in the Banker column of Sarah's row. From clue 3, Sarah isnot the dentist. Write X3 for this condition, There are now Xs for three of the four occupations in Sarah’s row; therefore, Sarah must be the chet. Place ‘a / in that box. Since Sarah is the chet, none of the other three people can be the chet. te X3 for these con “There are now Xs for three of the four occupations in ’ dior Insert a V to indicate that Maria isthe owe SMAPTER 3 | Probiem Sohing # in that box. Thus Sean cannot be the d Xs in the Dentist column, Brian must be te XA in that box. Since there are 5 ve ad in that box jentist. Writ he dentist. Pac Brin | XS J | Sean isthe banker, Maria isthe editor, Sarah isthe chef, and Brian is the dents, ATTRA TATES RMN Brianna, Ryan, Tyler, and Ashley were recently elected as the new class officers (president, vice president secreary, VASUED) of the sophomore class at Summit College. From the following clues, determine which pos. tion each holds. | 1. Ashley is younger than the president but older than the treasurer. 2. Brianna and the secretary are both the same age, and they are the youngest members of the group. 3. Tyler and the secretary are next-door neighbors EXCURSION KenKen® Puzzles: An Introduction KenKen® isan arithmetic-based loge puzzle that was invented by the Japanese mathemat- is teacher Tetsuya Miyamoto in 2004, The noun “ken” has “knowledge” and “awareness” as synonyms. Hence, KenKen translates as knowledge squared, or awareness squared In recent years the popularity of KenKen has increased ata dramatic rate. More than a million KenKen puzzle books have been sold, and KenKen puzzles now appear in ‘many popular newspapers, including the New York Times and the Boston Globe. KenKen puzzles ate similar to Sudoku puzzles, bt they also require you to perform arithmetic to solve the puzzle, Rules for Solving a KenKen Puzzle Fora 3by 3 puzl film cach box Gaur) othe grid with oe ofthe mune or 3, ra Fora by 4 puzzle fill in each square of the grid with one of the numbers 1,2, 3.0" ‘ Fetntpnpn tinct rll 2 ot SECTION 3.1 | Inductive and Deductive Reasoning Here is a4 by 4 puzzle and its solution. Properly constructed puzzles have a unique solution column 1 column? column’ ccm im tI row 1 row 2+ row 3-+| row 4+ $4 squares et qe Ady 4 purzie with cages ‘The solution to the puzzle Basic Puzzle Solution Strategies Single-Square Cages Fill cages that consist of a single square with the target number 5 for that square. Cages with Two Squares Next examine the cages with exactly two squares. Many ‘cages that cover two squares will only have two digits that can be used to fil the cage. For instance, in a 5 by 5 puzzle, a 20x cage with exactly two squares can only be filled with 4 and 5 or Sand 4. Large or Small Target Numbers Search for cages that have an unusually large or small target number. These cages generally have only a few combinations of numbers that can bbe used to fll the cage. Examples: In a6 by 6 puzzle, a-120X cage with exactly three squares can only be filled with 4,5,and 6. 7 A34-cage with exactly two squares can only be filled with 1 and 2, Duplicate Digit in a Cage Consider the 3% cage shown at the let. The digits 1, 1, and 3 produce a product of 3; however, we cannot place the two 1s in the same row or the ‘same column. Thus the only way to fill the squares is to place the 3 in the corner of the ‘L-shaped cage as shown below. Remember: A digit can occur more than once in a cage, provided that it does not appear in the same row or in the same column. n or division, the order of the numbers ‘with two squares could be filled with could be filed with 3 and 1 oF with BEER curren s | ronan soning POINT OF INTEREST "Will Shortz, the well-known ‘New York Times crossword puzzle editor, is reported to be the only person with a college degree in ‘enigmatology, the study of puzzles pate as 0 BH, With 0 repay Make a List of Possible Digits ving examples Corder, that can be used 10 fill the c4B® secan onl be filled With 1 3, ang «in ad by 4 puzzle this ea yo be used Because the tye a | Weeder Note: 22 and ‘a not be placed in te aaa ane filled with 1, 1,2, and syd pusnnscage cone ed i 12 provided that he 3a the combination 2,2 2, and» Eran 13. ec eh wold ea Se row or clu by purl his cag can fl with he following «tna by 5 pure, this ca8 i combination: S41 332 c paced inthe comer 44,2 rowided the 2 placed in the comer $23 onied te 4s placed in the come ‘ } Guess and Check * In most puzzles you will each a point where you will need to exper ment, Assume that the possible digits in a particular cage ae arranged in a particular manne, and then see where your assumption takes you. Ifyou find thatthe remaining part ofa roy = orcolumn cannot be filled in correctly, then you can eliminate your assumption and proceed to check out one of the remaining possible numerical arrangements for that particular cage Itis worth noting that there are generally several different orders that can be used tf) inthe squarescages in a KenKen puzzle, even though each puzzle has a unique solution Many Internet sites provide additional strategies for solving KenKen puzzles and ‘you may benefit from watching some of the video tutorials that are available online. For instance, Will Shortz has produced a video tutorial on KenKen puzzles. It is available on ‘YouTube by searching for “Will Shortz KenKen". EXCURSION EXERCISES ‘Solve each of the following puzzles. Note: The authors of this textbook are not associated with the KenKen brand. Thus the following puzzles are not official KenKen puzzles; however, each puzzle can be solved using the same techniques one would use to solve at official KenKen puzzle, SECTION 3.1 | Inductive and Deductve Reasoning ax] 6. [ae az (Bienes 3.1 1 In Exercises 1 t0 10, use inductive reasoning to predict 14, The sum of two odd counting numbers is always an odd the next number in each list. ‘counting number. 4. 4,8, 12, 16, 20, 24, ? 45. Pick any counting number. Multiply the number by 6 2. 5, Il, 17,23, 29, 35, ? ‘Add 8 to the product. Divide the sum by 2. Subtract + from the quotient. The resulting number is twice the 3. 3,5,9,15,23,33,? original number. eaten 16. Pick any counting number. Multiply the number by 8. 5. 1,4,9, 16, 25, 36, 49, ? ‘Subtract 4 from the product. Divide the difference by 6. 80,70, 61, 53, 46, 40, ? 2. Add 2 to the quotient. The resulting number is four times the original number. 1113 Inclined Plane Experiments Galileo (1564-1642) wanted to determine how the speed of ‘a falling object changes as it falls. He conducted many free- 9. 2,7,-3.2, 8, ~ ’ fall experiments, but he found the motion of a falling object igusiolaso difficult to analyze. Eventually, he came up with the idea gee . that it would be easier to perform experiments with a ball © In Exercises 11 to 16, ae tc et 5 that rolls down a gentle incline, because the speed of the | ‘wtlether each statement is correct. Note: The numbers 1.2.3, hall would be slower than the speed of a falling object. One EE Cero ane Shiai f Cal ee ee ‘of Oor I. If n = 2 has a remainder of 0, then m is an even plane ghee i eres Hn + 2:has 1 then i. the inclined plane shown below and the CHAPTER 3 | Problem sohng Distance d, in centimeters (em), | Rtapsed time , ae in seconds o 0 00 | . 8 6S 2 2 260 3 n 585 ‘ 18 1040 5 200 : - | ‘7, Determine the distance a ball rolls, on inclined plane |, during cach of the following time intervals. Hint: To determine the distance a ball rolls in the interval ¢ 1 to t= 2 seconds, find the distance it rolls in 2 seconds and from this distance subtract the distance it rolls in I second, a. Ist second: 1= 0 tot = 1 second b. 2nd second: = 1 10 1 = 2 seconds . 3nd second: 1 = 2 t0 1 = 3 seconds . 4th second: 1 = 3 10 1 = 4 seconds ©. Sth second: = 4 t0 1 = 5 seconds 18. Determine the distance a ball rolls, on inclined plane 2, during each of the following time intervals, a Ist second: 1 = 0101 = 1t0 to 1 = 3 seconds tor second b, 2nd second: 2 seconds ¢. 3rd second: 1 = 4. 4th second: t seconds €. Sth second: = 4101 seconds 19. For inclined plane 1, the distance a ball rolls in the Ist second is 8 centimeters. Think ofthis distance as 1 unit. That is, for inclined plane 1, | unit = 8 centimeters Determine how far in terms of units a ball will rol, on ‘inclined plane |, in the following time intervals. ‘@. 2nd second: 1 = | to r = 2 seconds b, 3rd second: 1 = 2 10 1 = 3 seconds ¢. 4th second: 1 = 3 to t = 4 seconds 4. Sth second: t = 4 to 1 = 5 seconds 20. For inclined plane 2, the distance a ball rolls inthe Ist - second is 6 eters. Think o ct aoe xl the results obtained jn ve resoning ate renus ained By using dative e800 How E xd 20 we Exercises 19 am fk Interval Distances i" fa ball rolls a distanes inthe Ist a _ the 2nd second t! a Is 5 units. inthe 3d second, the bal ols 5 unit the 4th second, the bal rolls 7 units, inte units, nthe Sth second, te ball rolls 9 ents strates the concept presented Units fe of 1 unit on an inclined plang pall rolls 3 units. ‘The following figure ill inthe absve conjecture J ray ices show the poston of he al after rolling fo THe, Psecond 3 sccends seconds, and 5 second. Galileo conjectured that as a ball rolls down an inclined plane its speed is increasing, because in each successive |-second time interval after the first I-second time interval, itrolls2 units farther than it did inthe preceding time interval of equal duration. This idea that the speed of a bal! rolling down an inclined plane increases uniformly as it rolls downward was contrary to the popular belief, held in ‘the early 1600s, that a ball rotls down an inclined plane ata constant rate, Galileo was also interested in the relationship between the amount of time a ball rolls and the distance it rolls. In Exercises 21 to 24, use inductive reasoning and the data in the inclined plane time-distance table, shown above ‘exercise 17, to predict the answer to each question. * 26. All pentagons have exactly five sides. Figure A is a pen- tagon. Therefore, Figure A has exactly five sides, 27, Every English setter likes to hunt, Duke setter, 0 Duke likes to hunt, 28. Cats don't eat tomatoes. Tigger isa cat, Therefore, Tigger does not eat tomatoes. 29, A number is a neat number if the sum of the cubes of its digits equals the number. Therefore, 153 is a near umber. an English 30. The Atlanta Braves have won five games in a row. ‘Therefore, the Atlanta Braves will win their next game 31. Since Hx (1)U01) = 1111 11 x (2)(101) = 2222 IL x (3)(101) = 3333 IL x (4)(101) = 4444 1 x (5)(101) = 5555 we know that the product of 11 and a multiple of 101 is, anumber in which every digit is the same. 32. The following equations show that n’ — n + I] isa prime number for all counting numbers n = 1, 2,3, 4. QP-1+u=n. nat OF -2+11=13 ng, G-3+u=17 2 @y-4+=23 Note: A prime number is a counting number greater than | that has no counting number factors other than itself and 1. The first 15 prime numbers are 2, 3, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, and 47. © In Exercises 33 to 38, find a number that provides a ‘counterexample to show that the given statement is false. 33, For all numbers x, x > —- 34, For all numbers x, +. > %. 35. For all numbers x, x° = x. 36, For all numbers x, x + 3] = [| + 3. ned SECTION 3.1 [inductive nd Deductne Reasoning (AE = Magic Squares A magic square of order m is an arrangement of numbers in square such thatthe sum of the ‘numbers in each row, column, and diagonal is the same number, The magic square below has order 3, and the sum of the numbers in each row, column, and diagonal is 15. als [ih afslets afafefes +i sips ‘A magic square toner In Exercises 41 and 42, use deductive reasoning to deter- ‘mine the missing numbers in each magic square 41. A magic square of 42. A magic square of order 4 order 5 2[3 1 7 3 10] a 4 8 | 16 ea 13 (Ba af] [a 10 [as| a 2 al 6 8 ‘43. Use deductive reasoning to show that the following pro- cedure always produces a number that is equal to the original number. Procedure: Pick a number, Multiply the number by (6 and add 8. Divide the sum by 2, subtract twice the original number, and subtract 4, ‘44, Use deductive reasoning to show that the following pro- ‘cedure always produces the number 5. Procedure: Pick a number. Add 4 to the number and multiply the sum by 3. Subtract 7 and then decrease this ns AE nc UN MA an Peete a oA ne NE MAE ier Wt ine My Fibonacci discovered that the number of pairs of rabbits for any month after the first two months can be determined by adding the numbers of pairs of rabbits in each of the two previous months. For instance, the number of pairs of rabbits at the start of the sixth month is 3 +5 = 8. A recursive definition for a sequence is one in which each successive term of the sequence is defined by using some of the preceding terms, If we use the mathematical notation F, to represent the nth Fibonacci number, then the numbers in the Fibonacci sequence are given by the following recursive definition, aie CHAPTER 3 | Problem Solving The eighth Fibonacci number Rok +h B48 = definition of Fibonacct numbers to fing mee the ninth Fibonacci number | ee Fibonacci Numbers eel Ve Cropping UP Everywne™" 4 satin mode of te population growth rate of Ftonacs abi posta SPST jen occur i te rabbits; however, the numbers in the that curve both clockwise and ver are arranged in spirals cnet Fn meme eomeccie nS 4 inthe sunflower's development, its seeds are packed so that xy are not 100 crowded apples form 8 spirals that rotate diagonally upward to the Jeft and 13 spirals that rotate diagonally upward to the right. The numbers 8 and 13 are consecutive Fibonacci edge. In many The seeds on this sunflower form 34 clockwise spirals and | 55 counterclockwise spirals. ‘numbers. | The numbers 34 and 55 are ‘Additional information about the occurrence of Fibonacci numbers in nature can consecutive Fibonacci numbers. be found on the Internet ‘We can find any term after the second term ofthe Fibonacci sequence by computing the sum of the previous two terms. However, this procedure of adding the previous two terms can be tedious, For instance, what is the 100th term or the 100th term of the Fibo nacei sequence? To find the 100th term, we need to know the 98th and 99th terms. To find the 1000th term, we need to know the 998th and 999th terms. Many mathematicians tried to find a nonrecursive nth-term formula for the Fibonacei sequence without success, unt 4 formula was discovered by Jacques Binet in 1843, Binet’s formula is given in Exercise 23 of this section, TST Wa isppens it SECTION 3.2 | Problem Solving wit Patterns Solution | An examination of Fibonacci numbers shows that the second Fibonacci number, 1) 48 odd and the fourth Fibonacci number, 3, is odd, but the sixth Fibonacci number, 8, is even, Thus the statern is an odd number” is false. re TAKE NOTE b. Experiment to see whether 2F, for n = 7, we get If m is even, then F F | for several values of n, For instance, pick any Fibonacei number larger than 1. The equation. = Fa merely states that for numbers in the Fibonacci sequence 1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21, 2, at ‘the double of a Fibonacci number, 2 | Fy kess the Fibonacei number two which is true. Evaluating 2F, — F,_» for several additional values of n,n = 3, | toiskeft isthe Fibonacei number we find that in each case 2F, — F, = Fy... Thus, by inductive reasoning, we | Josten the right of F,. cture 2F, — F, = F,,, form = 3 18a true statement, Note: This property of Fibonacci numbers can also be established using deductive reasoning. See Exercise 32 of this section TATTLE Determine whether each of the following state- ‘ments about Fibonacei numbers is true or false. a. 2F, > Frye) forn = 3 b. 2F, + 4= Fy forn =3 EXCURSION Polygonal Numbers ‘The ancient Greek mathematicians were interested in the geometric shapes associated ‘with numbers. For instance, they noticed that triangles can be constructed using 1, 3, 6, 10, or 15 dots, as shown in Figure 3.1 on page 76, They called the numbers 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, «. triangular numbers. The Greeks called the numbers 1, 4, 9, 16, 25,... square eciea mantis 41,5, 12,22, 35, ka CHAPTER 3 | Problem Solving 6 Triangular Numbers % I ie cao 5 ythagoras 9 j (© 580 8.c.-520 A ; 4c) The ancient : Greek phioso- g her and 2 i mathematician a Pythagoras fee =e a (Bi-thag'ar-as) formed a secret : brotherhood that investigated = JEN topics in music, astronomy, philos- ‘Ophy, and mathematics. The | Pythagoreans believed that the nature of the universe was directly related to mathematics and that whole numbers and the ratios Pentagonal Numbers 2 formed by whole numbers could | 1 ss 7 2 be used to describe and represent . all natural events, QO The Pythagoreans were | particularly intrigued by the number 5 and the shape of a pen- ‘tagon. They used the following figure, whch sa fve-ported ar inside @ regular pentagon, asa | secret symbol that could be used | ‘to identify other members of the | brotherhood. | FIGURE 3.1 EXCURSION EXERCISES the sixth square number, and the sixth pentagonal number. 2. The figure below shows thatthe fourth triangular number, 10, added to the fifth tr: angular number, 15, produces the fifth square number, 25. | 1. Extend Figure 3.1 above by constructing drawings ofthe sixth triangular number, pastes 3.2 SECTION 3.2 | Problem Sobing with Patens ae 1s In Exercises 1 to 6, construct a difference table to pre the next term of each sequence to predict 4..1,7,17,31,49, 71, 10, 10, 12, 16, 22, 30, =1, 4,21, 56, 115, 204, 0, 10, 24, 56, 112, 190, 9, 4,3, 12, 37, 84, 5. 17, 15, 25, $3, 105, 187, 1 In Exercises 7 t0 10, use the given nth-term formula to ‘compute the first five terms of the sequence. n(n +1) n 2 8. nei 10. a, = 20 ~ nt In Exercises 11 to 14, determine the nth-term formula for the number of square tiles in the nth figure. 11. 9, 0, = Sn? — 3n a Be cab rnnonballs can be stacked to form a pyramid with a tr angular base. Five of these pyramids are shown below. Use these figures in Exercises 15 and 16. 15. a, Use adifference table to predict the number of can nonballs in the sixth pyramid and in the seventh pyramid. Write a few sentences that describe the eighth pyramid in the sequence. 16. The sequence formed by the numbers of cannonballs in the above pyramids is called the tetrahedral sequence. The nth-term formula for the tetrahedral sequence is Terahedral, = n(n + 1Xn + 2) Find Tetrahedralo 17. Pieces vs. Cuts One cut of a stick of licorice pro- duces two pieces. Two cuts produce three pieces. Three cuts produce four pieces. ‘a, How many pieces are produced by five cuts and by six cuts? b, Predict the nth-term formula for the number of pieces of licorice that are produced by n cuts of a stick of licorice. MEM charters | Problem Solving ‘The Fibonace! Sequence hag 2a. rbonact PrOPETES, papeiment 0 ei which 18. Tioses Vs. Cuts One straight cut across a pizza pro- ny unusual PROP are valid. Note: F, repre. C08 2 pieces. Two cuts can produce a maximum of 4 rape folowing PO he. Pieces, Three cuts can produce a maximum of 7 pieces sents the mh FBO! sents forn = Four cuts can produce a maximum of 11 pieces. b FeFos Fr, isan even umber 4 sr — 2Fea 7 Fo et = ‘ the se 5. and fifth terms of quence a. Me ere 25, and dy = 28y-1 ~ p> for ned by & = 3:42 ia thir, fourth, and fifth terms of the sequence 22. Fir e . ‘a da, = (-1)'a,. +a, a Use a difference table to predict the maximum number defined by a, = 2, = 3:3 of pieces that can be produced with seven cuts. for n = 3. a The following formula is known b. How are the pizza-slicing numbers related to the tri- 3, Binet's Formula eect abe angular numbers, which are defined by ‘as Binet’sformula for the ml eae nea{(4)-(39)] 19. Pieces vs. Cuts One straight cut through a thick “The advantage ofthis formula ver the rectrae Piece of cheese produces two pieces. Two straight cuts formula F, = Fy-1 + Fr-2 is that you can determine ‘can produce a maximum of 4 pieces. Three straight the mth Fibonacel number without finding the wo pre. cats can produce a maximum of 8 pieces. You might be ceding Fibonacci numbers inclined to think that every additional cut doubles the ‘Use Binet’s formula and a calculator to find the previous number of pieces. However, forfour straight ‘heh, 30h, and 40th Fibonacci numbers. Cats, you will ind that you get a maximum of 15 pieces. 24, ginet’s Formula Simplified _Binet's formula (see Aap atte Sores ox the easier nae oe 2A be 35) bau singled if you round your cal Ra Sd a, guest Smialy CALA culator results to the nearest integer. In the following w+ Sut 6 formal, nnt isan abbreviation for “the nearest 145 will show 21,00951949 for the value inside the braces. aes aa eee a. Use the mete formula fo determine he Oeste ee | maximum number of pieces that can be produced 1 by five straight cuts. ‘b. What is the smallest number of straight cuts that you an use if you wish to produce atleast 60 pieces? EXTENSIONS SECTION 3.2 | Protlem Solving with ates 25, AGeometric Model The ancient Greeks often dis covered mathematical relationships by using geometric drawings. Study the accompanying drawing to deter. rine what needs to be put in place of the question mark tomake the equation a true statement, 14345474 +Qn-1)=? 26, The nth-term formula n(n 4, generates 2, 4,6,8, 15 for n= 1, 2,3,4, 5. Make minor changes to the above formula to produce an ‘mb-term formula (with n = 1, 2, 3,4, and 5) that will generate the following finite sequences. a. 2,4,6,8,20 b.2,4,6,8,30 27, Fibonacci Sums Make a conjecture for each of the following sums, where F, represents the nth Fibonacci ‘number. 8 Ft Wyo t Fast b+ Fyay + Faes =? 28, Fibonacci Sums Make a conjecture for each of the following sums, where F,, represents the nth Fibonacci number, BA +RtRt ht tha? DAH Rt Bet numbers above it. For instance, the first 10 in row 5 is the sum of the first 4 and the 6 above it in row 4. 1 row0 ee row1 ean row2 is oA row3 1 4 1 row4 1 \ £ 5 1 rows Pascal’s triangle ‘There are many patterns that can be discovered in Pascal's triangle a, Find the sum of the numbers in each row, except row 0, of the portion of Pascal's triangle shown above. What pattern do you observe concerning these sums? Predict the sum of the numbers in row. ‘of Pascal’s triangle. ‘ n(n +1) >t called triangular numbers, Where do the triangular ‘numbers appear in Pascal's triangle? b, The numbers 1, 3,6, 10, 15, ... 30. A Savings Plan You save a penny on day 1, On each of the following days you save double the amount ‘of money you saved on the previous day. How much money will you have after: a, Sdays? - b, 10days? eS days? i. n days? Hint: 2! = 2,2? = 4,2} = 8,2! = 16, 2 = 32 an 2” = 1024, «2 = 32768, .. 31. AFamous Puzzle The Tower of Hanoi is a puzzle invented by Edouard Lucas in 1883. The puzzle consist ‘of three pegs and a number of disks of distinct diam- eters stacked on one ofthe pegs such that the largest _ disk is on the bottom, the next largest is placed on the id so on as shown on page 80. to ‘the tower to Determine the All of the disks to, Following situations J 4, You start with only one disk b. You start with two disks, You start with three disks. (Nore: You can u Stack of various size coins to si Simulation of the puzzle.) section 3.3 HISTORICAL! Steal George Polya After a brief stay at Brown University, George Polya {0!'ya) moved to Stanford Univer. sity in 1942 and taught there unti his retirement While at Stanford, he published 10 books and a numberof articles for mathematics journals. Of the | ‘books Polya published, How fo | Solve it (1945) is one of his best. known, In this book, Polya outlines ‘minimum sumber of moves requited wother peg ‘an use one of the many websites that provide a roblem Solving isk 4a. You start wit four ow start with ive dBKS - jth n disks. f, You st va ith the Tower puzzle a es J included © sks on one of Leas inca 4 gold di sa ene a a of ES ha th three damon he 64 disks 10 0N€ of the othe, task of trans metus asthe Tower of Hanoi eles 8 ey had completed the transfer, the poate, Wan nb andthe universe WOULE cease tower would pe that he priests Could transfer Pe dle every second, how ante He ane ds take them to transfer al of the ‘many years WO {64 disks to one of the other needles? ¢ the recursive definition for Fibonacci numbers a & on a reasoning to verify that, for Fibonag fmbers, 2F, ~ Fy-2 = Fes for m = 3. Hint: By def —_ i. +Kag ulate the puzzle, or F, + F,,and F, Problem-Solving Strategies Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy Angient mathematicians such as Euclid and Pappus were interested in solving mathe- ‘matical problems, but they were also interested in heuristics, the study of the methods and rules of discovery and invention. In the seventeenth century, the mathematician and philosopher René Descartes (1596-1650) contributed to the field of heuristics, He tried 10 dlevelop a universal problem-solving method. Although he did not achieve this goal, he did publish some of his ideas in Rules for the Direction of the Mind and his better-known ‘work Discourse de la Methode. Another mathematician and philosopher, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1646-1716, Planned (o write a book on heuristics ted Art of Imention. Of the problem-solving pro- cess, Leibnitz wrote, “Nothing is more important than to se the sources of invention which are, in my opinion, more intresting than ‘One of the foremost recent mathemati was George Polya (1887-1 in 1940. The basic inno aa part of Polya’s four-step strategy is often overlooked. ‘ofthe problemn, To help you focus on understanding section 3.3 | Understand the Problem Vy ‘You must have a elewr understan the prob 0, conser the following questions wn words? © Can you determine what is known about these types of problems? * Is there missing information tha, i known, would allow you to solve the probe? * Is there extraneous information that is not needed fo solve the problem? © What is the goat? Devise @ Plan Successtul problem solvers use a variety of techniques when they attempt to solve a problem, Here are some frequently used procedures. # Make a list of the known information, *# Make a list of information that is needed © Draw a diagram, ‘= Make an organized list that shows all the possibilities = Make a table or a chart. = Work backwards, ‘= Try to solve a similar but simpler problem. * Look for a pattern, = Write an equation, If necessary, define what each variable represents * Perform an experiment = Guess ata solution and then check your result Carry Out the Plan’ Once you have devised a plan, you must carry it out # Work carefully, * Keep an accurate and neat record of all your attempts. ‘Realize that some of your initial plans will not work and that you may have to devise another plan or modify your existing plan. Review the Solution Once you have found a yolution, check the solution, ‘+ Ensure that the solution is consistent with the facts ofthe problem. * Interpret the solution inthe context of the problem, ‘+ Ask yourself whether there are generalizations of the solution that could apply to 7 ‘other problems. In Example 1 we apply Polya’s four-step problem-solving strategy to solve a problem involving the number of routes between two points. 's Strategy (Solve a similar but simpler problem) BR ys CHAPTER 3 | Probiem Solving Ap A simple diagram of the suet map in Figure 3.2 arid TAKE NOTE The strategy of working a similar but simpler problem isan impor. tant problem-solving strategy that can be used to solve many problems. 1 oo ee A street diagram with the number of ‘routes to each intersection labeled. so answer the question if Allisgg Wye wok ot Be Tie that ona aes Tout, - B. Thus a oint 7 yway from al that gets her C10S°F to point eee us details. Thus We Make a dig the figure at the lef. mation. See t se on the esential N10 but simpler diagrams showy ts the number Of TOULES from Solution Understand the Proble retraced her path or traveled she always travels along a ste Devise a Plan The map in Fig ‘gram that allows ts to concentra Because there are many routes, W below. The number at each sieet intersect point A to that particular intersection ‘Simple street diagrams er of routes to an intersection is the sum of ‘tion fo its left and the number of routes to the number of routes to the intersection intersection to its left, which is 3, and Look for patterns. It appears that the numb the number of routes to the adjacent interse the intersection directly above. For instance, labeled 6 is the sum of the number of routes tothe i the number of routes to the intersection directly above, which is also Carry Out the Plan Using the pattern discovered above, we see from the figure at the [eft that the number of routes from point A to point B is Review the Solution Ask yourself whether a result of 35 seems reasonable. If you were required to draw each route, could you devise a scheme that would enable you to draw each route without missing @ route or duplicating a route? Consider the suet map in Figure 3.2 on pei ‘ous page. Allison wishes to walk directly from point A to point B. How many different routes can she take if she wants to go past Starbucks on Third Avenue? Example 2 illustrates the technique of using an organized list. SECTION 3.3 | Poblen Sohing uateoies (CEA Strategy is to always write a W unless doing so will produce too many Ws or a duplicate of one ofthe previous orders. If it is not possible to write a W, then and only then do we ‘rite an L. This strategy produces the six different orders shown below. 1. WWLL (Start with two wins) 2. WLWL (Start with one win) | 3. WLLW 4. LWWL (Start with one toss) 5. LWLW 6. LLWW (Start with two losses) Review the Solution We have made an organized list. The list hus no duplicates and the list considers all possibilities, so we are confident that there are six different orders in which a baseball team can win exactly two out of four games. ess A trve-false quiz contains five questions. In how | any ways can a student answer the questions if the student answers two of the ques- tions with “false” and the other three with “true”? < In Example 3 we make use of several problem-solving strategies to solve a problem involving the total number of games to be played. TELIA Apply Polya's strategy (sone In a basketball league consisting of 10 teams, each team plays each of the other teams exactly three times. How many league games will be played? Solution € Understand the Problem ‘There are 10 teams in the league, and each team plays ‘exactly three games against each of the other teams. The problem is to determine the Ne 4 total number of league games that will be played. Devise a Plan Try the strategy of working a similar but simpler problem. Consider a nS Teague with only four teams (denoted by A, B,C, and D) in which each team plays each ar but simpler problem) of the other teams only once. The diagram at the left illustrates that the games can be represented by line segments that connect the points A, B, C, and D. . - ‘Since each of the four teams will play a game against each of the other three, we The posible pairings ofa league _ might conclude that this would resutin 4 ~ 3 = 12 games. However, the diagram shows with only four teams ‘only six line segments. It appears that our procedure has counted each game twice. For instance, when team A plays team B, team B also plays team A. To produce the correct result, we must divide our previous result, 12, by 2. Hence, four teams can play each ‘other once in 453 = 6 games. AAC AD AE AF AG AH ALA! Carry gut the Plan Using the process developed above, we see that 10 teams an sb BLED ‘once in atotal of “°-® = 45 ‘Since each team plays each elles "games is 45 - 3 = 135. check ‘making a diagram that includes all E, F,G,H, I, and J. Because this dia- Ls | CHAPTER 3 | Probiem Solving ‘Some calculators display 2 as 0.25925925926. However the lst

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