23 The Green Function
Contents
23.1 The Green function
23.2 The Hankel Transform
Keywords: Green function, Hankel transform
Ref: I. N. Sneddon: Elements of Partial Differential Equations; R. Courant
and D. Hilbert: Methods of Mathematical Physics; J.D. Jackson: Classical
Electrodynamics.
23.1 The Green function
The next problem we take up is the wave equation with a known source term
f (r, t),
2 1 ∂ 2 ψ(r, t)
∇ ψ(r, t) − 2 = −4πf (r, t). (23.1)
c ∂t2
One would now like to solve for ψ. We first define the transforms,
Z ∞
1
ψ(r, t) = √ φ(r, ω)e−iωt dω,
2π Z−∞
∞
1
f (r, t) = √ g(r, ω)e−iωt dω. (23.2)
2π −∞
2 23 The Green Function
Substituting the transforms (23.2) in (23.1), we have a Helmholtz equation
with a source term.
ω2
∇2 φ(r, ω) + φ(r, ω) = −4πg(r, ω). (23.3)
c2
To solve the equation (23.3) one first finds the Green function. The Green
function, G(r − r′ , ω) for the Helmholtz operator is defined as,
ω2
∇ G(r − r , ω) + 2 G(r − r′ , ω) = −δ 3 (r − r′ ),
2 ′
(23.4)
c
by replacing the source term of the equation (23.3) by a three dimensional
delta function. Next we define a three dimensional Fourier transform for the
Green function as the following,
∞
1
Z
′
′
G(r − r , ω) = G̃(k, ω)eik·(r−r ) d3 k. (23.5)
(2π)3/2 −∞
Substituting (23.5), in (23.4), we have
2 ω2 1
(−k + 2 )G̃(k, ω) = − (23.6)
c (2π)3/2
1
R ∞ ik·(r−r′ ) 3
since, δ 3 (r − r′ ) = (2π) 3 −∞ e d k. The Green function is now
Z ∞
′ 1 1 ik·(r−r′ ) 3
G(r − r , ω) = e d k. (23.7)
(2π)3 −∞ k 2 − (ω/c)2
Now we have to perform a 3-dimensional k integral. We choose the z-axis of
the k-space along the the vector, r − r′ . So,
Z ∞ Z 1 Z 2π
1 1 ik|r−r′ | cos θ
G(r − r′ , ω) = k 2
dk d cos θ dφ e
(2π)3 0 −1 0 k 2 − (ω/c)2
(23.8)
NPTEL Course: Wave Propagation in Continuous Media
23.1 The Green function 3
and the angular integrals can be quickly performed to give the result,
Z ∞
1 1
G(r − r′ , ω) = 2
kdk 2 2
(eikr − e−ikr )
(2π) ir 0 k − (ω/c)
Z ∞
1 1
= 2 kdk 2 2
(eikr − e−ikr ), (23.9)
8π ir −∞ k − (ω/c)
where |r − r′ | = r. The integral, (36.18), is evaluated with a contour inte-
gration in complex k-plane with Feynman technique. In this method first
the poles of the integrand are slightly displaced from real line with a small
imaginary term and after the evaluation of the integral this terms is set to
zero. We elaborate the method in the following. We define,
∞
1 1
Z
± ′
G (r − r , ω) = 2 kdk 2 2
(eikr − e−ikr ), (23.10)
8π ir −∞ k − (ω/c) ∓ iǫ
where ǫ is a very small quantity. Let us now evaluate G− (r − r′ , ω). The
ǫc
poles of the integrand in this case are at k = ±( ωc − i 2ω ). Now the integral
(23.10) can be written in two parts as the following.
Z ∞
− ′ 1 1 ikr
G (r − r , ω) = 2 kdk 2 ω ǫc 2 e
8π ir −∞ k − ( c − i 2ω )
Z ∞
1 1 −ikr
− 2 kdk 2 ω ǫc 2 e . (23.11)
8π ir −∞ k − ( c − i 2ω )
In the above integral, (23.11), the for the first term a semicircular contour
is chosen in the upper half plane with a large radius so that the integrand
vanishes on the semicircular contour and for the second integral contour is
chosen in the lower half plane. Both the contours are shown in fig. 23.1.
NPTEL Course: Wave Propagation in Continuous Media
4 23 The Green Function
k
k
C1
✘ ✘
ω/c ω/c
ω/c ω/c
✘ ✘
C2
Fig. 23.1: Contours and poles for the Green function integral
1 1
Z
G− (r − r′ , ω) = 2 kdk 2 ω ǫc 2 e
ikr
8π ir C1 k − ( c − i 2ω )
1 1
Z
−ikr
− 2 kdk 2 ω ǫc 2 e . (23.12)
8π ir C2 k − ( c − i 2ω )
The first contour captures the pole, k = − ωc + i 2ω
ǫc
, whereas the second one
ω ǫc
includes the pole, k = c − i 2ω . Now using Cauchy residue theorem it is
evaluate these integrals,
− ′ 1 − ωc −i ω r 1 ωc −i ω r
G (r − r , ω) = 2πi 2 e c − (−2πi) 2 2ω e
c
8π ir − 2ω c
8π ir c
1 ω ′
= ′
e−i c |r−r | . (23.13)
4π|r − r |
Similarly one obtains
1 i ωc |r−r′ |
G+ (r − r′ , ω) = e . (23.14)
4π|r − r′ |
G+ is known as the retarded Green function and G− is known as the advanced
Green function.
Problem 1: Evaluate G+ explicitly to obtain the result given in (23.14).
NPTEL Course: Wave Propagation in Continuous Media
23.2 The Hankel Transform 5
Now the solution φ(r, ω) of the equation (23.3) is written as
1
Z
i ωc |r−r′ |
φ(r, ω) = dr′ 4πg(r′ , ω) e . (23.15)
4π|r − r′ |
and hence the required solution ψ(r, t) of the original equation is given by
Z ∞Z
1 ′ ′ 1 iω( |r−r
′|
−t)
ψ(r, t) = √ dr g(r , ω) ′
e c dω (23.16)
2π −∞ |r − r |
Now with the inverse Fourier transform the integral over ω can be performed
to obtain,
|r − r′ | 1
Z
′ ′
ψ(r, t) = dr f (r , t − ) . (23.17)
c |r − r′ |
Notice that in the solution (23.17) in the argument of the source function
′
f (r′ , t) the time t is replaced by t − |r−r |
c , which is called the ‘retarded time’.
We can interpret this as the following. The signal emitted at r′ reaches the
|r−r′ |
observation point, r, after a finite time, c , where c is the speed of the
signal propagation.
23.2 The Hankel Transform
In our next example we introduce the Hankel transform. Suppose we have to
find the solution of the equation,
∂ 2 φ 1 ∂φ ∂ 2 φ
+ + =0 (23.18)
∂r2 r ∂r ∂z 2
in the region r ≥ 0, z ≥ 0 with the boundary condition φ(∞, z) = φ(r, ∞) = 0
and φ(r, 0) = χ(r).
NPTEL Course: Wave Propagation in Continuous Media
6 23 The Green Function
We introduce the the Bessel function of zero order, J0 (kr), which satisfies the
Bessel differential equation,
∂ 2 J0 (kr) 1 ∂J0 (kr)
2
+ + k 2 J0 (kr) = 0. (23.19)
∂r r ∂r
Multiply the equation (23.18) with rJ0 (kr) and integrate with respect to r
from zero to infinity.
Z ∞ Z ∞ Z ∞
∂ 2φ 1 ∂φ ∂ 2φ
rJ0 (kr) 2 dr + rJ0 (kr) dr + rJ0 (kr) 2 dr = 0 (23.20)
0 ∂r 0 r ∂r 0 ∂z
Now we integrate by parts,
∞ Z ∞
∂φ ∂(rJ0 (kr)) ∂φ
rJ0 (kr) − dr
∂r 0 0 ∂r ∂r
Z ∞ Z ∞
∂φ ∂2
+ J0 (kr) dr + 2 rJ0 (kr)φdr = 0. (23.21)
0 ∂r ∂z 0
The first term vanishes by putting the limits and using the boundary condi-
tions. We are left with,
Z ∞
∂J0 (kr) ∂φ ∂ 2 ψ(k, z)
− r dr + = 0. (23.22)
0 ∂r ∂r ∂z 2
Where we have defined the Hankel transform, ψ(k, z), as,
Z ∞
ψ(k, z) = rJ0 (kr)φ(r, z)dr. (23.23)
0
Equation (23.22) is again integrated by parts to give (using the boundary
conditions),
∞
∂ 2 J0 (kr) 1 ∂J0 (kr) d2 ψ(k, z)
Z
r + φdr + . (23.24)
0 ∂r2 r ∂r dz 2
NPTEL Course: Wave Propagation in Continuous Media
23.2 The Hankel Transform 7
This can be further be simplified using (23.19)
d2 ψ(k, z)
2
− k 2 ψ(k, z) = 0. (23.25)
dz
The solution of (23.25) is simple, and using the boundary condition, we ob-
tain,
ψ(k, z) = ψ(k, 0)e−kz , (23.26)
where,
Z ∞
ψ(k, 0) = rJ0 (kr)χ(r)dr (23.27)
0
The solution is of φ(r, z) is now obtained using the inverse Hankel transform,
Z ∞ Z ∞
φ(r, z) = kJ0 (kr)ψ(k, z)dk = kJ0 (kr)ψ(k, 0)e−kz dk. (23.28)
0 0
Problem 2: Show that the inverse Hankel transform is indeed,
Z ∞
φ(r, z) = kJ0 (kr)ψ(k, z)dk.
0
[ You may use, the following orthogonality relation of Bessel functions.]
∞
1
Z
rJ0 (kr)J0 (k ′ r)dr = δ(k − k ′ ).
0 k
NPTEL Course: Wave Propagation in Continuous Media
