A Comparative Study Between Aluminium and
Copper Windings for a Modular-Wound IPM Electric
Machine
Sabrina Ayat¹², Rafal Wrobel², James Baker², David Drury²
1
Motor Design Ltd., 4 Scotland Street, Ellesmere SY12 0EG, UK, sabrina.ayat@motor-design.com
2
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1UB, UK, r.wrobel@bristol.ac.uk
Abstract² This paper conducts a comparative study upon the
performance of an electrical machine fitted with alternative
winding conductor materials. The study focusses on an existing
interior-mount PM machine (IPM), which is wound with copper
(Cu) conductors in a single-OD\HU ³PRGXODU´ WRSRlogy. An
analysis exercise is performed to investigate the impact of using
alternative conductor materials, such as Aluminium (Al). The
studied machine employs profiled rectangular conductors, which
can offer many performance and manufacturing benefits. It is
however acknowledged that windings formed from large section
conductors frequently suffer from elevated ac losses, e.g. from
high-speed and/or high frequency operation. In this context,
replacing commonly used Cu windings with a material of higher
electrical resistivity, such as Al, is an interesting alternative. The
immediate impact would be an increase of dc winding resistance
and therefore elevated dc losses. However, under high-frequency
operation, the increased material resistance helps to abate the
effects of ac loss. A more detailed approach for the loss and
efficiency derivation is provided herein, accounting for magnetic
saturation and stator current vector in field weakening operation.
Theoretical predictions suggest that the use of Al conductors
offer benefits to performance under certain operating conditions
and are a viable alternative to the commonly used Cu
counterpart. In the analysed case, only a moderate reduction in
machine performance is experienced at lower speed ranges. The
mathematical models used in this work were informed from tests
on a hardware prototype to provide more reliable machine
performance predictions.
Keywords² PM electrical machine, Aluminium winding, high-
fidelity modelling, thermal analysis, hardware testing.
I. INTRODUCTION
7KHLQFUHDVLQJGHPDQGIRUµPRUHHOHFWULF¶WHFKQRORJLHVKDV
transformed the requirements of electric machines. In addition
to conventional performance and design targets, cost-effective
in-volume fabrication is one of many areas seeing a growing
IRFXV7KLVLVHYLGHQFHGE\GHVLJQDSSURDFKHVVXFKDVµ'HVLJQ
IRU &RVW¶ RU µ'HVLJQ IRU 0DQXIDFWXUH¶ ZKLFK KDYH EHHQ
receiving increased attention in recent publications [1]-[4].
These multidisciplinary design objectives are achieved by
carefully analysing the implementation of particular materials
and components together with manufacturing processes at the
early stage of machine design development. With a theme to
LQFUHDVH PDQXIDFWXULQJ HDVH D µPRGXODU¶ VLQJOH-layer
concentrated winding topology presents an attractive solution.
Such winding construction enables cost-effective manufacture
with improved material utilisation, whereby the stator core
978-1-5090-4281-4/17/$31.00 ©2017 IEEE
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segments are wound individually prior to full stator assembly.
An additional benefit of this winding topology is the provision
of electrical, magnetic and thermal isolation between
neighbouring windings. This feature is particularly important
when the machine specification requires fault-tolerance [2].
Rectangular profiled conductors have been shown to be an
attractive solution for the cost-effective in-volume
manufacture of electrical machines, including automotive and
aerospace applications [1]-[4]. This mainly results from
reduced winding and assembly costs when compared to the
existing alternatives, e.g. multi-stranded bundle of conductors
or Litz wire. Simple single-conductor windings benefit from
robust and repeatable construction, with well-defined thermal
behaviour. Further advantages include a high conductor fill
factor, which allows for lower dc resistance and improved
low-frequency winding loss. However, the use of rectangular
conductors frequently lead to substantial ac winding loss
under high-frequency operation. Consequently, the use of
techniques to mitigate unwanted ac winding effects must be
employed [2]-[5].
A solution to reducing the magnitude of frequency-
dependent winding loss is to replace Cu conductors with a
material of higher electrical resistivity, such as Al [6]-[10].
The final machine performance and overall winding-loss is a
fine balance between dc and ac loss components; hence,
careful consideration of the winding design is essential to
exploit the full benefits of a particular conductor material.
Clearly, Cu conductors with large cross-section provide good
design solution when the dc loss component dominates the
overall winding loss, whereas the use of Al conductors might
be advantageous for applications where ac winding losses are
otherwise severe. The choice of conductor material is further
complicated by the majority of modern applications requiring
variable-frequency operation. Consequently, a trade-off
between dc and ac winding loss together with other machine
loss components over a complete torque-speed envelope
and/or operating cycle is necessary to make a fully informed
decision regarding overall performance [2], [4], [11].
In this paper, the authors analyse a variable-speed interior
permanent magnet (IPM) machine for a traction application.
The use of profiled rectangular winding conductors was the
preferred choice due to the imposed design requirements of
cost and manufacturability. The research focus is placed on a
comparative study between winding designs employing
alternative conductor materials: Cu and Al. Both the winding
designs are finely tuned to meet the target torque-speed
HQYHORSH ZKLFK LV XOWLPDWHO\ OLPLWHG E\ WKH PDFKLQH¶V
thermal behaviour. It is important to acknowledge that the use
of aluminium conductors in the construction of induction
machines, transformers, and other applications is a relatively
mature research area [6]-[10], [12]. However, the continuous
drive towards compact, high-speed, lightweight and cost-
effective designs has led to revisiting the use of Al in
construction of the next generation of permanent-magnet
electrical machines. Recent publications focus on illustrating Fig. 1. Schematic view of the studied IPM motor
potential benefits of Al windings in applications where ac loss
components are the driving concern. This previous research is a)
however limited to very specific case studies and effects, [7]-
[13].
In order to provide a comprehensive approach when
comparing selected design candidates, a performance
comparison for the entire torque-speed envelope must be
conducted. Loss mechanisms are a strong function of the
machine's operating point, e.g. stator current vector, frequency
and temperature. The method presented in [3] has been
further developed here to account for magnetic saturation and b)
field-weakening operation. A detailed description of the
adopted design-analysis together with discussion of the
research findings is presented in consecutive sections of the
paper. The theoretical findings have been supplemented with
experimental data from tests on a hardware prototype, used
here to inform the design-analysis.
Fig. 2. a) Impregnated winding sample with Cu 1.4 ൈ 3 mm rectangular
profiled conductors, b) Motorette hardware exemplar before epoxy
II. HARWARE EXEMPLARS impregnation

The analysed radial-flux IPM motor consists of a
segmented stator assembly with a single-layer concentrated
³PRGXODU´ ZLQGLQJ 7KH ODPLQDWHG URWRU FRPSULVHV D UDUH-
earth PM array with the individual PM blocks (Recoma 26)
inserted into rotor cut-RXWVSRFNHWV)LJ7RSURYLGHµJRRG¶
heat extraction from the winding body to the machine
periphery, the complete stator-winding is impregnated with a
high thermal-conductivity epoxy resin (Aremco-Bond 2315).
The heat generated within the stator-winding assembly is
evacuated by a liquid-cooled housing. Basic data for the
analysed motor is listed in Table I, and Fig. 1 shows a
schematic view of the machine geometry with sub-assemblies
and active regions indicated. The laminated core pack has
been manufactured using SiFe (M270-35A), whereas the
winding has been built from 1.4ൈ3.0 mm profiled rectangular
copper conductors.
TABLE I: BASIC MACHINE DATA
Outer Diameter 162.6 mm
Active length 277 mm
Number of poles/slots 10/12
Base rotational speed 4770 rpm
Peak power/torque 60 kW/150 Nm
Maximum electrical frequency 1 kHz
A number of hardware exemplars including a cuboidal
sample of impregnated winding material and stator-winding
sections (motorettes) have been used to calibrate both the
electromagnetic and thermal models (Fig 2a and 2b
respectively). To minimise any influence of manufacturing
variations, all analysed material samples and hardware
exemplars have been built with strict controls of the assembly
and manufacture processes, which mimic that of the final
machine. Table II lists the material thermal conductivity data
obtained from hardware calibration. The cuboidal winding
sample, Fig. 2a, is used to derive material parameters, such as
HTXLYDOHQW µOXPSHG¶ ZLQGLQJ WKHUPDO conductivity [2], [7],
>@ >@ RI WKH GHVLJQ¶V 1.4ൈ3.0 mm profiled rectangular
FRSSHU FRQGXFWRUV 7KLV DOORZV WKH ZLQGLQJ¶V thermal
anisotropy to be accounted for. Values of thermal conductivity
for other conductor sizes or materials were then deduced from
a calibrated analytical model [15]. Both the motorette and
stator assemblies allow for the stator-to-winding and stator-to-
housing frame thermal contact resistances to be derived. The
separate calibration of the winding-to-stator tooth and
winding-to-stator yoke regions allows for capturing the heat
transfer effect related with the conductor lay.The motorette
tests provide also an insight into the winding and iron power
loss distribution [2], [17].

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 TABLE II: THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY DATA
TABLE III: SELECTED GEOMETRICAL DATA OF STUDIED WINDING VARIANTS
Model sub-region ݇௫ [W/mK] ݇௬ [W/mK]
WV Conductor aspect ratio Conductor cross section Fill factor
Winding amalgam 4.0 4.3
I 0.36 4.2 mm² 43%
Laminated stator core 20.0 20.0
II 0.53 4.8 mm² 50%
Winding-to-stator tooth interface 0.7¹ 0.7¹
III 0.6 5.4 mm² 56%
Winding-to-stator yoke interface 0.6¹ 0.6¹
Stator-to-housing frame interface 1.62² 1.62²
Epoxy resin 1.2 1.2 Table IV lists selected data for two Cu and Al winding
¹ assuming 0.24 mm of equivalent slot liner region constructions. When comparing these windings, it is evident
² represented by 0.1 mm gap that the Al variant provides a cost-effective and lightweight
solution as compared with the Cu alternative. Due to their
III. ELECTROMAGNETIC AND THERMAL MODELLING high electrical resistivity, Al conductors are less susceptible to
the ac leakage effects, which allows for an increased
A. Winding Variants Construction
conductor fill factor as compared with the Cu counterpart. The
Initial predictions from finite element (FE) analyses have improved conductor fill factor for the Al winding permits
shown that the ac winding loss is significant if the stator slot compensation for the elevated dc resistance, which is
window is fully utilised, i.e. high conductor fill factor is approximately 53% higher than that for Cu. This clearly has
achieved (low dc resistance). Both stator flux leakage and some profound implications regarding the overall machine
rotor field effects are high in the slot-opening region resulting performance and this will be discussed in the subsequent
in a localised and elevated ac loss component. sections.
TABLE IV: SELECTED PROPERTIES OF CU AND AL WINDING
Here, the ac losses are particularly severe for the winding CONFIGURATIONS
with Cu conductors. To reduce the winding loss at ac Winding variant Winding variant
operation a conductor arrangement with an intentionally with Cu conductors with Al conductors
reduced fill factor has been adopted, Fig. 3. Here the Slot fill factor 50% 50%
Phase resistance Pȍ Pȍ
conductors are placed in the stator slot in such manner that the Thermal conductivity 385 W/mK @20ºC 205 W/mK @20ºC
area with high magnetic flux leakage is avoided. Further to Weight 4.13 kg 1.24 kg
this, a non-magnetic wedge is inserted in the stator slot to Price/kg [14] 5.85$ 1.93$
DVVXUH µJRRG¶ KHDW WUDQVIHU IURP WKH ZLQGLQJ ERG\ LQWR WKH
stator core pack [2]. B. Torque-Speed Envelope Predictions

A two-dimensional (2D) FE method has been employed to

Fig. 3. Outline of the winding assembly, WVI-Cu
It is intended to investigate the impact of conductor
materials and the aspect-ratio/dimensions of the conductor
GHULYH WKH PDFKLQH¶V HOHFWURPDJQHWLF ORVV FRPSRQHQWV DQG
output power capability. In the FE analyses, the winding
region is modelled as individual solid conductors with an
appropriate external circuit representing the electrical
connections between individual conductors and phases. A 2D
model representation has been used to map the direct and
quadrature flux linkage components ߉ௗ and ߉௤ over a range of
direct and quadrature-axis currents, ‫ܫ‬ௗ and ‫ܫ‬௤ Ǥ The obtained
flux-linkage data, ߉ௗ ൫‫ܫ‬ௗ ǡ ‫ܫ‬௤ ൯ and ߉௤ ൫‫ܫ‬ௗ ǡ ‫ܫ‬௤ ൯ is used in
cross-section on overall performance. Table III presents basic conjunction with (1)-WRGHULYHWKHPDFKLQH¶VWRUTXHVSHHG
geometric data relating to three winding variants (WV) envelope under maximum torque-per-amp (MTPA) control.
analysed for both Al and Cu. Throughout the paper, winding 7KLVLVQHFHVVDU\GXHWRWKHPDFKLQH¶VVDOLHQWURWRUVWUXFWXUH
variant I with Al conductors is referred to as WV I-Al, while ௠
winding variant I with Cu conductors is referred to as WV I- ܶൌ ‫݌‬ሺȦௗ ௤ െ Ȧ௤ ௗ ሻ (1)
ଶ
Cu. In the comparative study presented here, the conductor
width w is fixed and set by the slot depth (see Fig. 3); where m is the number of phases, here m=3, p the number of
therefore, the conductor thickness h is modified to pole pairs, here p=5. The generated electromagnetic torque, (1)
accommodate the different winding variants. The windings is subject to the following constraints on maximum inverter
consist of two layers per slot, which respectively comprise 14 output voltage, ܸ௟௜௠ , and the maximum stator current ‫ܫ‬௦௠௔௫ ,
and 10 turns for WVs I and II. However, for WV III, due to
the limited slot width, the winding consists of two layers per ܸ௟௜௠ ൒ ߱௦ ටȦ݀ ൅ Ȧ‫ݍ‬
ଶ ଶ
(2)
slot with 12 turns each. Increasing the conductor cross-
sectional area in turn increases conductor fill-factor within the
slot, as seen in table III. ଶ
‫ܫ‬௦௠௔௫ ൒ ට݀ ൅ ‫ ݍܫ‬ଶ (3)

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where ߱௦ the electrical rotational speed. In the analysis FRQGXFWRUV DQG Į î ͳͲିଷ ‫ି ܭ‬ଵ for Al conductors. The
conducted herein, ܸ௟௜௠ ൌ ܸௗ௖௟௜௡௞ Ȁξ͵, where ܸௗ௖௟௜௡௞ is the dc winding power loss at ac operation varies with temperature in
link voltages (600V). The obtained torque data over a range of a more complex manner than that for dc excitation. The
current vectors and rotational speeds is used to compute functional representation of the ac winding power loss
efficiency maps and thermal envelopes. temperature dependence, proposed in [3] has been used in this
study, (6), (7).
C. Machine Loss Models
ܲೌ೎ ൌ ܲ ೏೎ ൫ͳ ൅ ߙሺܶ െ ܶ଴ ሻ൯ (7)
೅ ೅బ
The 2D electromagnetic numerical model has been used to
ܴ௔௖
GHULYH SRZHU ORVV FRQWULEXWLRQV RYHU WKH PDFKLQH¶V DFWLYH ቀ ሺ‫ ܫ‬ǡ ߛሻቁ െ ͳ
ܴௗ௖ ௣௞ ಶ
length. The complete power loss data includes winding active ೅బ
and end-winding regions, iron loss for the stator and rotor core ൅ܲ೏೎ ఉ
೅బ
൫ͳ ൅ ߙሺܶ െ ܶ଴ ሻ൯
packs, and PM loss.
ͳ
൅ܲ௔௖ோ்̲బ 
1) Iron Loss ሺͳ ൅ ߙሺܶ െ ܶ଴ ሻሻఊ
The iron loss generated over the entire torque-speed where
envelope has been derived by coarsely mapping the loss as a
ோೌ೎ ௉ೌ೎ ି௉ೌ೎ೃ
function of stator current magnitude, ‫ܫ‬௣௞ DQGFXUUHQWDQJOHȖ ቀ ቁ ̲ ൌቀ ቁ ̲ ்ǡூ೛ೖ (8)
ோ೏೎ ா ்ǡூ೛ೖ ௉೏೎ ா
The resulting 2D FE predictions are then interpolated to
provide high-fidelity loss maps. The effect of operating and (Rac/Rdc )E defines the average winding power loss from
frequency/rotational speed has been accommodated using the excitation at ac operation and ȕLVWKHWHPSHUDWXUHFRHIILFLHQW
following formula, (4). for the ac loss component. Both values can be derived from a
curve fit of (6) to the winding ac loss data derived from FEA.
௙ ఉ
ܲ௜௥௢௡ ൫݂ǡ ‫ܫ‬௣௞ ǡ ߛ൯ ൌ  ܲ௛௬௦௧௘௥௘௦௜௦ ൫‫ܫ‬௣௞ ǡ ߛ൯ ቀ ቁ ൅ PacR is the winding loss at open-circuit operation from
௙బ
೑బ rotational effects of the PM array. Furthermore to the
௙ ଶ ோ
ܲ௘ௗௗ௬௖௨௥௥௘௡௧௦ ൫‫ܫ‬௣௞ ǡ ߛ൯ ቀ ቁ (4)
௙బ
approach presented in [3], the ሺ ೌ೎ ሻ்̲బ ratio has been derived
೑బ ோ೏೎
by coarsely mapping the winding power loss at ܶ଴ for ‫ܫ‬௣௞ and
where ܲ௛௬௦௧௘௥௘௦௜௦̲௙బ  and ܲ௘ௗௗ௬௖௨௥௥௘௡௧௦̲௙బ are respectively the ȖXVLQJ')(DQDO\VHVDQGLQWHUSRODWLQJEHWZHHQWKHGHULYHG
hysteresis and eddy currents iron loss components calculated data points.
at a frequency ݂଴ , and ߚ LV REWDLQHG IURP WKH PDQXIDFWXUHU¶V
data ሺߚ = 1.42). The iron loss components are assumed to be a)
independent of temperature within this analysis.

2) Winding Loss
The ac and dc copper loss components have been
FDOFXODWHG IRU HDFK RI WKH ZLQGLQJ¶V FRQGXFWRUV LQ RUGHU WR
derive an ܴ௔௖ Ȁܴௗ௖ ratio together with the loss temperature
dependence, as explained later in the text. A three-dimensional b)
(3D) FE analysis has also been employed to evaluate the
impact of end-winding loss components showing moderate ac
end-winding effects [2]. Consequently, in this analysis the
end-winding ac loss is neglected, i.e. dc end-winding copper
loss is accounted for only.
The temperature dependence of winding losses at ac
operation has significant implications to the accuracy of
thermal analysis of electrical machines [3]-[5]. The dc copper Fig. 4. Calculated (ܴ௔௖ /ܴௗ௖ )̲ ்బ for WV I-Cu for winding temperature ܶ଴ =
loss variation with temperature is well defined and described 20ÛC, a) derived for current amplitude, Ȗ Û b) derived for current angle,
with (4). ‫ܫ‬௣௘௔௞ ൌ ͳͲͲ‫ܣ‬

ܲௗ௖்̲ ൌ ܲௗ௖்̲బ ሺͳ ൅ ߙሺܶ െ ܶ଴ ሻሻ (5) Figs. 4a and 4b present calculated (ܴ௔௖ /ܴௗ௖ )̲ ்బ for WV I-Cu
where for a fixed winding temperature of 20ÛC, rotational speed of
ܲௗ௖்̲బ ൌ ܴௗ௖்̲బ ሺ‫ܫ‬௣௞ Ȁξʹሻଶ (6) 5000 rpm versus current amplitude and current angle Ȗ
respectively. The impact of ‫ܫ‬௣௞ is noticeable at lower currents,
and ܴ଴ is the winding dc resistance at ܶ଴ DQG Į LV WKH where the impact of slot leakage becomes prominent in
temperature coefficient of electrical resistivity of the comparison to other winding loss component. The effect of
conductor mDWHULDO XVHG +HUH Į î ͳͲିଷ ‫ି ܭ‬ଵ for Cu

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FXUUHQWDQJOHȖRQ(ܴ௔௖ /ܴௗ௖ )்̲బ ratio seems limited, however it formulae established in [15]. Table V presents the values
follows the expected trend of a reduction in the magnitude of obtained for these studied winding configurations. It is
slot leakage due to the flux weakening operation. The impact interesting to note that the change in thermal conductivity is
of these coefficients on efficiency predictions is investigated higher for ݇௫ than for ݇௬ . This can be explained by the fact
in later sections. that only the conductor thickness is varied for this study.
Moreover, despite the difference in thermal conductivity for
3) Losses Within the Permanent Magnet Array Cu and Al, the impact on thermal conductivity is limited. This
FEA simulation at open circuit and under MTPA operation is due to the low thermal conductivity of epoxy resin, which is
are used to obtain the PM loss components. Open circuit the limiting factor, which dominates the winding equivalent
analysis allows for the derivation of the PM loss component thermal conductivity.
due to stator-slotting effects, whose dependence is on TABLE V: WINDING EQUIVALENT THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY DATA
frequency only; while MTPA operation is used to ascertain the Cu Al
PM losses from the interaction of external stator fields WV ݇௫ [W/mK] ݇௬ [W/mK] ݇௫ [W/mK] ݇௬ [W/mK]
(frequency and current-magnitude dependent). In both cases, I 4.0 4.3 4 4.2
II 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.3
the dominating loss component is due to eddy currents, which II 4.9 4.4 4.8 4.3
form from cyclic variations in magnetic flux density within
the magnet array [19]. The magnitude of magnet-loss is
described by (9 through the superposition of speed and IV. EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP
current-dependent loss components.
A series of thermal tests with dc and ac excitation have
௙ ଶ been utilized in this investigation. Dc tests have been
ܲ௉ெ ሺ݂ǡ ‫ܫ‬௣௞ ሻ ൌ  ܲ௦௟௢௧௧௜௡௚̲௙బ ቀ ቁ ൅
௙బ HPSOR\HG WR SURYLGH DQ LQVLJKW LQWR WKH ZLQGLQJ¶V KHDW
ଶ
௙ ଶ ூ೛ೖ transfer mechanisms, with well-defined heat and power loss
ܲ௦௧௔௧௢௥௜௡௧௘௥௔௖௧௜௢௡̲௙బǡூ೛ೖబ ቀ ቁ ൬ ൰ (9)
௙బ ூ೛ೖబ sources, whereas experiments with a sinusoidal power supply
have been performed to assess winding and iron loss.
where ܲ௦௟௢௧௧௜௡௚̲௙బ is the PM loss from the slotting effect
calculated at a frequency ݂଴ and ܲ௦௧௔௧௢௥௜௡௧௘௥௔௖௧௜௢௡̲௙బǡூ೛ೖబ is the
a)
additional PM loss from stator field interaction calculated at a
frequency ݂଴ and peak current ‫ܫ‬௣௞଴ . The presented analysis
assumes a magnet loss which is unaffected by temperature.
Mechanical losses have been neglected in this analysis;
however this loss component is expected to be unaffected by
the choice of Al or Cu conductors and therefore should not
impact the comparison.

D. Thermal Model

The discussed power loss predictions are used to inform a

thermal modelling exercise. A lumped-parameter thermal b)
equivalent-circuit (TEC) network has been adopted to derive
WKH PDFKLQH¶V WKHUPDO HQYHORSH [20]. Due to its reduced
computation time, the TEC method is usually preferred for
initial machine sizing, transient duty analysis and design-
optimization. The model accounts for conduction, convection
and radiation heat transfer mechanisms, including 3D end-
winding effects. In order to account for the inhomogeneous
winding power loss distribution, this 3D TEC winding model
has been employed using cuboidal and arc-segment elements
[16]. Each of the individual conductors is initially represented
by one cuboidal element and two arc-segment elements,
catering respectively for the winding active length and end- Fig.5 Experimental set-up a) motor ac and dc tests , b) Dynamometer tests
windings regions. These elements allow one to account for
distinct internal heat generation in the different conductors. Fig. 5a presents one of the experimental setups used to
The thermal material data used in FE analysis has been conduct dc tests upon a complete stator assembly. In this test,
listed previously in Table II, including equivalent winding the stator windings are connected in series and excited with
thermal conductivity for the original WV I-Cu. The thermal controlled levels of dc current. Coolant is pumped through the
conductivity values for other WVs have been derived using stator jacket assembly to ensure an even boundary-

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temperature of 80ºC around the core-pack periphery. The a)
measured power loss and temperatures are logged using a data
acquisition system until thermal equilibrium is reached.
Thermal equilibrium is considered as temperature variations
ORZHUWKDQÛ&RYHUPLQXWHV7KHGFVWDWRUWHVWVKDYHEHHQ
used to evaluate the winding-to-stator and stator-to-housing
thermal resistances, in association with results from tests on
motorette assemblies.
A detailed description of the dc test set-up for motorette
DVVHPEO\ LVSURYLGHG LQWKHDXWKRU¶VSUHYLRXV ZRUN >2], [18].
The technique used in this analysis for dc tests on motorette
assemblies is designed to set a unidirectional heat path from
the winding into the heatsink. The motorette under test is b)
mounted on a temperature-controlled cold-plate and placed in
an insulated chamber. The experimental procedure used for
the derivation of equivalent winding thermal conductivities,
based on the heat meter approach, is presented with detailed
discussion in [16].
Once the individual loss components have been identified
and used to calibrate and verify modelling predictions, a series
of dynamic machine tests have been undertaken. Fig. 3b
presents a photograph of the complete prototype machine
mounted on a dynamometer evaluation platform. The
objective of this dynamic machine tests is to confirm the
electromagnetic modelling approach and conduct thorough Fig.7 Targeted torque-speed envelope together with efficiency map calculated
machine characterization. For example, rotor loss components for WV I-Cu, a) ܴ௔௖ / ܴௗ௖ (f) calculated at maximum torque/ampere, b)
have only been predicted using numerical techniques. The ܴ௔௖ /ܴௗ௖ ሺ݂ǡ ‫ܫ‬௣௞ ǡ ߛሻ accounting for flux weakening and magnetic saturation.
machine specification comprises a wide range of operating
frequencies and the prototype has been tested against these Figures. 8 and 9 present target torque±speed envelopes
operating points. together with efficiency maps for all winding variants studied.
As previously, it has been assumed for the analysis that all the
V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION machine active components are at a fixed temperature of
100°C. When analyzing the efficiency maps, it is evident that
An illustration of the influence on ܴ௔௖ /ܴௗ௖ ratio caused by WV I-Cu )LJD H[KLELWV WKH ODUJHVW ³KLJK´ HIILFLHQF\
current angle and magnetic saturation is shown in Fig. 7, operation region, set between 3000 rpm and 12000 rpm. In
which is calculated for WV I-Cu. Fig. 7a presents the target comparison WV I-Al, Fig.9.a, has its high efficiency operation
torque-speed envelope and calculated efficiency map using a set between 12000 rpm and 15000 rpm, respectively. This
simplified ܴ௔௖ /ܴௗ௖ (f) variation, which is derived from analysis confirms that Al offers an interesting alternative to Cu when
for rated current under MTPA control. In contrast, Fig. 7b the ac effects are dominant at high operating frequencies. This
presents the required torque-speed envelope with efficiency HIIHFWZRXOGEHH[DJJHUDWHGLIWKHVWDWRUZDVRIDQµRSHQ-VORW¶
map using ܴ௔௖ /ܴௗ௖ ሺ݂ǡ ‫ܫ‬௣௞ ǡ ߛሻ accounting for current angle ߛ design where the conductors would suffer increased losses due
variation under field-weakening. A dashed-boarder square box to slot-leakage and rotor field interactions. Likewise, it can be
has been placed in Fig. 7 to highlight the impact of these noted that WV II-Cu and WV II-Al offer very similar
individual approaches. efficiency behaviour for rotational speeds higher than 4000
rpm. The continuous operating envelope is also presented in
For efficiency analyses, it has been assumed that all the
Figs. 8 and 9 with a dashed line. Here, the winding hot spot
machine active components are at a fixed temperature of
temperature limit has been set to 180 °C with machine
100°C. When analyzing the efficiency maps, it appears that
housing at 80 °C and 20 l/min coolant flow for the water
accounting for the change in current angle ߛ and current
jacket. It is clear that WVs III, in particular with Cu
magnitude in field weakening operation results in a narrower
conductors, provide higher WRUTXH DW µORZ¶ URWDWLRQDO VSHHG
ZLQGRZRI³KLJK´HIILFLHQF\RSHUDWLRQ7KHLQIOXHQFHIRUWKLV
+RZHYHU WKH WUHQG LV LQYHUWHG DW µKLJK¶ URWDWLRQDO VSHHG
particular machine is small, with limited change outside of the
where WVs I, in particular with Al conductors, are less
³KLJK´ HIILFLHQF\ ZLQGRZ +RZHYHU WKH YDULDWLRQ RI current
affected by the ac effects.
angle ߛ and current magnitude is expected to have more .

impact for WVs where ac effects are more prominent, e.g.

WV III, which has the largest conductor cross-section.

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 a) a)

b) b)

c) c)

Fig.8. Target torque±speed envelope together with efficiency map for WVs Fig.9. Target torque±speed envelope together with efficiency map for WVs
with Cu conductors, a) WV I-Cu, b) WV II-Cu, c) WV III-Cu with Al conductors, a) WV I-Al, b) WV II-Al, c) WV III-Al
TABLE VI: M ACHINE AVERAGED PERFORMANCE MEASURES OVER THE
The efficiency maps presented at Figs. 8 and 9 provide OPERATING CYCLE
comprehensive insight into the machine performance with
Cu Al
alternative conductor materials and aspect ratios. However, the
intended duty cycle is a combination of continuous and WV I II III I II III
transient operation, and therefore the analysis of the machine Avg. efficiency [%] 85.7 86.3 85.9 83.4 84.4 83.9
performance for a representative operating cycle would offer
complete information concerning the design choice. Figure 10 Avg. power loss [Wh] 23.6 21.9 19.4 35.4 31.1 28.6
presents a representative operating cycle assumed in the Price [$] [14] 21.1 24.0 27.5 2.1 2.3 2.7
analysis and reveals the transient nature of operation intended Winding weight [kg]
for the machine. The duty cycle is based on the Extra-Urban 3.6 4.1 4.7 1.1 1.2 1.4
driving cycle (EUDC) with a gear ratio of 1:3. Machine weight [kg] 33.3 33.8 34.4 30.8 31.0 31.1

Table VI lists the averaged machine performance a)

calculated over the operating cycle shown in Fig. 10. The
calculated results show that WVs with Cu conductors provide
the greatest average efficiency and continuous torque for the
envisioned operating duty cycle. On the other hand, WVs with
Al have significantly lower weights and prices as compared
with Cu counterparts. Depending on the intended machine use, b)
e.g. automotive application, it might be preferable to have
only a small reduction in efficiency, 2%, over a the driving
cycle and have an overall mass saving of 3 kg. Therefore, the
GHVLJQHU¶VFKRLFHFRXOGYDU\EHWZHHQ:9,-Cu and WVII-Al
depending on the most important design paradigms to be
satisfied, e.J³GHVLJQIRUFRVW´, ³GHVLJQIRUPDQXIDFWXUDELOLW\´
and/or optimizing overall vehicle efficiency. Fig.10. Operating cycle assumed in the analysis; a) Rotational speed vs.
time, b) Shaft torque vs. time

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 VI. CONCLUSION
This paper presents results from a comparative study
upon the performance of an IPM machine fitted with
alternative winding conductor materials. The analysis exercise
is to contrast the impacts of Al as an alternative to Cu, in
particular for high-speed/high-frequency applications where
ac effects are elevated. Due to its high electric resistivity, Al
is less prone to ac effects, which allows for an increased
conductor fill factor as compared with the Cu counterpart. The
improved conductor fill factor for Al windings permits
compensation for elevated levels of dc loss, which is higher
than that for the Cu equivalent.
For this study, six winding variants have been compared,
with alternative conductor cross-section. The adopted
methods of loss derivation, including analytical techniques
and experimental calibration procedures are discussed. In
particular, the impact of current angle and current magnitude
on the ac-to-dc ratio at field weakening operation is evaluated.
The impact on current angle has been found limited in the
selected case, but might be more prominent in a machine with
elevated ac effects. Similarly, change in the ac-to-dc ratio due
to magnetic saturation might need to be accounted for when
dealing with low current amplitude.
The performance of several winding variants have been
compared. The results suggest a slightly lower continuous
output performance at low-speed/high-torque. This has been
highlighted for winding formed with Al conductors and/or
with lower conductor cross-section. However, changes in
averaged efficiency over the desired duty cycle and efficiency
maps appears to be relatively limited. When accounting for the
significantly reduced price and weight of Al as compared with
Cu, a design choice might be made depending on the most
important design paradigms to be satisfied HJ ³GHVLJQ IRU
FRVW´RU³GHVLJQIRUPDQXIacturability´)XWXUHZRUNLQFOXGHV
comparison of calculated torque/speed performance
predictions with measurements on the complete machine
prototype.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank the European Union for their
funding to this research (FP7 ITN Project 607361 ADEPT).
The authors wish to thank Infolytica Europe for providing the
software used in this research.
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