2.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Multiple Intelligence is a theory developed in 1983 by Dr. Howard Gardner, a

psychologist and professor of education at Harvard University. He suggests that the

traditional notion of intelligence based on their I.Q testing is far too limited. According to

Gardner (1991), this theory has emerged from recent cognitive research and “documents the

extent to which students possess different kinds of minds and therefore learn, remember,

perform, and understand in different ways” and “we are all able to know the world through

language, logical-mathematical analysis, spatial representation, musical thinking, the use of

the body to solve problems or to make things, an understanding of other individuals, and an

understanding of ourselves. Where individuals differ is in the strength of these intelligences -

the so-called profile of intelligences -and in the ways in which such intelligences are invoked

and combined to carry out different tasks, solve diverse problems, and progress in various

domains.” These differences "challenge an educational system that assumes that everyone

can learn the same materials in the same way and that a uniform, universal measure suffices

to test student learning. Indeed, as currently constituted, our educational system is heavily

biased toward linguistic modes of instruction and assessment and, to a somewhat lesser

degree, toward logical-quantitative modes as well." Gardner argues that "a contrasting set of

assumptions is more likely to be educationally effective. Students learn in ways that are

identifiably distinctive. The broad spectrum of students - and perhaps the society as a whole -

would be better served if disciplines could be presented in a numbers of ways and learning

could be assessed through a variety of means" (Gardner, 1991). Howard Gardner viewed

intelligence as ‘the capacity to solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in one or

more cultural setting’ (Gardner and Hatch, 1989). According to MI Theory, identifying each

student’s intelligences has strong ramifications in the classroom. If a child's intelligence can

be identified, then teachers can accommodate different children more successfully according

to their orientation to learning. Teachers in traditional classrooms primarily teach to the

verbal/linguistic and mathematical/logical intelligences.

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 The Multiple Intelligence concept is simple and accessible method to understand and

explain people’s preferred ways to learn and develop. Multiple Intelligence is a classical

model in which understandable by many individual’s teaching aspects of human intelligences

and that is a big help on developing their personality and behaviour on the right intelligence

that they are capable of.

While there are currently two broad research approaches in the social sciences,

namely quantitative and qualitative research, we, as already indicated, opted for the latter in

the study. Let us now take a closer look at this research approach. From a brief overview of

the state of the art of qualitative inquiry, it is clear that such research has an impressive

history and continues to be applied in many varied ways in basically all known disciplines and

study areas.

Individual differences in intelligence influence developmental trajectories across the

lifespan, affecting socioeconomic, psychological, and health outcomes (Deary, 2012).

Socioeconomic status is influenced by factors at the individual level, such as household

income, parental education, and parental occupation, and at a broader level, by factors such

as neighbourhood of residence (Krieger, Williams, & Moss, 1997; Subramanian, Chen,

Rehkopf, Waterman, & Krieger, 2005). According to the Organization for Economic Co-

operation and Development (OECD), academic achievement at school is not only linked with

school-related factors but also with the socioeconomic environment in which students are

raised. While Pearson’s product moment correlation was calculated for each of the attitude

and perception scales, socio-economic status variables, gender, ethnic groupings, academic

performance variables, and the college ready index to determine the relative strength and

direction of the relationship between each of these variables (Norusis, 2006; Shavelson,

1996). Several studies have reported that children’s educational attainment and performance

on tests of cognitive ability vary with socioeconomic status, with children from disadvantaged

homes and neighborhoods having lower achievement than children from advantaged homes

and neighborhoods (Bradley & Corwyn, 2002). These variations in the development of

intelligence are likely to be associated with children's family socioeconomic status (Dyume, et

al., 1999; Heckman, 2006; Tucker-Drob, et al., 2011). According to Ailey et al., (1995) socio-

economic status is defined as a person’s overall social position to which attainments in both

6
social and economic domain contribute. When used in studies of children’s school

achievement, it refers to the socio-economic status of the parents or family.(Feinstein, 2003).

Parents are one of the most important and influential elements on the lives of their

children. Students with involved parents in overall their children’s learning affairs are more

likely to earn higher grades and test scores, have better attitudes, behavior and attendance,

and graduate and go onto additional education. Higher parental involvement is associated

with higher educational expectations enrolment in gifted and talented programs and positive

perception of school (Henderson, 1988). Though not every child comes from a home that

could provide them with the necessary educational resources necessary for their academic

success (Vellymalay, 2012). The parents’ socio-economic status plays an important role in

providing educational resources and it appears to impose the greatest impact on the

children’s educational outcomes. It includes the home background which plays a significant

role in a young child’s orientation to education, although it is a complex of economic, social,

cultural, and even personal factors (William Teal, 1996). According to (Adeyemo, 2010)

pupils’ home back ground/socio-economic status can have significant influence on their

academic performance. Many researchers have been going through studying on socio-

economic status and agreed that it has to be considered as the most important variable to

make use of strong influence on the academic achievement of students. And according to

(Simmons, 1980), (Patrinos and Psachoropoulos 1996) the pupils from low income families

would like academically poorer than those academically privileged one.

According to Dr. Howard Gardner each one of us is intelligent in different ways.

Maybe one student may write very well while another really struggles but may be able to

express themselves in a more artistic manner. In his multiple intelligences theory, he states

that there are multiple types of human intelligence that each represent a different way of

processing information. Gardner determined that people have all eight intelligences at

varying levels of aptitude and all of a person's learning experiences do not necessarily have

to relate to the person's strongest area of intelligence.

The theory supports the thought that a one size fits all approach to education does

not work for all students. The traditional idea that a single IQ test result is the only way to

identify intelligence is challenged by the multiple intelligences theory. This theory is not only

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limited on IQ test which focus only on linguistic/verbal intelligence and logical/ mathematical

intelligence but includes musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, spatial, kinaesthetic, and

naturalistic intelligence.

Linguistic intelligence involves sensitivity to spoken and written language, the ability

to learn languages, and the capacity to use language to accomplish certain goals. Logical-

mathematical intelligence consists of the capacity to analyze problems logically, carry out

mathematical operations, and investigate issues scientifically. Musical intelligence involves

skill in the performance, composition, and appreciation of musical patterns. Bodily-kinesthetic

intelligence entails the potential of using one’s whole body or parts of the body to solve

problems. Spatial intelligence involves the potential to recognize and use the patterns of wide

space and more confined areas. Interpersonal intelligence is concerned with the capacity to

understand the intentions, motivations and desires of other people. Intrapersonal intelligence

entails the capacity to understand oneself, to appreciate one’s feelings, fears and motivations.

Naturalistic intelligence entails the capacity to recognize and make distinctions in the natural

world and use the ability productively (Nicholson-Nelson 1998); has keen sensory skills

(Dickinson 1999).

The five non-traditional intelligences, spatial, musical, kinesthetic, interpersonal and

intrapersonal, have generally been overlooked in education. However, if we can develop

ways to teach and learn by engaging all seven intelligences, we will increase the possibilities

for student success and create the opportunity to, in Margaret Mead’s words, "weave a social

fabric in which each diverse human gift will find a fitting place."(Campbell, 1991)

There might be some disadvantage because of certain problems and critiques about

applying the Multiple Intelligence approach but the advantages dominantly excel especially in

its importance in knowing an individual’s intelligence, skills and/or talents. It also gives a

great gain in the awareness of the multiple intelligences students dominantly possess

especially when dealing with choosing a course in college. They would not only be aware

what course really fits to them but they can also develop them more knowing their intelligence

and use them as skills in their future fields of work.

With an understanding of Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences teachers can

promote new possibilities for learning, with greater emphasis on lifelong learning, which

8
support the development of students’ skills in creativity and innovation (Borek, 2003). Multiple

intelligences can allow students to safely explore and learn in many ways, and they can help

students direct their own learning.

Studies show that many students who perform poorly on traditional tests are turned

on to learning when classroom experiences incorporate artistic, athletic, and musical

activities. You will provide opportunities for authentic learning based on your students' needs,

interests and talents. The multiple intelligence classroom acts like the "real" world: the author

and the illustrator of a book are equally valuable creators. Students become more active,

involved learners. Students will be able to demonstrate and share their strengths (Brown and

Marzano, 1988).

Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences has not been readily accepted

within academic psychology. However, it has met with a strongly positive response from

many educators. It has been embraced by a range of educational theorists and, significantly,

applied by teachers and policymakers to the problems of schooling.

Although there are significant criticism in the formulation of Gardner’s Multiple

Intelligence theory it does provide a useful set of questions and ‘rules of thumb’ to help

educators to think about their practice. The way in which Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple

intelligences has been translated into policy and practice has been very varied. Gardner did

not, initially, spell out the implications of his theory for educators in any detail. Subsequently,

he has looked more closely at what the theory might mean for schooling practice (e.g. in The

Unschooled Mind, Intelligence Reframed, and The Disciplined Mind). From this work a

particular aspects of Gardner’s thinking need noting here as they allow for hope, and an

alternative way of thinking, for those educators who feel out of step with the current, dominant

product orientation to curriculum and educational policy. The approach entails:

A broad vision of education. All seven intelligences are needed to live life well. Teachers,

therefore, need to attend to all intelligences, not just the first two that have been their tradition

concern. As (Kornhaber, 2001) has noted it involves educators opting ‘for depth over

breadth’. Understanding entails taking knowledge gained in one setting and using it in

another. ‘Students must have extended opportunities to work on a topic’.

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 Everyone can be intelligent in their own different ways. Through Gardner’s multiple

intelligences theory teachers can promote new possibilities for learning, with greater

emphasis on lifelong learning, which support the development of students’ skills in creativity

and innovation. There are different teaching and learning strategies that can accommodate

students with these different ability levels, including those who do not learn in traditional ways.

The theory of multiple intelligences is an effort to understand how cultures and disciplines

shape human potential. (Gardner, 1983)

There are three benefits of multiple intelligence theory. First, self-development and

formation, multiple intelligence theories can help students and teachers better understand

their abilities. It helps students to build up confidence as it demonstrates how they can use

their strengths to address their weaknesses. It motivates students to find where their interest

and strength lies and push their abilities further. Second, a broader choice of schooling, all

intelligences are required for an individual to live a full life. Therefore, teachers need to attend

to all intelligences, not just the ones that the traditional intelligence focuses on. Multiple

intelligence theories are suitable for differentiated and individualize learning; providing

teachers the potential to develop new and flexible programs which might better meet the

learner's needs. Teachers could also redesign old courses to suit new requirements (Green

& Tanner, 2005). A variety of activities could be included in the new curriculum, which would

easily motivate and attract learners. Lastly, multiple intelligence theories also look into

morality. Gardner once considered adding a "moral intelligence" to the multiple intelligence

theories. But he later came to the conclusion that 'Morality' is a complex concept combined

with numerous psychological aspects such as personality, will and character. Therefore it is

not intelligence in itself (Gardner, 1999). But he did not give up on the idea of "moral

intelligence" and stated that 'we must figure out how intelligence and morality can work

together to create a world in which a great variety of people will want to live' (Gardner, 1999).

Gardner's view on Intelligence goes hand in hand with scholastic performance which

sometimes teachers unconsciously adapt MI theories into their teaching program such as

using visual support or playing a song. When they fully understand MI theories and its

benefits; it could be more beneficial to them in their teaching process. Therefore, it is

10
essential to include MI theories in teacher education. The different intelligences help point out

which are students need help in.

MI theory has clearly been of great value to many students, parents, and teachers,

presenting opportunities for students with strong non-traditional forms of intelligence (i.e. non-

logical-mathematical or verbal-linguistic) to thrive in classroom environments. However,

despite the apparent success of MI theory in education, many psychologists argue that there

is no empirical evidence to support the concept.

John White (1997) has argued that there are significant issues around the criteria that

Howard Gardner employs. There are questions around the individual criteria, for example, do

all intelligences involve symbol systems; how the criteria to be applied; and why these

particular criteria are relevant. In respect of the last, and fundamental question, White states

that he has not been able to find any answer in Gardner’s writings. Indeed, Howard Gardner

himself has admitted that there is an element of subjective judgement involved. (Smith, 2002)

For those researchers and scholars who have traditionally viewed intelligence as,

effectively, what is measured by intelligence tests – Howard Gardner’s work will always be

problematic. They can still point to a substantial tradition of research that demonstrates

correlation between different abilities and argue for the existence of a general intelligence

factor. Howard Gardner disputes much of the evidence and argues that it is not possible, as

yet, to know how far intelligences actually correlate. More recent developments in thinking

around intelligence such as Robert Sternberg’s (1985, 1996) advancement of a ‘triarchic

model’ have shared Gardner’s dislike of such standard intelligence theory. However, in

contrast to Howard Gardner, Robert Sternberg does not look strongly at the particular

material that the person is processing. Instead he looks to what he calls the componential,

experiential and contextual facets of intelligence. A further set of criticisms centre on the

specific intelligences that Howard Gardner identified. For example, it can be argued that

musical intelligence and bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are better approached as talents (they

do not normally need to adapt to life demands). (Smith, 2002)

A common criticism made of Howard Gardner’s work is that his theories derive rather

more strongly from his own intuitions and reasoning than from a comprehensive and full

11
grounding in empirical research. For the moment there is not a properly worked-through set

of tests to identify and measure the different intelligences. (Smith, 2002)

According to Shearer (2004), one of the most frequently asked question is, “Does MI

instruction actually enhance learning and promote greater achievement by students?”

According to Hickey (2004), there is even greater lack of studies investigating the effect of MI

implementation on students’ achievement and understanding in various subject matters at

middle school level because some teachers believe alternative learning models are more

appropriate for the early grades since students at the middle and high school levels are

supposed to get serious about learning.

While additional research is still needed to determine the best measures for

assessing and supporting a range of intelligences in schools, the theory has provided

opportunities to broaden definitions of intelligence. As an educator, it is useful to think about

the different ways that information can be presented. However, it is critical to not classify

students as being specific types of learners nor as having an innate or fixed type of

intelligence. (Brualdi, 1996)

The MI approach to teaching allows teachers to incorporate the element of creativity

in their instructional design where student-centred activities could be conducted in eight

different forms based on the eight types of multiple intelligences proposed by Howard

Gardner (1983), reaching students with various abilities and styles in learning.

As the education system has stressed the importance of developing mathematical

and linguistic intelligences, it often bases student success only on the measured skills in

those two intelligences. Supporters of Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences believe that

this emphasis is unfair. Children whose musical intelligences are highly developed, for

example, may be overlooked for gifted programs or may be placed in a special education

class because they do not have the required math or language scores. Teachers must seek

to assess their students' learning in ways which will give an accurate overview of their

strengths and weaknesses. (Brualdi, 1996)

The multiple intelligence theory of Dr. Howard Gardner is not only limited on IQ test

which focus only on linguistic/verbal intelligence and logical/ mathematical intelligence but

includes musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, spatial, kinaesthetic, and naturalistic

12
intelligence. According to Gardner, each individual possess all eight intelligences but varies

at different levels. While there might be some significant questions and issues around

Howard Gardner’s notion of multiple intelligences, it still has had utility in education. It

provides awareness of the multiple intelligences students dominantly possess especially

when dealing with choosing a course in college. They would not only be aware what course

really fits to them but they can also develop them more knowing their intelligence and use

them as skills in their future fields of work. Knowing not only what’s the strongest and

dominant but also the weakest among the eight intelligences we possess might be a greater

advantage to us since we will know what we are bad at and what we are good at.

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