AAE 354

Lesson 08

Rotorcraft Aerodynamics

Forward Flight:
Rotor Motion Calculations
 Forward Flight

Angle of Attack of the Airfoil

And
Sectional Load Calculations

2
 The angle of attack of an airfoil
depends on
• Pilot input: collective and cyclic pitch
• How the blade is twisted
• Velocity of the air normal to blade chord, caused
by the blade flapping
• Inflow due to freestream component, and
induced inflow
• Anhedral and dihedral effects due to coning of
the blades.
• The first two bullets are self-evident. Let us look
at the other contributors to the angle of attack.
3
 Blade Flapping Effect
𝑟 𝛽ሶ

The blade section flaps up at a

velocity r .
The airfoil thinks it is experiencing
a downwash of equal magnitude.
4
Angle of Attack caused by the
Inflow and Freestream

𝑉∞ 𝑉∞ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 + 𝑣

Ω𝑟 + 𝑉∞𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼

5
 Anhedral/Dihedral Effect

𝑉∞
𝑉∞𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝑉∞𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
Blade at  = 0 will
𝑉∞𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑉∞ See a downwash
equal to 𝑉∞𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
Blade at  = 180 will
See a downwash equal
to −𝑉∞𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
Blade at any  will see a downwash equal to
𝑉∞𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 cos 
6
 Summing them all up..

aeff

𝑈𝑃 q

𝑈𝑇 = Ω𝑟 + 𝑉∞𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜓

U P  UP
a eff = q − tan    q −
−1

U T  UT
where,
U = V sin a + v + r + V cos sin 
P  
7
Small Angle of Attack Assumptions
• The angle of attack 𝛼 is small.
• The cyclic and collective pitch angles are
all small.
• The coning and flapping angles are all
small.
• 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛼) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛽) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃) ~ 1
• 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛼) ~ 𝛼, 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛽) ~ 𝛽, 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃) ~ 𝜃

8
 Angle of Attack
UP  U P U Tq − U P
a effecive = q − arctan  
 q − =
 UT  UT UT
r
q = q 0 + q tw + q 1c cos + q 1s sin 
R

U T = r + V cos a sin  r + V sin

V sin a + v
U P = R + r + V cos a  cos =
R
 R + r + V cos
All angles are in the shaft plane
9
Angle of attack (continued)
U Tq − U P
 
= (r + V sin )  q 0 + q tw + q1c cos + q1s sin 
r
 R 
(
− R + r + V cos )

 d  d   d  d
= =     =
dt  d   dt  d
= (1s cos − 1c sin  )
10
 Angle of Attack (Continued)
After some minor algebra,
 
U T q − U P = r q 0 + q tw + (q1c − 1s ) cos + (q1s + 1c )sin 
r
 R 
 r
V q 0 + q tw  sin + V (q1c − 1s ) cos sin +
 R
V (q1s + 1c )sin 2  − V 0 cos − Va − V1c − v

11
Relationship between aTPP and as

𝛼𝑠 𝛽1𝑐

𝛼𝑇𝑃𝑃 = 𝛼𝑠 + 𝛽1𝑐

12
 Angle of Attack (Concluded)
  
 r q +
  0 tw R q
r
+ (q 1c − 1s ) cos  + (q 1s + 1c ) sin  
  
U Tq − U P 1   r 
a effective = = + q
  0 tw 
V + q sin  + V (q 1c − 1s ) cos  sin  
UT UT   R 
+ V (q1s + 1c )sin 2  − V 0 cos 
 
− Va TPP − 

Notice 𝜃1𝑠 + 𝛽1𝑐 appears in pairs, as pointed out earlier.

Also 𝜃1𝑐 − 𝛽1𝑠 appears in pairs.

One degree of pitching is equivalent to one degree of

flapping. 13
 Calculation of Sectional Loads
• Once the angle of attack at a blade section
is computed as shown in the previous
slide, one can compute lift, drag, and
pitching moment coefficients.

14
 Some choices for Computing
Sectional Loads as a function of a
• In analytical work, it is customary to use 𝐶𝑙 =
𝐶𝑙𝛼 𝛼, 𝐶𝑑 = 𝐶𝑑0 = constant, and 𝐶𝑚 = 𝐶𝑚0 , as
constant.
• In simple computer based simulations using
Excel or a program, these loads are corrected
for compressibility using Prandtl-Glauert Rule.

16
Prandtl-Glauert Rule

𝑉∞
aeff

𝑈𝑃 q

𝑈𝑇 = Ω𝑟 + 𝑉∞𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜓
𝜓
Compute Mach number= 𝑀 = 𝑈𝑇 /𝑎∞

Cl ,incompressible
X Cl ,corrected =
1− M 2
17
 Calculation of Sectional Forces
• After 𝐶𝑙 , 𝐶𝑑 , 𝐶𝑚 are L’=Lift per
foot of
found, one can find
span
the lift, drag, and
aeff
pitching moments per D’
unit span. q
• These loads are 𝑈𝑇 = Ω𝑟 + 𝑉∞𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜓
normal to, and along
1
the total velocity, and L = U 2 cCl
2
must be rotated 1
= c(U T2 + U P2 )Cla a eff
appropriately. 2
 cCla U T (U T q − U P )
1
19
2
 Forward Flight

Integration of Sectional Loads

To get
Total loads

20
 Background
• We have discussed how to compute the angle of attack
of a typical blade element.
• We also discussed how to compute lift, drag, and
pitching moment coefficients.
• We also discussed how to compute sectional lift and
drag forces per unit span.
• We mentioned that these loads must be rotated to get
components normal to, and along reference plane.
• In this section, we discuss how to integrate these loads.
• In computer codes, these integrations are done
numerically.
• Analytical integration under simplifying assumptions will
be given here to illustrate the process.

21
 Assumptions for
Analytical Integration
• 𝑐= constant (untapered blades)
• 𝑣 = constant (uniform inflow)
• 𝐶𝑑 = constant
• Linearly twisted blades
• No cut out, no tip losses.

22
Blade Section

aeff

𝑈𝑃 q

𝑈𝑇 = Ω𝑟 + 𝑉∞𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜓

23
 Effective Angle of Attack
UP
As discussed earlier, a eff =q −
UT
U T = r + V sin 

U P = V sin a + v + r + V  cos

= R + r + V  cos


= R + r1s cos − r1c sin + V  cos

L =
1
2
1 1
(
cClU  cCla U T a eff = cCla qU T2 − U TU P
2

2
2

2
)
24
 Some algebra first..
 2  
( +  ) q +
 0 tw q
r
+ q  + q  
L  cCla  
1 r V sin 1c cos 1s sin
  R  
2
− (r + V sin )(R + r1s cos − r1c sin + V  cos )
 2 r
3
r2 
q
 0  2 2
r + 2V  r q 0 sin  + q V
0 
2
sin 2
 + q tw  + 2V q tw sin  + 
 R R 
q r V 2 sin 2  +  2 r 2q cos + 2rV q sin cos + 
 tw R  1c  1c 
= cCla V 2q sin 2  cos + 
1
2   1c 
 2 r 2q sin + 2rV q sin 2  + V 2q sin 3  
 1s  1s  1s 
−  2 Rr − V R sin − rV  cos − V2  cos sin 
 
−  r 1s cos +  r 1c sin − rV 1s sin cos + rV 1c sin  
2 2 2 2 2

Notice that we have first, second, and third harmonics present!

These fluctuations will be felt by the passengers/pilots as 25
vibratory loads.
 Thrust

 1 2
R  
T = Nb 
 2
0  0  
 L dr  d

Thrust is computed by integrating the lift radially to get
instantaneous thrust force at the hub,
then averaging the thrust force over the entire rotor disk,
and multiplying the force per blade by the number of blades.

Computer codes will do the integrations numerically, without

any of the assumptions we had to make.
26
Analytical Integration of Thrust
We can interchange the order of integration.

Integrate with respect to 𝜓 first. Use the formulas such as

2 2 2

   =    =   cosd = 0
2
sin d cos d sin
0 0 0
2

 sincosd = 0
0
2 2

   =  d = 
2 2
sin d cos
0 0
27
Result of Azimuthal Integration
 q0 2 
 0q  2 2
r + V 
2
2
 
+ q  2 r + V q r 
3 2
1 1
2 0
L d = cCla 
R
tw tw
2 R 2
 
+ rVq1s −  Rr 
2

 
 q0 2 
q
 0  2 2
r + V 
2
 
= cCla + q tw 2 +  q tw 
3 2
1 r V r
2 R 2 R 
 
+ rV (q1s + 1c ) −  RrTPP 
2

  28
 Relationship between TPP and 

𝛼𝑠 𝛽1𝑐

𝛼𝑇𝑃𝑃 = 𝛼𝑠 + 𝛽1𝑐

𝑉∞ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑠 + 𝑣 𝑉∞ 𝛼𝑠 + 𝑣
= ≈
𝛺𝑅 𝛺𝑅
𝑉∞ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑇𝑃𝑃 + 𝑣 𝑉∞ 𝛼 𝑇𝑃𝑃 + 𝑣 𝑉∞ 𝛽1𝑐
 𝑇𝑃𝑃 = ≈ =+ 29
𝛺𝑅 𝛺𝑅 𝛺𝑅
 Next perform radial integration and
Normalize
 R 3
q R 3
q tw 2 
 q 0 2
+ V R + q tw
0 2 2
+ V R + 
1 3 2 4 4
T = Cla N b c  
2  R 2
R 3

 V q
  1s TPP 2 −  2
TPP 
2

Cla q 0 
3 2  q tw q1s TPP TPP 
CT =  1 +   +
2 3  2  4
1+  + 
2

2
−2 
 

Note that we will get the hover expressions back

if advance ratio 𝜇 is set to zero. 30
 Power
• We next look at how to compute the
instantaneous power on a blade.
• It is azimuthally-averaged to get total
power.
• It is simpler to look at profile and induced
components of power separately.

31
 Profile Drag

1
D = U T cCd 0
2

r
2
where
D’

U T = r + V sin

We will assume chord 𝑐 and drag coefficient 𝐶𝑑0 are constant.

32
 Profile Power
2𝜋 𝑅
1
𝑃0 = 𝑁𝑏 න න 𝑈𝑇 𝐷′ 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜓
2𝜋
0 0

P0
C P0 =
 (R ) A
Non-dimensionalize: 3

Cd
Final result: C P0 =
8
0
1 + 3 
2

34
 Induced Drag
L 𝑈𝑇 = Ω𝑟 + 𝑉∞ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜓
𝑈𝑃 = Ω𝑅𝜆 + 𝑟Ω𝛽1𝑠 cos 𝜓
−𝑟Ω𝛽1𝑐 sin 𝜓 + 𝑉∞ 𝛽 cos 𝜓
a Di

𝑈𝑃 q

𝑈𝑇

Di  L
UP 1
(
= cCla qU T − U T U P
UT 2
2 UP
UT
)
1
(
= cCla qU T U P − U P2
2
) 35
 Induced Power
2𝜋 𝑅
1
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑁𝑏 න න 𝑈𝑇 𝐷𝑖 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜓
2𝜋
0 0

Performing the analytical integration, 𝐶𝑃𝑖 = 𝜆𝑖 𝐶𝑇

This is a familiar result. Induced Power = Thrust times Induced Velocity!

𝑣 𝜎𝐶𝑙𝛼 𝜃0 3 2 𝜃𝑡𝑤 2
𝜃1𝑠 ȁ 𝑇𝑃𝑃 𝜆 𝑇𝑃𝑃
𝜆𝑖 = 𝐶𝑇 = 1+ 𝜇 + 1+𝜇 +𝜇 −
Ω𝑅 2 3 2 4 2 2
36
 In-Plane Forces
• In addition to thrust that acts normal to the rotor
disk (or along the z-axis in the coordinate
system selected by the user), the blade sections
generate in-plane forces.
• These forces must be integrated to get net force
along the x- axis. This is called the H-force.
• These forces must be integrated to get net
forces along the Y- axis. This is called the Y-
force.

39
Origin of In-Plane Forces
L sin  = L

L L

X
One source of in-plane forces is the tilting of the
Thrust due to the blade coning angle.

40
 Origin of In-Plane Forces-II
V∞

Radial flow causes radial

Skin friction forces

A component of the free-stream flows along the blade,

in the radial direction. This causes radial skin friction forces.
This is hard to quantify, and is usually neglected. 41
 Origin of In-Plane Forces III

D=Di+D0

Sectional drag (which is made of inviscid induced drag, and viscous drag)
can give rise to components along the X- direction (H-force), and
Y- direction (Y-Force).

Engineers are interested in both the instantaneous values (which determine

vibration levels), as well as azimuthal averages (which determine force balance).
42
 Forward Flight

Calculation of Blade Flapping

Dynamics

47
 Background
• In the previous sections, we developed
expressions for sectional angle of attack,
sectional loads, total thrust, power, etc.
• These equations assumed the blade
flapping dynamics a priori.
• The blade flapping coefficients are
determined by solving the ODE that
covers flapping.

48
 Flapping Dynamics
Tip

I + I 2  = 
1
cCl (r + V sin  )2
rdr
Root
2

rq0 + (q1c − 1s ) cos + (q1s + 1c )sin 

 
U T q − U P Cla + Vq0 sin + V (q1c − 1s ) cos sin 
Cl = Cla a effective = Cla =
UT U T + V (q1s + 1c )sin  − V 0 cos
2 
 
− VaTPP − v 

49
 Solution Process
Assume the blade flapping dynamics equation
Tip 2

cCl (r + V sin  ) rdr

1
I + I 2  = 
Root
2
has the general solution of the form
 =  0 + 1c cos + 1s sin  +
 2c cos 2 +  2 s sin 2 + • •
Plug in the solution on both the left and right sides. The right side
can be integrated analytically, subject to usual assumptions.

Equate coefficients on the left side and right, term by term.

For example coefficient with sin𝜓 on the left with the
similar term on right. 50
 Final Form
q 80% R  TPP  1c + q 1s 
( )
2
0 =   1+  −
2
q tw − + 
 8 60 6 6 
8  3 
−  q 75% R − TPP 
3  4 
 1c + q 1s =
3 2
1+ 
2
4
−  0
 1s − q 1c = 3
1 2
1+ 
2
51
Level Flight

Trim Conditions

52
 Background
• By trim conditions we mean the operating
conditions of the entire vehicle, including
the main rotor, tail rotor, and the fuselage,
needed to maintain steady level flight.
• The equations are all non-linear, algebraic,
and coupled.
• An iterative procedure is therefore needed.

53
Variation of Control Input &
Pitch Attitude

94
 Variation of Control Input &
Pitch Attitude
• The fuselage pitch attitude (α) increases
progressively with forward speed.
• The collective pitch (θo) decreases from its hover
value to a minimum at a moderate forward
speed. This is due to the benefit of translational
velocity component on the lifting capability of the
rotor. The collective pitch then increases with
forward speed.

95
 Variation of Control Input &
Pitch Attitude
• The longitudinal cyclic pitch (θ1s) increases with
the forward speed to tilt the rotor forward to
overcome the drag of the helicopter fuselage.
• The lateral cyclic pitch (θ1c) increases gradually
with forward speed to counteract the lateral disc
tilt caused by coning. Actually, an additional
amount of lateral cyclic will be required to
balance the tail rotor thrust.

96
 Variation of Total Inflow

The inflow variation is similar to that of the

collective pitch.
97
Variation of Flapping Angles

98
 Variation of Flapping Angles
• The variation in longitudinal cyclic pitch (θ1s)
along with the forward speed effect of the
increased oncoming velocity in the advancing
side and the reduced oncoming velocity in the
retreating side results in a net increase in
longitudinal flapping (β1c) with forward speed.
• The collective flap angle does not show much
variation with forward speed.

99
 Variation of Flapping Angles
• The blade coning causes a lateral flapping
response due to dihedral/anhedral effect. This
angle is very small.

101
Flap Response over One Rotor
Revolution

102