Mod 8 - Kiss Notes

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Year 12 Biology Module 8
Non-Infectious Disease & Disorders
Topic Outline
1. Homeostasis 5. Technology
Revision: enzymes & Disorders
Concept of feedback systems Structure & functions of eye,
Temperature regulation ear & kidney & their disorders.
Control of blood glucose Technologies used to treat these
disorders & their effectiveness.
Temp.control in other organisms
4. Prevention
2. Cause & Effects Case studies of current management
& treatment methods. Assessment.
Types of non-infectious disease
Future prevention?
Case studies
Collecting & representing data
3. Epidemiology
Purpose & some history of epidemiology
Methods of epidemiology Case study: obesity
Collecting & representing data
What is this topic about?

To keep it as simple as possible, (K.I.S.S. Principle) this topic covers:
1. Homeostasis
Revision of the requirements for enzyme function as the reason for homeostasis.
Concept of feedback systems. Temperature regulation. Control of blood glucose levels.
Temperature control mechanisms in other organisms as part of homeostasis.
2. Cause & Effects

Broad categories of non-infectious disease. Case studies. Collecting & representing data.
3. Epidemiology
Purpose & some history of epidemiology. Methods of epidemiology for infectious & non-eye infectious
diseases. Case study of obesity. Collecting & representing data from different populations.
4.Prevention
Current treatments & management of non-infectious disease. Case studies of cystic fibrosis
and obesity. Assessments of strategies & research directions. Future prevention possibilities?
5. Technology & Disorders

Structure & functions of eye, ear & kidney & outline of common disorders.
Technologies used to treat these disorders & their effectiveness.
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1. Homeostasis
Firstly, a reminder about enzymes, which were covered way back in Module 1.
Understanding enzymes explains (for example) why animals (and people) can die in a “heat wave” (or a
blizzard), why pouring vinegar on weeds kills them and why it is so important to get rid of the CO2 your cells
are constantly producing while making their vital ATP during cellular respiration.
Temperature Impacts on Cells

To stay alive, a human’s body temperature must be close to 37oC. If it varies by more than about 4oC either
side of this, it may be life-threatening! The reasons are to do with enzyme activity.
Somewhere in your cells there are critical chemical pathways
controlled by enzymes which have very narrow activity curves, as
shown by this graph.
These pathways might be in one of the many steps in cellular

respiration in all your mitochondria. Maybe it’s an enzyme
involved with exocytosis of a neuro-transmitter which passes
Enzyme Activity
nerve signals from one nerve cell in your brain to another.
Whatever it is, it is vital to your survival.
Now look at the graph:

If your body temperature drops to 32o, or goes above, say, 42o,
this enzyme will STOP FUNCTIONING. This could stop ATP
production, or stop nerve signals in your brain. Either one could
stop your heart!
Impacts of Changing pH
Likewise, the pH of your cellular & body fluids (eg blood) is also
critical for your survival. Temperature 32 37 42
Same reason... if the pH goes up or down by just 0.5 of a pH unit some critical enzyme molecules will
change their 3-D shape & might not fit their substrate properly. This could slow down, or stop, some vital
biochemical pathway.
This is why it is (for example) very important to get rid of the CO2 you constantly produce in your hundreds
of billions of cells busily making ATP by cellular respiration. The problem with CO2 is not that it is
“poisonous” in some vague, mysterious way. Specifically, its danger is pH change! When CO2 dissolves in
your blood beyond certain concentrations, it increases acidity. This can quickly lead to “acidosis” in your
body fluids which can kill you (by malfunction of vital enzymes) within minutes.
The Effect of pH
When the temperature is kept constant and an enzyme tested at various pH levels,
the results will produce a graph as shown.
Generally, all intra-cellular enzymes The digestive enzyme “pepsin” from the The shape of the pH graph is
(i.e. those from within a cell) will show stomach shows an optimum pH about 2 usually symmetrical on either
peak activity at about pH = 7, very or 3, meaning that it works best in the side of the “peak”.
close to neutrality. acidic environment.
The explanation for the shape
Intra-cellular is as follows:
enzyme
1/time (rate) Enzyme Activity
At the optimum pH the

Pepsin. enzyme’s 3-D shape is ideal
(Stomach
enzyme) for the substrate, so reaction
rate is maximum.
Enzyme Activity
At any pH higher or lower than

optimum, the enzyme’s shape
begins to change. The
substrate no longer fits, so
activity is less.
At extremes of pH, the enzyme

can be denatured and shows
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 no activity at all.
pH pH
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Homeostasis
keep it simple science Metabolism is largely a matter of chemical reactions, and each reaction is catalysed
by an enzyme. Enzymes are very sensitive to temperature and pH.
Therefore, it follows that an organism’s body and cells As well as regulation of temperature and pH,
must be maintained at a stable temperature and pH level homeostasis involves the regulation of many
close to the optimum for the enzymes. other factors such as:
• water and salt balance in body fluids.
• blood sugar levels.
The process of maintaining a stable, internal • oxygen and carbon dioxide levels.
environment is called “Homeostasis”.
Feedback Mechanisms
A “feedback mechanism” is a situation where the result of some action
feeds back into the system to control the next change to the system.
In a “Positive Feedback” system any change In “Negative Feedback” any change causes the
reinforces itself by causing more change in the next change to be in the opposite direction.
same direction.
A good example is an oven thermostat control:
For example, a fire with lots of fuel available...
Turn heater Turn heater
small fire produces OFF ON
Heat ignites
p
heat
su
more fuel
eat
ve
nh
n
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK ACTION
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK ACTION

co
Ove
Produces Fire grows
ol
s
more heat larger
Temperature
Sensor
Heat ignites
more fuel (detector)
Fire grows
larger
Negative Feedback
Positive Feedback causes a system to
always causes a maintain stability.
system to grow out
of control, or
If temperature If temperature
shrink away to is too high is too low
nothing.
The result is that the temperature of the oven
It never results in remains fairly stable. It oscillates up and down a
stability. little, but always stays close to the temperature at
which it was set.
Homeostasis is always “Negative Feedback” control.

This ensures that stable conditions are maintained so that enzymes are operating near optimum.
The key parts of a negative feedback system are: In mammals, body temperature is mostly
controlled by the Nervous System. At the base of
• a receptor, to measure the conditions. the brain, a structure called the Hypothalamus
• a control centre, which decides how to respond monitors blood temperature and sends out
and command messages for negative feedback, rather
• effectors, which carry out the commands of the like the oven thermostat system.
control centre and make the necessary
adjustments to the system. In contrast, the vital control of blood sugar levels
is done entirely by hormones. Hormones are
In animals, it is the Nervous System and Endocrine chemical messengers which are secreted by
System (hormones) which are largely responsible various endocrine glands in the body and carried
for carrying out the receptor and control centre around in the blood stream. (In some cases, the
functions necessary for many aspects of glands are stimulated by nerve messages, so the
homeostasis. brain is really in overall control.)
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Temperature Regulation
Main Parts of the System
In a healthy human the internal “core” The receptor and control centre is the Hypothalamus at
temperature of the body is about 37oC and is the base of the brain. Special cells constantly monitor
maintained within about 0.5oC at all times. If the the temperature of blood flowing by. If the temperature
body temperature goes up, or down, by more varies by even a fraction of a degree, nerve messages
than about 4oC it is a life-threatening situation. are sent to the effectors.
Control of body temperature is achieved as The Effectors include blood vessels, sweat glands,
shown in this schematic diagram: endocrine (hormone) glands, muscles and body hairs.
COOLING MECHANISMS
Blood vessels dilate. BODY TEMPERATURE REDUCES,
Sweat glands activated. BLOOD COOLS
Hair lowered.
Metabolic rate reduced. p.
t em in
d d us
oo re
Bl asu alam
Command
Effectors
me oth
Nerve
p
to
hy
Cerebrum
IF BODY TEMPERATURE IF BODY TEMPERATURE
IS TOO HIGH IS TOO LOW
um
bell
ere
p.
C
Command
Effectors
em in
Nerve
d t d Hypothalamus
oo re us
to
Bl asu alam monitors blood
me oth temperature
p
hy
WARMING MECHANISMS
BODY TEMPERATURE INCREASES, Blood vessels constricted.
Muscles begin “shivering”.
BLOOD WARMS Hairs erected (goose bumps).
Metabolic rate increased.
What the Effectors Do

Blood Vessels Body Hairs Muscles
Dilation (widening) of veins, Each hair on your body has a Nerve signals can cause the
arteries and capillaries near the tiny muscle at its base which skeletal muscles to begin
skin allows more blood to flow can cause the hair to stand up “shivering”. This extra muscle
out near the skin surface. erect and give you “goose activity generates more heat to
This allows more body heat to bumps”. This traps a layer of still warm the body.
escape from the skin, thus air against the skin and helps
cooling the body. insulate and prevent heat loss.
Constriction (narrowing) of If the hair follicle muscle is Thyroid Hormone

blood vessels causes less relaxed the hair lies flat and The hormone thyroxine
blood to flow near skin. Less allows more heat loss. (produced by the thyroid gland
heat flows out to the skin to be in the neck) controls the rate of
lost, so metabolism. It is under the
more body control of the hypothalamus,
heat is
Sweat Glands
When activated, the sweat glands secrete perspiration. via another hormone from the
retained. The water evaporates from the skin, carrying away body nearby pituitary gland.
heat... this has a powerful cooling effect.
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Control of Blood Glucose Levels
Glucose & Glycogen To solve this problem, your muscles and your liver
You know that glucose is the sugar used as the are able to store any surge of glucose (eg after a
“fuel” by the mitochondria of all your cells. Every meal) by converting it to a polymer called glycogen.
cell needs a steady supply of glucose, especially
those of the brain. Without glucose & oxygen your
brain begins to shut down within minutes.
Glucose
Therefore, it is essential that there is a constant molecules Glycogen, a polymer of glucose
supply of glucose being supplied in the blood
stream. However, we don’t eat at a steady, constant
rate, so the food being aborbed from the intestines Later, when blood sugar levels are too low, the
cannot provide the steady supply needed. glycogen can be quickly converted back to glucose.
Maintaining a near-constant level of glucose in the bloodstream is another example of homeostasis.

The control system follows the same pattern as for the oven thermostat and the body’s temperature,
except in this case, the negative feedback control is achieved by hormones, not nerves.
The receptors & control centre are specialist cells located in the pancreas, adjacent to the stomach.
Homeostasis of blood sugar levels

INSULIN Hormone Released. is controlled by 2 hormones which
have opposite effects
• Enhances entry of glucose into cells.
• Glucose Glycogen in liver.
• Enhances conversion of glucose to fat BLOOD GLUCOSE is REDUCED
or protein.
beta-cells
pancreas
Detected
by
in
BLOOD GLUCOSE BLOOD GLUCOSE

IS TOO HIGH IS TOO LOW
alpha-cells
pancreas
Detected
by
in
Cells in pancreas
monitor blood
glucose levels
GLUCAGON Hormone Released.
BLOOD GLUCOSE is INCREASED
• Glycogen glucose in liver.
• Increases conversion of fat
or amino acids to glucose.
More about the Pancreas

You should recall that the pancreas is part of the Most of the pancreas is involved in digestion, but
digestive system. It produces a cocktail of digestive under a microscope, small clusters of different cells
enzymes which mix with your food (and help digest (called “pancreatic islets”) are scattered throughout
it) as it leaves the stomach into the duodenum. the organ.
Pancreatic “juice” also contains bicarbonate ions Special staining reveals that around the outside of
which neutralise the acidic stomach secretions. each islet are the “alpha cells” which secrete
This is important so that the highly acidic stomach glucagon hormone. More centrally and more
fluids do not damage the sensitive lining of the numerous are the “beta cells” which secrete insulin.
intestines. Additionally, the pancreatic enzymes
cannot work in acidic conditions, so neutralisation The pancreas has an excellent blood supply so it
is vital for further digestion. can monitor blood sugar and secrete its hormones.
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The Temperature Range of Life
keep it simple science Homeostasis allows an organism to maintain its cells at a temperature close to
the optimum for its enzymes. This allows its metabolism to run efficiently,
despite changes in the temperature of the surrounding environment.
However, homeostasis has its limits, and no organism can remain active and thriving under
the full range of temperatures of the biosphere of the Earth. Different organisms have
adapted to survive in extreme cold, or in extreme heat, but never both.
Extreme Heat Extreme Cold
There are thermophilic bacteria (members of the There are many organisms which can survive
Archaea) which live and thrive in volcanic hot extreme cold, but few that remain active. Certain
springs at temperatures up to 120oC. types of algae and photosynthetic bacteria are found
to live within the snow and ice near the poles and are
In terrestrial environments such as hot deserts, still metabolically active at temperatures as low
as -10oC.
the temperature can often reach 40oC and
sometimes as high as 60oC. Many plants and Generally however, plants and animals cannot tolerate
animals are adapted to survive these extremes, their body temperature going below 0oC, because ice
but few remain active in this heat. Generally in crystals forming in the cells can destroy membranes
deserts the animals seek shelter and become and kill cells. Also, the chemical reactions of
inactive, while plants shut down their metabolism metabolism run so slowly at low temperature, that life
and merely survive. functions are not possible.
Cold Water Environments Of course, many animals do live and survive in the
cold because they can produce their own body heat.
Even when ice forms on the surface, water
(mammals and birds) They are equipped with body
environments rarely fall below +4oC, and are insulation and homeostatic mechanisms to maintain
remarkably stable in temperature. Life-forms do their core temperature, despite the cold environment.
not need to cope with change, although Perhaps the world champions are the Emperor
mammals or birds need serious insulation to Penguins which maintain core body temperatures
stay warm. It is the terrestrial environment that is around +33oC throughout the Antarctic winter in air
more of a challenge. temperatures as low as -50oC.
Temperature Control in Ectotherms

Ectotherms are the “cold-blooded” animals, such as reptiles, amphibians, insects, fish, worms, etc.
“Cold-blooded” is a misleading term and is best avoided, since these animals are NOT always cold,
but rather they rely on the outside environment for their body heat...
they do not generate heat internally like a mammal or bird.
Ectotherms have a variety of adaptations, many of In prolonged periods of cold weather, such as
them behavioural, to regulate their body winter in the Australian Alps, ectotherms cannot
temperature and keep it within the range in which remain active.
they can be active; Animals such as the Copperhead
generally 10-30oC. “Bluey” sun-baking Snake and the Corroboree Frog seek
shelter underground and become
For example, the Blue- dormant throughout the winter.
Tongue Lizard will lie in a
sunny spot with its body In a process similar to the
flattened and turned hibernation of bears, the animal’s
side-on to the Sun on a heartbeat and breathing slow down,
cool morning. This way it their metabolism almost stops and
absorbs heat more their body temperature chills to only
quickly to get its body just above freezing.
temperature high enough
to become active. As long as they are more than about 50
centimetres underground, the ground will not
As the day becomes hotter, the lizard will turn freeze even though buried in snow for several
facing the Sun to absorb less heat, and seek shade months. If they haven’t burrowed deeply enough
to avoid over-heating. they will freeze to death!
® Temperature Control in Endotherms

keep it simple science Endotherms are the animals which produce their own internal body heat
and maintain a constant body temperature... the birds and mammals.
All endotherms rely heavily on having body In hot environments such as the Australian deserts,
insulation... fur, feathers or blubber (fat). Humans mammals such as the Red Kangaroo or the Bilby,
rely mostly on technology to provide heaters, have many adaptations to help them cool their
jackets, wetsuits, gloves, etc, to bodies:
protect our fragile bodies from Large ears, with many blood
vessels, increases the surface
extreme temperatures.
area for heat loss.
What do endothermic animals in
the wild do? They seek shade in the heat of
the day.
Firstly, they have all the
responses for homeostasis Panting evaporates water from
described earlier... dilation or the mouth and throat, and cools
constriction of blood vessels, the blood.
shivering and sweating etc. As
well as these, they may have extra They may lick their forearms. The
adaptations to help regulate their evaporation of saliva cools their
temperature. In the desert, big ears are cool! body the same as sweating.
In the cold, endotherms go for thick fur coats (Wallaroo) or layers of fat (Australian Fur Seal).
Penguins, such as the Fairy Penguins along Australia’s southern coast, have a special
“blood by-pass” in their legs. In warm conditions the by-pass is closed and blood flows normally
to the feet. Since the feet are about the only part of their body not well insulated, in cold water
they could lose a lot of body heat. So in cold water the flow of blood from body toward
the feet is diverted via a special vein with a valve in it, back into the body.
The feet receive virtually no blood, and this conserves body heat.
Note that the various mechanisms used to help achieve homeostasis should all be seen as adaptations to
survival and all due to Natural Selection. Furthermore, all can be classified as being structural, behavioural
or physiological. Those mentioned so far are mostly behavioural or structural.
Responses of Plants to Temperature Change

Plants cannot respond to temperature change by moving away or hiding.
To cope with temperature extremes they must have structural or physiological adaptations.
To cope with seasonal cold weather, many plants When it is hot and DRY, they have a problem. Desert
(especially in the northern hemisphere) are plants tend to have very small leaves and thick,
deciduous... they shed their leaves and basically “stocky” shaped stems. This reduces the surface
shut down their metabolism for the winter, rather area being hit by heat radiation from the Sun, and
like an animal hibernating. Their leaves cannot be helps prevent over-heating. The cacti plant group
protected from freezing, so the strategy is to lose have taken the strategy to the limit... their leaves are
the vulnerable parts, survive until next spring, then spines, and stems are “fat” and rounded. They are
grow new leaves. also light coloured to reflect a lot of the radiant heat
away. They have few stomates.
Coping with heat is
another story. Narrow, The sclerophyll plants of Australia
If there is plenty of water drooping (e.g. gum trees) also have small
available, such as in a gum tree narrow leaves to reduce heat
tropical rainforest, then the leaves absorption from the Sun. Their
plants cool themselves by other “trick” is to allow the leaves
allowing maximum to droop. This allows them to
evaporative cooling. The catch light for photosynthesis in
leaves open their many the cooler morning when the Sun
stomates and allow is low, but avoid absorbing heat
transpiration to occur. The when the Sun is overhead at
evaporation has a cooling midday. They have few stomates,
effect, in the same way that and close them in dry times.
sweating cools an animal.

2. Cause & Effects
Non-infectious diseases are those which are NOT caused directly by a pathogen.
In the past 100 years or more, programs of public health, mass immunisation, etc., have resulted in a great
decline in deaths from infectious disease, so that non-infectious diseases are now far more significant.
This doesn’t necessarily mean that non-infectious diseases are increasing in their occurrence, but they have
become the major causes of death in our society because infectious disease mortality is so much less.
Having said that, it should be noted that some non-infectious diseases really are on the rise.
These include diseases resulting from modern life-styles such as type-2 diabetes & certain cancers
which are connected to “over-nutrition” & obesity.
According to the the Australian Bureau of Statistics, the main causes of death in Australia in 2017
were heart disease, dementia, cerebrovascular disease (“stroke”) and a variety of cancers.
Many of these causes of death are associated with “old-age”, which links to our life-expectancy of 80+ years.
Types of Non-Infectious Disease

Try (Revision) Worksheet 4
Genetic Disorders Cancer
These are the diseases & disorders which are This single word is used to describe a huge variety
inherited. Some were mentioned in a previous of different diseases. What they all have in common
module in relation to mutation. The best known is abnormal cell growth, invasion of healthy tissue
include cystic fibrosis, haemophilia and & avoidance of commands for apoptosis.
phenylketonuria. (PKU)
The causes of cancer include:
There are also many complex disorders which tend • exposure to environmental factors, such as
to “run in families”, meaning that there may be one UV rays or carcinogenic chemicals.
or more genes involved, but the inheritance of the • infectious diseases. For example, some types of
gene(s) does not directly or necessarily result in the hepatitis virus infections may lead to liver cancer.
development of the disease. IF the gene(s) is/are • lifestyle choices, such as cigarette smoking.
present AND other factors & events occur, then the
disorder MAY develop. In about 95% of cancers, the underlying cause in all
of the above is genetic mutation resulting from
The list of these diseases includes various types of exposure to the carcinogen chemical, radiation or
cancer, asthma, diabetes, heart disease and many infection. Some of the precise mechanisms were
others. These are usually NOT considered as outlined in Module 6... revise!
genetic diseases, but “complex diseases with a
familial connection”. The diagram outlines the
Mutation inactivates
typical chain of events which tumour-suppressor gene
Environmental Exposure Diseases follows the initial mutation
Image: National Cancer Institute

This group includes melanoma, lead & mercury which may lead to
Cells Proliferate
poisoning and mesothelioma. development of a cancer.
Some of these diseases may result from Notice that a whole string of
environmental pollution, or from a person’s mutations & errors are
occupation or even his/her lifestyle. For example, required. In many cases, our
melanoma is linked to outdoor lifestyles. (see case immune systems detect & Mutation inactivates
study, next page) destroy the abnormality before DNA repair gene
it becomes dangerous.
Nutritional Diseases Mutation activates
Nutritional deficiency diseases are caused by eating One of the greatest dangers of an “oncogene”
a diet lacking in total energy and/or a vital nutrient. some cancers is their ability to
These diseases are now very uncommon in spread “seed” tumour cells to Mutation inactivates
several more tumour-
developed countries. However, the UN estimates other parts of the body. If the suppressor genes
that (in 2017) there were over 800 million people seeds spread in the lymph
suffering nutritional deficiencies. This is despite the (“lymphatic spread”) it
fact that the total agricultural production of the generally results in a tumour
world is about enough to feed almost twice the in nearby lymph glands. If
world’s population. they spread in the blood
stream (“metastasis”) this may
In countries like Australia, the modern problem is (of result in multiple tumours in
Cancer
course) “over-nutrition”... more soon. distant parts of the body.
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Case Studies of Non-Infectious Diseases
Inherited Disease: Haemophilia Nutritional Deficiency Disease:
Occurrence Scurvy
Haemophilia occurs in males only, at a rate of 1 in Occurrence
every 5,000 male births. In modern Australian society, scurvy is virtually
non-existant because of the generally high quality
Symptoms diet available. (We eat too much... but that’s
Due to an inherited, defective gene, the person’s another story.)
blood lacks certain blood “factors” involved in blood
clotting, so his body is unable to stop the bleeding In history, scurvy was a significant disease,
from minor injuries. Even gentle activity can cause especially on long sea voyages. A British report in
minor bleeds at joints and in muscles. 1600 indicated that 10,000 sailors had died of
scurvy in the previous 20 years.
With haemophilia, there is continued internal
bleeding, extreme pain in joints, and this leads to Symptoms
joint damage and disability. Untreated, it is usually The main protein of skin, bone and hair is
fatal during childhood. “collagen”. In scurvy, the collagen cannot be
made properly by the body, so
Cause • hair falls out.
Haemophilia is caused by a recessive, sex-linked • skin erupts, flakes and discolours.
gene. The recessive gene is carried on the “X” • teeth loosen and fall out.
chromosome and so is inherited more commonly in • blood capillaries leak blood, so bruising
males than females. spots appear all over the body.
In fact, it is virtually unknown in females because to Cause

have haemophilia a female must be the daughter of Lack of Vitamin C in the diet. Vitamin C is found
a haemophiliac father. Until recently no in citrus fruits such as oranges, and in some
haemophiliac males survived long enough to father vegetables such as tomatoes.
children. An enzyme responsible for a critical step in
making collagen requires ascorbic acid (vit. C) for
Treatment/Management its correct functioning.
Modern treatment allows haemophilia sufferers to
lead a fairly normal life. Treatment involves regular Treatment/Management
injections of blood clotting factors extracted from A balanced diet including fresh fruits and
donated blood. vegetables, will prevent scurvy.
An Environmental Exposure Disease: Melanoma

Occurrence Cause (cont)
Melanoma is the 3rd most common cancer in Australia, Exposure to UV damages skin cells, causes
and almost 2,000 Australians die from it each year. mutations in the DNA and greatly increases the
Since 1950 its occurrence has tripled, and Australia risk of a melanoma developing.
(with NZ) has the highest incidence of melanoma in the
world, per capita. It can also be considered a “lifestyle disease”
since its occurrence is related to outdoor
Symptoms lifestyles, and activities such as sunbaking.
Dark, irregular-shaped moles appear on the skin. People with fair skin are more at risk.
These may become raised, and later bleed and become
ulcerated. Treatment/Management
The primary tumour can be removed by surgery.
This “primary” tumour may shed cells which can Secondary tumours are treated by surgery,
spread in the blood and establish “secondary” radiation therapy and anti-cancer drugs. Early
tumours in vital organs such as lungs, kidneys, liver or detection greatly increases the chances of
brain. survival.
Cause Prevention (always the preferred strategy)

Melanoma may be classed as an “environmental includes avoiding skin exposure to the Sun by the
exposure disease” because its major cause is a factor use of protective clothing, and sunscreen lotions,
of the Australian environment... ultra violet (UV) rays and changing lifestyle by avoiding deliberate
from the Sun. sunbaking.

Collecting & Representing Data
The Syllabus requires that you “collect & represent data” about non-infectious disease.
To help you get started on this, we have presented below a table of information (slightly modified)
taken from the website of the Australian Bureau of Statistics. (ABS)
(The changes we have made do NOT alter any data. We have condensed some categories & added more from other ABS tables.)
One of our “Worksheets” is dedicated to processing and “representing” this data.
The ABS website would be an excellent starting point for you to carry out more investigations.
Some Leading Causes of Death in Australia 2017, Compared to 1968
(50 year comparison)
Cause of Death Rank Rank No. of %of Total %of Total

in 2017 in 1968 Deaths Deaths Deaths
2017 2017 1968
Heart Disease 1 1 18,590 11.6% 30.5%
Dementia, 2 40 13,729 8.5% 0.2%

inc. Alzheimer’s
Cerebrovascular 3 2 10,186 6.3% 14.0%

(“stroke”)
Chronic lower 4 3 8,357 5.2% 3.4%

Respiratory diseases
Cancer (lung, etc.) 5 6 8,262 5.1% 2.6%
Cancer (bowel, etc.) 6 8 5,325 3.3% 2.3%
Diabetes 7 10 4,839 3.0% 1.8%
Cancer (lymph 8 14 4,499 2.8% 1.5%

and blood)
Flu & pneumonia 9 5 4,269 2.7% 3.0%
Urinary Tract 10 11 3,565 2.2% 1.8%

Disease
Road Accidents 28 4 1,318 0.8% 3.3%
New-born baby 42 9 582 0.4% 2.2%

Mortalities
A Few Comments to Get you Started Now some notable comparisons from the table
How many people died (from any and all causes) above. You might discuss ideas about why things
altogether in 2017? have changed.
From the first line of data you can calculate that if Heart disease is still No.1 killer, but it now causes
18,590 was 11.6% of all deaths in 2017, then a total only 11.6% deaths cf. 30.5% 50 years ago. Why?
of about 160,000 people died that year. The total
population was 24.7 million in Sept. 2017. Therefore, The ranking for Dementia has leapt from 40th to 2nd
the total “mortality rate” was about 0.6%. biggest cause of death.
Our table does not allow a comparison to 1968, but A couple of positive changes are shown for deaths
from other ABS sources we can say that about due to road accidents and for new-born children.
110,000 people died that year from a population of
about 12 million. This gives a mortality rate about What sorts of changes in our society & medical
1.1%. This is close to double the rate in 2017. services are probably involved in these changes?
This drop in total mortality rate is a reflection of our Complete Worksheet 5

increase in life-expectancy over 50 years.

3. Epidemiology
Epidemiology Case Study:
Epidemiology is the study of the occurrence of Epidemiology of Lung Cancer
diseases. It is very much about collecting data and Now that many infectious diseases are more or
analysing it statistically to look for patterns and less under control, the major causes of death in
correlations between the incidence of disease and the our society are heart disease and cancer. In the
many factors that may be involved in the cause(s) and USA in 1996, of all the many deaths by cancer,
the spread of disease. those due to lung cancer amounted to 25% in men
and 14% in women. Epidemiology has now
The data collected by epidemiologists includes established beyond doubt that there is a very
information from: strong link between lung cancer and smoking.
Hospitals and health-

care workers who Government studies such
report on their as the national census,
patients and the which measures the size
treatments given. and age distribution of the
population, where people
live, what they do for a
living and so on.
Research studies of particular diseases, in
which detailed information is gathered about
those people suffering the disease, and The correlation between smoking and a number of
compared to a “control group” of similar health problems, including lung cancer, was
people without the disease. suggested by epidemiology data as early as the
1950’s. The powerful and influencial tobacco
The results of an epidemiological study might companies were able to argue that...
include:
Identifying that a new ...“correlation doesn’t prove causation”
disease has appeared.
This is quite true. Just because 2 things occur
Assessment of the together doesn’t prove that one causes the other.
effectiveness of public As the ancient Romans knew, malaria is more
Identifying the health systems and
common around swamps. They thought it was the
possible causes vaccination programs.
“bad air”. Now we know it’s because of the
or risk factors of
a disease. Discovering that an existing mosquito vector breeding in the swamps.
(Including new disease has changed in its
outbreaks or epidemics) occurrence.
Throughout the 1970’s and 1980’s the
epidemiology studies kept collecting data and
Such findings allow health authorities and
compiling evidence showing that smoking was
governments to plan and allocate resources to better linked to lung cancer.
meet the health needs of a community. For example,
epidemiology results might point out the need for a Experiments to try to prove the causation were
new hospital to be built in a certain place, or for a done too. For example, thousands of laboratory
law to be made to ban the advertising of products rats were forced to breathe tobacco smoke for long
that endanger health, such as tobacco products. periods of time and the incidence of lung cancer
compared with “non-smoking” rats. Eventually the
A classic example which shows the value of evidence became overwhelming:
epidemiology is the case of the drug thalidomide. In
the 1960’s this drug was commonly prescribed to • Annual deaths from lung cancer are about 5 times
higher among smokers than non-smokers.
pregnant women to prevent “morning sickness”.
Throughout history there have always been some • Quitting smoking immediately begins reducing
children born with deformities, and no-one noticed the chance of developing lung cancer
that there had been a slight increase in these cases.
However, an epidemiology study revealed a correlation • Since the banning of tobacco advertising and
between the use of thalidomide and an increased risk public awareness programs, the percentage of
of babies being born with disabilities. The drug was smokers in the population has declined. The
quickly banned, saving many more people from its incidence of lung cancer (and other smoking-
terrible effects. related problems) has declined exactly in parallel.
® A Little History
keep it simple science Snow began plotting the
Snow’s map locations of the homes of
The beginnings of modern from 1854 cholera victims on a map. It
epidemiology are credited was soon obvious to him
to John Snow, an English that the occurrences of the
doctor who investigated disease were clustered
an outbreak of cholera in around a certain water-pump
London in 1854. in the suburb of Soho.
At that time, most people Snow arranged for the

collected their daily water suspect pump to be disabled
needs in buckets from The pump and the epidemic ceased
communal cisterns, responsible immediately. Later evidence
fountains or water pumps. for the revealed that the water
Water piped into homes outbreak
supply to that pump was
was very rare. contaminated by sewerage.
Although the “germ- This was a turning point in

theory” of disease was not public health processes. It
fully established at the time, it was was soon realised that safe drinking water was essential for
suspected that cholera was somehow public health. Soon, governments began drafting laws &
connected to water supplies. setting standards for both water supplies & sewerage disposal.
Methods of Modern Epidemiology

Infectious Disease Outbreak Non-Infectious Diseases
In the case of a possible outbreak of an infectious An epidemiological study of non-infectious
disease, the medical staff are (of course) most diseases need to be carried out quite differently.
interested in diagnosis and treatment of the patients.
Such studies typically rely heavily upon
For an epidemiologist, once the patients are being gathering large amounts of data over long
treated, the most important task is to gather periods of time. Data might be gathered from
information. This usually involves interviews (in person, national health statistics, or from dedicated
by phone or questionnaire) with patients and their research projects involving the selection of
families to find information such as: participants who undergo health examinations
and questionnaires over periods of (in some
• where they have been? cases) many years.
• how have they travelled? (eg recently overseas?)
• what activities have been done? (eg swimming?) The participants are usually selected on the basis
• what food & drinks have been consumed? of a particular characteristic(s) such as:
• who have they been in contact with?
• where they live and/or socioeconomic status.
Then, all the patient / family responses are collated to • age & sex.
find common factors. Simple mathematical analysis • exposure to environmental factors of interest,
gives a probability “score” for the likelihood that each and so on, as appropriate to the study.
common factor is possibly involved.
Usually such studies involve 2 groups of people
For example, if many of the patients show symptoms who are as close to identical as possible,
consistent with food poisoning AND they have all EXCEPT for the factor(s) being studied. This
visited a particular restaurant in the week prior to allows the final conclusions to be based on any
illness, the conclusion becomes obvious. differences between the “control” group and the
“test” group.
For infectious diseases another important process is to
confirm the identity of the pathogen. This may involve To ensure a high level of validity, the study must
blood tests for antibodies, or bacteriology studies, such carefully identify & accurately measure relevant
as culturing vomit or stool specimens. health parameters such as body weights, blood-
sugar levels, blood pressure, etc. across both
Positive identification of a pathogen gives greater groups.
validity to the study. Increasing the number of people
involved in the study improves its reliability. For To have better reliability, such studies must
example, in the case of a suspect restaurant, it would be involve as many participants as possible so that
wise to gather data from other customers to improve comparisons have greater statistical significance.
the mathematical significance of data.
To research some case studies, try www.cdc.gov/epidcasestudies
The CDC (Centres for Disease Control) is a branch of the US Dept. of Health.
®
A Modern Nutritional Disease: Obesity
Health Effects of Obesity
Obesity is a medical condition defined by Numerous studies have shown that, on average,
accumulation of excess body fat to the point where obesity reduces life expectancy by 6 -7 years. This is
a number of adverse health conditions become the statistical result of an increased risk of death at
more likely. According to the World Health any age.
Organisation, (WHO) obesity has become a leading
preventable cause of death worldwide. Relative Risk of Dying (in next 10 yrs) for US males
(adult non-smokers) compared to their BMI
A common measure used to determine a person’s
3
Image by Dr James Hielman. CCA-SA 3.0
status is their “Body-Mass Index” (BMI).
Relative Risk
Dotted-line represents
BMI = person’s weight (kg) chance of dying for
average healthy persons
(height in metres)2
2
of same age.
BMI values between 18 - 25 are considered healthy,

25-30 is considered “over-weight”, while values
above 30 are considered “obese”.
1
<18 20 22.5 25 27.5 30 35 40 >40
Most scientific evidence supports the view that BMI
obesity is a consequence of human genetics
combined with modern lifestyles which involve
excessive food intake & lack of physical activity. Studies have shown that obesity results in increased
risk of a large number of health problems. For
Genetics example, obesity is involved in 64% (men) or 77%
There is a theory that humans are prone to obesity (women) of cases of type-2 diabetes. It is also
because of our evolution. The argument is that, in commonly associated with high blood pressure,
earlier times food supplies were uncertain and cardiovascular disease, certain forms of cancer,
highly variable. Under those conditions, Natural stroke, liver disease, cellulitis (deep-skin infection)
Selection favoured those individuals with the and many other complaints.
genetic ability to store a temporary food abundance
as body fat. These people then had a better chance Additionally, obese people have increased risks of
of surviving times of starvation. Genes which mental health issues such as depression, probably
enhanced this ability increased in gene frequency. due to reduced employment prospects, social
rejection, bullying and reduced self-confidence.
Supporting this theory, scientists have identified
over 40 genes (and gene combinations) in the Causes & Population Comparisons
human genome which have been linked to a Obese people are often stigmatised as “weak” or
tendency for obesity, if food supplies allow. “lazy”, despite the evidence (at left) of genetic
connections. A common opinion is that excess TV
Changes in Food Consumption watching (or any other screen-time) is a major
The following graph has been compiled from data contributing factor. The scientific evidence is that
collected by the WHO. childhood obesity IS connected to media exposure.
World Food Energy Consumption, 1961-2002
Within our society there is evidence that obesity is
more common among lower socioeconomic groups.
(especially among women) We all know that a
Calories per person per day
healthy BMI is possible with a balanced diet of

(mostly) fresh foods plus lots of exercise. However,
fresh foods are usually more expensive than high-
The rise in food energy fat, high-sugar processed foods, take-aways, snack
consumption in this graph foods & sugary drinks.
shows a 24% increase
since 1960. Modern lifestyles & technologies commonly create
Image by Dr James Hielman. CCA-SA 3.0 situations where many people are “time-poor” AND
many modern occupations involve low physical activity.
Economically disadvantaged people cannot always
afford lots of fresh foods & often lack the time required
Note: The energy units here are “Calories”. for food preparation and for daily exercise. Wealthier
(with a capital “C”... Small “c” calories are different: 1 Cal = 1000 cal.) people are more likely to have a healthy BMI.
We normally use kilojoules (kJ). 1 Cal. = 4.2 kJ However, this correlation is often reversed in lower-economy countries.
In many poorer countries it is the wealthier people who tend to obesity,
because they can afford high-status “Western” foods.
® Patterns Of Non-Infectious Disease in Populations

keep it simple science The syllabus requirement to “analyse patterns of non-infectious diseases in
populations” may already have been partly covered by our previous discussion (and worksheet) of the
causes of death in Australia in 2017 compared to 1968. In that case, the comparison was between
populations in the same place at different times. Here we consider different population groups who live at
the same time. The following data was published by the WHO in 2017 to compare the main causes (not all
causes) of mortality in “low-income economies” and “high-income economies”. ie rich v. poor countries
Causes of Death Deaths per 100,000 of population

Low-income economies High-income economies
Respiratory infections 128 40 “low” means figures were

Diarrhoel diseases 57 low not reported because that
disease did not rate in the
Stroke 45 63
top 10 causes of death.
Heart disease 44 182
HIV/AIDS 43 low
Malaria 33 low
New-born deaths 58 2 After this page,
Transport accidents 25 5 complete Worksheet 6.
Dementia related low 60
Cancer (all types) 2 91 The data in this table will
Diabetes related death low 24 be used for part of it.
Kidney disease 2 18
Treatment, Management & Future Directions

Age-Related & Lifestyle Outcomes Some examples of attempts to reduce the incidence
As already discussed, the predominance of non- of “lifestyle-related” diseases are:
infectious diseases as the major causes of death in
our society can be related to the success of our Anti-Smoking Strategies
public health programs and medical resources. • banning the advertising of tobacco products.
• plain-packaging and “out-of-sight” retail shelving.
The effectiveness of immunisation programs, • age-restrictions on purchasing.
antibiotic medications, clean water supplies, • high rates of sales tax to force prices up hugely.
sewerage treatment and provision of high-quality • anti-smoking education programs.
medical treatments have combined to:
Some doctors have threatened to refuse to treat
• greatly reduce deaths due to infectious diseases, patients who are sufferring smoking-related
and illnesses, but this is considered unethical by many.
• increase our “life-expectancy” to 80+ years. On
average, we live very long lives, yet everyone must Anti-Melanoma Strategies
die eventually. The longer a person lives, the more • public education programs such as the famous
likely it becomes that he/she will succome to cancer, “Slip, Slop, Slap” campaign of the 1980’s.
clogged arteries or become vulnerable to ‘flu or (Evidence is that this campaign helped reduce the
incidence of some types of skin cancer, but NOT
pneumonia.
melanoma, possibly because people using
sun-protection tend to stay in the Sun longer.)
Meanwhile, people make lifestyle choices (such as • greater availability of “skin clinics” &
smoking or excessive sun-exposure) which increase encouragement to have regular skin checks. This of
the probability of certain cancers. Others find it course, does not reduce incidence, but does help
difficult to avoid obesity and its health risks. early detection, which improves survival chances.
Considering all these factors, what are some of the Improved Nutrition Strategies
future directions for treatment & management? • better labelling of nutrient content of processed
food products.
Detection & Treatments • banning of certain foods & drinks from school
It is a feature of our well-funded, high-tech medical canteens & other institutional food outlets.
infrastructure that treatments for cancer, heart
disease, stroke, etc have improved greatly and Some people recommend the taxing or banning of
should continue to improve. Furthermore, new sugary drinks completely and other legal
methods for early detection of cancer (eg by simple restrictions on “unhealthy” foods.
blood tests) or Alzheimer’s Disease are continually
improving. The challenges for the future may be Ultimately, the way to prevent “lifestyle diseases” is
more to do with the non-infectious diseases which to change human behaviours. Access to healthier
have a significant “lifestyle component”. options and education are key... more next section.

4. Prevention
Current Management Methods
It is difficult to come to conclusions about the effectiveness of current methods to combat
non-infectious diseases in general. Each disease has its own characteristics, rates of incidence
and treatment methods, so it is impossible to generalise.
Therefore, we will look at the current management of 2 very different diseases before
moving on to consider possible future methods to prevent each one.
Case Study 1. A Genetic Disease Cystic Fibrosis

Cystic Fibrosis (CF) is an inherited disease
caused by a faulty version of a gene called
“CFTR”. This gene regulates the production of
body secretions such as sweat & mucus.
The faulty gene is relatively common among

people of European descent, so that about 1 in
every 3,000 babies born, is homozygous for the
faulty (recessive) gene and develops CF. Until
less than 100 years ago, a CF baby would
rarely live more than 1 year. Today, the life
expectancy is approaching 50 years in
developed countries.
CF affects many parts of the body, but notably

the lungs. The faulty gene causes the (normally
liquid) mucus of the lungs to be very thick. This
causes symptoms of breathing difficulties, and
chronic lung infections. Image courtesy of US Nat.Heart, Lung, Blood Institute
Current Management
There is no cure. Treatment (with emphasis on Healty CF gene
lungs) involves antibiotics to control infections, Healthy CF gene cloned
various inhalers & ventilators containing mucus- in bacterial plasmids.
loosening drugs and many hours of physiotherapy (Similar process to
to clear the airways. insulin production Plasmids
method) in cell
Future Gene Therapy?
The faulty gene responsible for CF was discovered in Plasmids are collected and
1989. Early laboratory research showed that if a copy inserted into a virus similar to
of the normal gene could be introduced into abnormal the one that causes a cold.
cells, the normal gene would be expressed and the
abnormal cells act normally again. Some of the virus’s own genes
are destroyed, so that it can still
The trick is to get copies of the normal gene into infect lung cells, but does not
the lung cells of a person suffering CF. Some cause any disease.
success has been achieved using harmless viruses
as vectors to “deliver” the gene into the cells.
Image by US Dept Health Various trials have been CF patient infected with
conducted over the last 20+ modified virus.
years, with some Normal protein
encouraging results, but Virus DNA is produced by
any improvement achieved incorporated into the gene in
Adenovirus in patients is, so far, only human DNA in lung cells patient’s lungs
injecting
DNA into
temporary. The technique
human cell has not yet been approved
for routine treatment of CF.
Clinical trials of a variety of gene therapy projects are currently underway, mostly in USA.
The subject diseases include CF, Parkinson’s Disease, Non-Hodgkin lymphoma, sickle-cell and
haemophilia. None have yet been approved for use beyond trial stage.
Hopefully, gene therapy will soon provide a way for CF sufferers to lead a fully normal life.
However, while this may be a “cure”, it is not prevention as specified by the syllabus.
Later, we will consider the possibility of preventing CF, but first another non-infectious disease...
®
Case Study 2. A Nutritional-Lifestyle Disease
Obesity Image by FatM1ke
Some details about obesity were covered earlier, but we begin with BMI = 52
more epidemiology data specific to Australia.
Epidemic?
According to the WHO (2007) Australia is the 3rd highest ranking
country in the English-speaking world for the incidence of over-
weight and obese adults... about 60%. Almost half were in the
obese category. In 2014-5, the Medical Journal of Australia agreed
with opinions that this disease is an “epidemic” and concluded
that the contributing causes are:
• poor eating habits and availability of convenience foods.

• decreases in occupations which involve physical activity.
• sedentary lifestyles resulting in less exercise as a routine part of
everyday life. eg less people walk to work, school or shops, etc.
In 2014, the Obesity Society Australia predicted that the health implications & the economic costs of obesity
would become overwhelming if current trends continue for another 20 years or more.
Current Management Strategies
Government Initiatives Surgical Solutions
Australian Federal & State governments have all For those who are “morbidly obese”, surgery can
recognised obesity as a “health priority”. This save them from an early death. The earliest
means governments must commit to strategies (and techniques involved reducing or by-passing the
pass laws) for action. Some of these include: stomach. Such major surgery on unhealthy, over-
weight patients was risky and very expensive.
• tax incentives to make fresh fruits & veggies more
affordable. (Has this actually happened?) The most common
• consultation with the food industry to reduce sugar technique is now
& fat content of processed foods. (Many companies have adjustable “gastric
responded by making “healthier alternatives” available in their product banding”. (left) A strap
range, but consumers may still choose the “junk” products) is applied around the
Image by
• changes to urban-planning guidelines to make James P Gray. stomach, so the person
parks & sporting facilities more accessible. CCA-SA 3.0
feels “full” after eating
• tax-subsidies & health insurance cover for gym only a small amount. A
membership and other “healthy lifestyle” items. small opening allows
• banning of TV advertising of “junk foods” during the food to slowly get
daytime when children’s programs may be on. past the band & move
on to the intestines.
Some states will pay for the costs of “weight-loss
surgery” (at right) for some categories of obese This technique has far better health outcomes (post-
patients. The patient’s cost is usually at least $10,000. surgery AND in reducing BMI) than previous methods.
Educational & Community Strategies
Many (most?) schools have now banned snack foods & sugary drinks from their canteens & tuckshops and
offer only healthy food choices. Many schools have implemented extra physical activities on top of
compulsory sport & PE lessons to encourage more exercise. These aim to encourage an enjoyment of
exercise & physical fitness, so that more people may choose to continue a healthy lifestyle throughout life.
All school syllabuses now contain health & nutrition instruction built into many parts of the curriculum.
(including this Bio module) Research has shown that this is most effective in early-age schooling.
So, Are We Winning, or Not?

Well, yes and no! Research in 2007-8 found that, after rising steeply for 20 years, the incidence of obesity in
Australian children had levelled off. Maybe some of the strategies above have had some effect.
However, there is no sign of an overall reversal of the obesity statistics throughout our population.
As usual, it is our indigenous people who suffer the most. A study in 2001 found that indigenous obesity
rates were double those of other Australians. An epidemiology study done by a Canadian university in
Western Australia revealed that 60% of Aboriginal people in the study had tested positive to diabetes.
It should be noted that heart disease, stroke & diabetes are all related to obesity
and have a powerful negative impact on life expectancy.
FACT: Life expectancy for indigenous Australians is 17 years lower than the national average!
Future Prevention?
® We have NOT prepared a
worksheet for this section.
keep it simple science Make your discussions count!
The following notes are best considered as a guide for group or class discussion.
We do not claim to be experts in this field (or any other field, for that matter) so our notes & comments
should NOT be accepted without further research and/or debate.
The underlying question here is “can we EVER actually prevent non-infectious diseases occurring?”
Preventing Cystic Fibrosis? Preventing Obesity?

Some points to consider... Some points to consider, research & discuss...
We may (soon) be able to successfully treat and Other Management Strategies?

“cure” a CF patient using gene therapy. However, On the previous page we outlined a variety of
this is “management”, not prevention. strategies which are being implemented to try to
counter the “epidemic” of obesity.
Gene Frequency
The mutated version of the CFTR gene which is We hope our outlines are factual, but we know they
responsible for CF is believed to occur in about 4% are NOT definitive and certainly incomplete. You
of all people of European descent. This is a should research to find other possible strategies
relatively high gene frequency for such diseases. and look for evidence of their effectiveness.
It occurs at lower frequencies in other racial groups.
Banning Junk Food?
Genetic Counselling Some people suggest that the law should be used to
Once CF occurs in a family, it is possible to identify simply ban unhealthy supermarket products and
the probable “carriers” of the gene. These people many take-away foods.
may be given “genetic counselling” so that they can
make informed decisions about the choice to have In our opinion, this is just NOT going to happen!
children, or not. This is a choice, not a compulsion! The economic impact of such laws would be
unacceptable. The businesses & companies which
It may be already possible (research that?) to produce & sell “junk food” employ many thousands
identify other carriers of the faulty gene by of people. Farmers rely on selling their produce to
analysing their DNA from a simple mouth swab. the manufacturers. Governments rely on the
company taxes paid by these profitable businesses.
Therefore, it may be theoretically possible for
people who carry the gene to request testing of Furthermore, there are millions of Australians with
prospective parenting partners before deciding to very health BMI’s who enjoy these “junk” products
risk having children with them. occasionally. Total bans could reduce their quality
of life such as the “Friday night pizza & movie” or
Human Nature the “fish & chips in the park” family picnic.
Would a person (who has fallen in love) make such
an important life-decision on the basis of a DNA It all boils down to a matter of choices and making
test? the “right choice” requires (as mentioned before)
education which can alter human behaviour.
Some might, but many people find it uncomfortable
or even repugnant to be making such clinical Human Society
decisions about love & future family matters. Can we ever totally prevent non-genetic obesity?
History suggests not. There have always been
Intervention by Authorities? occurrences of obese people. It used to be only
What if health authorities or governments passed a those with great power & wealth who could access
law making it compulsory for everyone to have a enough food to grow their girth & BMI. In the past,
DNA test and then another law to prevent people being fat was a great social status symbol.
who carry “bad” genes from having children?
Today, it seems to be the under-privileged who are
Well, now we’re entering some very dangerous more prone to obesity. Is there a correlation to these
ethical and moral territory! This is the stuff of people being under-educated as well?
science fiction stories set in dystopian societies.
Human Nature... Again!
The Bottom Line? If we could “cure” unemployment, lack of
It is our humble opinion that total prevention of CF opportunity and other aspects of being “under-
(or other inherited diseases) is impossible while privileged”, would this then allow anti-obesity
staying within the bounds of an ethical & democratic strategies (such as educational campaigns) to
society. The incidence of CF might be reduced by become more successful?
genetic counselling with the “carriers”.
Even if we achieved perfect equality of wealth &
We can manage, or even cure, but not prevent. opportunity, can we ever convince everyone to make
the “right” healthy choices?
®

5. Technology & Disorders
STRUCTURE & FUNCTION OF THE EYE
Sclera (“White” of the eye)
Lens A transparent and flexible Tough fibrous tissue which
structure which refracts light to focus an maintains eyeball shape, and
image on the retina. The shape of the protects the parts inside.
lens changes according to the distance
of the object being viewed.
Retina
Layer of Receptor cells
Cornea which detect light, and set
Transparent tissue to admit off nerve messages.
light. Its shape helps refract Vitreous Humour
the light to form an image. A transparent, jelly-like
liquid which fills the Fovea
eyeball and maintains Part of the retina
Iris its shape. where you see fine
The “colour” of the details in full colour.
eye. A ring of muscle
which can dilate
(open) or constrict
(close) to change the
size of the hole in the
middle... the “Pupil”.
This controls the
amount of light
entering the eye. Image: Holly Fischer
CCA-Share Alike 3.0 Licence.
Optic Nerve
Conjunctiva Carries nerve signals from
Surface layer on the cornea. Protects the Retina to brain.
delicate cornea from damage.
Muscles which move the eyeball. Ciliary Body

Pairs of muscles control eyeball movements A ring of muscles which holds the lens and can
up & down, left & right. alter its shape by pulling on tiny tendons.
Other Important Bits

Lachrymal (Tear) Glands Eyelids
These glands are located approximately where Your eyelids can close completely to protect your
shown below and produce tears. Tears contain eyes from sudden dangers or over-bright light, but
various chemicals including a lubricant & anti- also carry out a vital function every 5-10 seconds...
bacterial substances. The liquid is secreted onto you blink.
the eyeball from pores under the top eyelid.
Each time you blink, the eyelid acts like a
“windscreen wiper” & wipes the eye surface clean.
This also wipes a thin film of tears across the
surface keeping the conjunctiva moist.
Tear Ducts
If that’s all there was to it, the constant secretion of
tears plus the blinking would cause a constant
trickle of liquid down your cheek. Normally
however, the used tears (plus dust, microbes, etc.)
drain away through the ducts at the inside corner of
each eye. This drains into the nasal cavity, which
explains why you may need to blow your nose after
you’ve been crying.
®
How the Eye Forms an Image
Refraction of Light Prac Work: Lenses of Different Shape
Light rays travel in straight lines, but when light You may have investigated the way that Convex Lenses
goes from one transparent substance to another (a of different curvature focus light differently:
different “medium”) it changes direction and speed. A “Thicker” Lens has a shorter Focal Length
This is called “Refraction”.
Focal Point
For example, if a light ray goes from air into a glass Parallel
block: beams
of light
Glass
Focal Length
Light ray A “Thinner” Lens has a longer Focal Length

changes ...and changes
direction as it direction again
enters glass as it exits the Focal Point
glass
Focal Length
Refraction is why this However, this doesn’t really relate to the functioning
spoon appears broken at of the eye. The eyeball has a fixed size, so the image
the liquid surface... the must always be focused on the retina at a fixed
light rays by which we see distance from the lens.
the spoon are being “bent”
by the water and glass. Also, in the diagrams above, the incoming light rays
are always parallel. However, the rays entering the
eye from nearby objects are not parallel, but
diverging. (spreading out)
Lenses are curved so that
the refraction can bring A more meaningful investigation is as follows:
light rays together, or
spread them apart. In a darkened room, focus the image of a distant, lit
candle onto a “screen” such as a sheet of paper.
Use a “thin” lens.
Convex Lens
Parallel Small
beams inverted
of light image of
Parallel rays from a candle
distant candle forms on
Focus, paper
or “Focal Point” screen
Distance from lens to screen
Concave Lens
Now, replace the lens with a “fatter” one.
Keep the screen distance the same, but move the
candle closer until an image forms.
Rays from a Larger,

closer object are inverted
spreading out. image
The lens must of
have a shorter candle
focal length to forms
form an image on
on the same paper
screen. Distance from lens to screen screen
kept the same
Only a Convex Lens can FOCUS light
to form an image This is what the eye does... it changes the shape of the
lens to focus objects which are closer or further away.
®
Eye Function & Disfunction
Myopia and Hyperopia
Accommodation Myopia is “short-sightedness”: close objects can be
The lens of the eye is composed of a flexible, viewed normally, but distant objects (more than
transparent protein material. The muscles of the
about 5 metres away) appear blurred and out of
ciliary body can pull on the lens causing it to
become thicker, or relax and allow it to become focus.
thinner.
Hyperopia is “long-sightedness”... the opposite.
This changing of the shape of the lens is called Distant objects can be clearly seen, but close
accommodation, and allows the eye to focus images objects cannot be seen clearly.
of distant objects or close-up objects.
Image on These vision problems are generally due to either:
Retina Muscles of Ciliary Body relax.
Lens has thinner shape.
• the lens is unable to change shape enough for
either close or distant objects.
or
• the eyeball itself being too long, or too short, so that
Distant the focus position of an image is either in front, or
object behind, the retina, instead of right on it.
This also Some people have one of these vision problems

Muscles of Ciliary Body pull explains
lens into thicker shape from birth. Most people will develop one of these
“perspective”; problems with age, often due to loss of flexibility of
why distant
their lens, which therefore loses some of its
Close objects appear
smaller, and accommodation ability.
object
close objects
appear larger. Myopia and Its Correction
Short-sightedness is often due to the eyeball being
The “fatter” the lens, the more refractive power it has too long so the focus position for the image of a
to bend the light rays. (i.e. shorter focal length) distant object is in front of the retina. When the light
rays reach the retina the image is no longer in focus,
and everything appears “blurry”.
Refraction by Cornea & “Humors” Focus position is in front
The curved cornea also refracts the light and helps to of Retina
focus the image on the retina. The liquid aqueous humor,
and the jelly-like vitreous humor also contribute to bending
the light rays.
However, only the lens is able to change its shape Distant

significantly to accommodate vision of objects at Position of Retina if eyeball was object
correct shape
different distances.
Eyeball is too long
Depth Perception Myopia is corrected by glasses containing concave

Humans, and many other animals, have eyes that face lenses.
forward so both eyes focus on the same object, but
from slightly different angles. This is called “binocular” Image now focused
on retina
or “stereoscopic” vision.
Concave lens in spectacles
Each eye focuses on the view from a slightly

different angle, so the brain receives 2 images
which are not quite the same, but are a “stereo
pair”. The brain combines these 2 images so that we
perceive a 3-dimensional view. We can automatically
tell which part of the view is close or distant, and
can “judge” the distance quite accurately. The concave lens refracts the light rays so they are
diverging as they enter the eye. This has the effect
This is a vital skill for sports, or driving, or even just the of “pushing the image back” onto the retina so the
simple act of walking on uneven ground and being able to vision is clear and focused.
accurately position each step you take.
®
Eye Function & Disfunction (cont.)
Cataract Blindness
Hyperopia and Its Correction “Cataracts” is a condition in which the lens of the
Long-sightedness can be caused by the lens being unable
eye gradually loses its transparency and becomes
to become “thick enough” to refract the light from a close
cloudy. Eventually the lens can become totally
object into a focus on the retina.
opaque and the person becomes blind because light
cannot reach the retina.
The “focus position” is behind the retina. When the light
hits the retina the image is out of focus and appears blurry.
There are many “risk factors” which make Cataracts
Lens unable to become more likely to develop. In affluent Australia,
thick enough to focus image
on retina Cataracts is a disease associated with the elderly. In
tropical Africa and Asia nutrition may be poor, the
Close sunlight (and UV) is strong, and people work
object outdoors for long hours unprotected. Under these
conditions cataracts afflicts thousands of relatively
young people.
Focus position is
behind the retina In developing countries, many people cannot afford
treatment. Once they become blind they cannot
Hyperopia is corrected by glasses containing
work, and then become a burden on their family.
convex lenses.
Treatment
Convex lens in spectacles
Using just a local anaesthetic, a surgeon can remove

the cloudy lens material via a small incision through
the cornea. Next, a flexible clear plastic lens is
Image now focused on retina
inserted into the lens capsule. The entire operation
can be done in about 30 minutes, and the cost of the
replacement lens is very low. This procedure is now
quite routine in Australia & all developed nations.
The convex lens compensates for the lack of
refractive power of the eye’s lens. The extra lens Through the pioneering work of Professor Fred
bends the light rays together, which brings the Hollows (1929-1993, born NZ, later an Australian citizen) and
focus position forward and onto the retina for clear, The Fred Hollows Foundation over a million
focused vision. Cataracts sufferers in Africa, Asia and the Pacific
have had their sight restored.
Spectacles, Contacts & Lasers
As well as correcting myopia/hyperopia using lenses Photo courtesy of
www.michaelamendolia.com
mounted in spectacle frames, “contact lenses” can be
used. These are soft, flexible lenses which are worn in
contact with the eye’s conjunctiva.
Laser surgery.
Image courtesy of
Another modern
treatment is “laser
US Navy
surgery”, in which the

cornea is re-shaped
by precisely “cutting”
tissue away with a
laser beam. The new
shape of the cornea Vietnamese nursing staff observe as Professor Fred Hollows
refracts light to examines the eye of a patient after a successful cataract operation
in Hanoi in 1992
correct vision
disorders, without the Fast, low-cost treatment for Cataract Blindness is
need to wear glasses an important part of eventually breaking the
or contacts. “poverty-cycle” which grips many of the world’s
poorer people. The Fred Hollows Foundation trains
Now Complete local medical staff so this process can become self-
Worksheets 5 & 6. perpetuating. Now complete Worksheet 7.
®
Structure & Function of the Human Ear
Note
Schematic Diagram
Cochlea “Cochlea” is the name of
Fluid-filled, spiral structure. the structure. (a noun)
Sound vibrations are transmitted as
Pinna pressure waves in the fluid, where they “Cochlear” is the
adjective for things to do
“Funnel” of the Outer Ear. stimulate the Organ of Corti. with the cochlea.
Gathers sound waves This contains hair cells which are the e.g. a “cochlear disease”
affects the cochlea.
and channels them actual “sensory cells”. When stimulated
into the ear canal by a pressure wave, each hair cell sets
off a nerve impulse.
Semi-Circular Canals
Responsible for your
“sense of balance” Auditory Nerve
carries the nerve signals
from the sensory hair cells
Oval Window in the Organ of Corti to the
a thin membrane brain.
which transmits
the vibration into
the Cochlea.
Oute
r Ear
Cana
l
Round Window
a membrane which allows
Tympanic Membrane vibrations to escape again
(“Eardrum”) from the Cochlea.
Vibrates when sound This prevents wave reflections
waves strike. within the Cochlea which could
create reverberations and a
Ear Ossicles constant “ringing” in the ear.
(Bones of the Middle Ear) The “hammer”,
“anvil” and “stirrup” transmit the vibration of Eustachian Tube connects the middle
the eardrum to the Cochlea in the Inner Ear. ear to the nasal & mouth area. This
allows pressure to be equalised on both
The Diagram above is simplified for clarity. sides of the Eardrum.
This anatomical model below is more accurate
Semi-Circular Canals
Auditory Nerve
Bone of the skull
Cochlea
Eardrum
Bones of Middle Ear Eustachian Tube
® Technologies to Help Hearing Loss

keep it simple science People suffer partial or total hearing loss for many different reasons.
There are 2 main medical technologies which can be of benefit.
Hearing Aids A hearing aid consists of a miniature microphone and

Many people suffer partial hearing loss which may be amplifier system. In its simplest form it picks up sound and
due to: sends amplified sounds down the person’s ear canal.
Modern aids are more sophisticated than being merely
• the small bones of the middle ear are damaged, or have amplifiers. Usually the device only amplifies the sound
fused together, and do not carry sound vibrations to the frequencies most commonly used for speech, and ignores
cochlea very well. The actual receptors (the hair cells in the the background “noise” frequencies.
cochlea) are working perfectly, but the sound vibrations are
not being conducted to them properly. Also, the patient can be tested to determine which
precise frequencies they are most sensitive to, and
• the hair cell receptors the hearing aid is programmed to send its amplified
in the cochlea are sounds at those frequencies.
damaged and have lost
their sensitivity. They Limitations
still work, but require a A hearing aid cannot help a patient who is
louder sound to reach profoundly deaf.
the “theshold” at which
they respond. If the hair cells of the cochlea are not responsive at
all, or if the auditory nerve is unable to conduct a
These people can often be nerve message, then the deafness may be total, and
helped by a hearing aid. no amount of amplifying the sound will help.
Cochlear Implants
Some people are born totally deaf, or become External
profoundly deaf due to an infectious disease or transmitter Internal receiver,
inherited disorder in which the receptor hair cells of implanted in skull bone.
the cochlea die.
Nerves to
These patients cannot benefit from a hearing aid, but Electrodes brain
may be helped by a cochlear implant. Basically, this Microphone
involves an electronic device being implanted into the & Processor
skull, with one or more electrodes connecting it to the
auditory nerve.
Sounds are picked up by a microphone and

electronically analysed by a processor unit. The
processor converts the sounds into a set of electrical
signals. These signals are transmitted as radio waves
through the flesh to the cochlear implant which was
placed in the skull by surgery. Electrical signals are
carried by an electrode and stimulate the auditory Cochlea
nerve, which fires nerve signals to the brain.
The brain interprets these nerve signals as the hearing of sounds, but these will NOT be the same
sensations as in “normal” hearing. The patient will need to learn how to interpret the sensations being
heard, rather like having to learn a new language.
Limitations
Image Bjorn Knetsch Yes
CCA-SA2.0 • The devices and procedure are very expensive.
Mum, I can
hear you... I’m
just choosing • Adults who became deaf after learning to speak are
to ignore often helped, but those born profoundly deaf and given
you an implant as adults rarely learn to interpret the new
sensations. They have learned to cope with deafness and
often do not benefit from a cochlear implant.
• Children born deaf can learn to hear and speak with an implant,
but it takes years of training and therapy.
• If there is damage to the auditory nerve as well as the

cochlea, the implant cannot stimulate a signal that gets to
the brain.
Now complete Worksheet 8
®
Excretion & Water Balance
The Importance of Water Water Supports & Cushions
Life cannot exist without water. All living cells are at least Many plants and animals rely on water for
body support. Non-woody plants pump their
75% water. The functions of water in living things include:
cell vacuoles full of water to make cells
Water is the Solvent of Life “tight” and keep stems and leaves upright.
All the chemical reactions of metabolism take place in water Animals such as worms rely on the hydraulic
solution, and the transport of materials in cytoplasm, blood pressure of water in their tissues to support
or phloem takes place mainly in water solution. their body and maintain its shape.
Water Regulates Temperature In vertebrate animals the water solutions in

Water has a very high specific heat capacity. This means it the tissues helps to cushion organs against
can absorb (or lose) relatively large quantities of energy bumps and impacts. (e.g. cerebrospinal fluid
with minimal temperature change. This helps stabilise the around the brain)
temperature of all living things.
Water is Involved in Life Chemistry
Water also has a very high heat of vaporisation. This means Water is a reactant or product of many
that when it evaporates it absorbs huge amounts of heat. metabolic reactions. The reactions of
This is why evaporation of perspiration from the skin has photosynthesis and cellular respiration are
such a cooling effect. just two of the many examples.
Homeostasis of Water & Salts

It’s not just the water that is important, but its concentration, and
the concentration of substances dissolved in it, such as salts.
If the concentrations are not kept at the correct levels, then

osmosis may cause problems. Cells could lose water and
dehydrate, or gain too much water and be damaged or even burst
open by increasing pressure within.
Lungs
The concentration of water & dissolved solutes (“water
Heart
balance”) must be maintained. Liver
Stomach
This is another example of homeostasis.
Kidney
In most animals, water balance is achieved by the kidneys.
Kidneys Also Excrete Metabolic Wastes Ureter
The many chemical reactions of metabolism sometimes produce

chemicals which are toxic to cells, often because the chemical, when
dissolved in water, can change the pH and reduce enzyme activity.
Bladder
Therefore, it is essential that these wastes are removed (“excreted”)
as soon as possible. The major wastes are:
Carbon dioxide
is produced by cellular respiration. As covered previously, it will lower the pH (it’s acidic). It is carried in the
blood and excreted by the lungs.
Nitrogenous wastes (contain nitrogen)

These wastes are produced mainly from the metabolism of proteins. These nitrogenous wastes are
excreted by the kidneys.
There are 3 main compounds that can be produced:
The kidneys collect the wastes from
Ammonia in most aquatic animals.
the bloodstream and concentrate
Uric acid in birds, reptiles & insects. them so that excess water is not lost
from the body.
Urea in mammals and amphibians.
®
How the Kidneys Work in Mammals
Artery
Vein
Each kidney contains about 1 million nephrons. Each nephron is a carries blood
carries blood
complicated tangle of blood vessels and renal tubules (= small into kidney.
out of kidney.
tubes). What happens in a nephron is:
Filtration
removes some of the water and many small dissolved molecules
(including the waste urea) from the blood into the renal tubules. This Kidney
occurs because the walls of the glomerulus are “leaky” and the removes
blood is under high pressure. wastes from
blood and
Reabsorption adjusts
water Ureter
then occurs to move useful substances back into the blood.
& salt balance. carries
This is achieved by: urine to
Active Transport of sugar, amino acids & salts from the renal bladder.
tubules back into the blood. This requires energy to be used to Bladder
transport these chemicals across the cell membranes, against a stores urine.
concentration gradient.
Osmosis then occurs, which causes water to flow from the Urethra
tubules back into the blood. This is Passive Transport and costs drains urine from bladder.
the body no energy.
THE NEPHRON
Glomerulus
Renal Tubules of the KIDNEY
a coiled blood vessel (simplified)
Blood in
from artery.
This blood
contains urea Reabsorption
occurs Urine
Filtration Bowman’s Capsule
here flows to
a “receiving cup” to
occurs collect the filtrate
collecting
here duct
liquid from the
blood Blood Capillary then via
Network Ureter to
shown in Bladder,
simplified form. for
Blood out excretion.
to vein
This blood has had wastes removed, and
water balance adjusted for Homeostasis.
Filtration is the process in which some Reabsorption is the process in which any useful
water and many dissolved substances substances (such as sugars & amino acids) are
(including sugar, salts & urea, BUT NOT any absorbed back into the blood. Water & salts are
cells or blood proteins) leave the blood and also reabsorbed, but in varying quantities... the
flow into the renal tubules. body is adjusting water balance for Homeostasis
Urea is not reabsorbed back into the blood.

Urea and some water continue along the tubule. This liquid is URINE.
Urine flows into the Ureter and is carried to the Bladder for storage.
When the bladder becomes full, the urine is excreted via the Urethra.
®
The Kidneys & Homeostasis
The kidneys are not just used for excretion. As well, the kidneys can adjust the “water balance” of the body by allowing
more, or less, urine to be produced. In this way the kidneys are a vital part of homeostasis.
In a previous module, you learned about homeostasis for temperature & blood sugar.
Once again, the Hypothalamus is involved and the control mechanism is by hormones... chemicals which are released
into the blood and exert a control function on some “target organ”. In this case the hormone is called “Anti-Diuretic
Hormone” (ADH) and the target organ is the kidney, specifically the nephron tubules.
Pituitary Gland BODY RETAINS MORE

ADH causes more
releases more ADH WATER, excretes less urine.
reabsorption of water
(Also nerve signals to brain from kidney tubules Urine is more concentrated
cause “thirsty” feeling so
you will want to drink)
Note the typical pattern of a nce
ala
to Pituitary Gland
Nerve Command
negative feedback system b

al t e d
r /S asur
t e e
Wa m
Cerebrum
WATER LEVEL IN WATER LEVEL IN

m
ellu BODY TOO HIGH
BODY TOO LOW reb
Ce
to Pituitary Gland
Nerve Command
ce HYPOTHALAMUS
a lan &
b PITUITARY GLAND
S alt ured
/ s
ter ea
Wa m
Pituitary Gland
BODY PASSES MORE Less ADH causes less releases less ADH
WATER, excretes more urine. reabsorption of water (Also nerve signals to brain
Urine is more dilute. from kidney tubules. cause feeling that you do
NOT want to drink)
Water & Salt Balance Hormones

The hypothalamus monitors the blood flowing
through it for the “osmotic balance” of water
Control of Salt Levels by Aldosterone
and dissolved salt. If the body is even slightly Adrenal Sitting on top of the kidneys are the
dehydrated, more ADH is released by the Gland “Adrenal Glands” which produce a
pituitary gland and circulates in the variety of hormones. One of the adrenal
bloodstream. hormones is Aldosterone which controls
reabsorption of salt from the nephron
The effect of ADH is to alter the permeability tubules.
of the membranes lining the tubules of the
kidney nephrons. Increased ADH levels make If salt levels are too low, special cells in
the membranes more permeable to water, so the adrenal glands increase the
more water is reabsorbed back into the blood. production of aldosterone into the
This means that less urine is produced. bloodstream. This causes the cells lining
the nephron tubules to actively transport
If the body is over-hydrated, the production of more sodium ions back into the blood. Chloride ions
ADH is reduced. This causes the tubules to follow the sodium, and so more salt is reabsorbed.
become less permeable to water so less is
reabsorbed into the blood. The result is more If salt levels are too high, the adrenal glands produce less
urine being produced. aldosterone so less salt is reabsorbed, and the excess salt
is excreted in the urine.
ADH is the hormone controlling the water
levels, but this is only part of the “osmotic Between ADH and aldosterone the body maintains a
balance” story... the salt levels can be constant “osmotic balance” of water and dissolved salt...
controlled too... Homeostasis.
So far we’ve described what happens when things all work properly.
We finish the module (and the Bio course) with what we can do when things go wrong.
®
Renal Dialysis
If a person’s kidneys cease functioning properly he/she can no
longer remove toxic wastes such as urea from the blood, nor Dialyser cartridge
maintain homeostasis of “water balance”. In the case of
complete kidney failure, this condition can be fatal within about
3 days without treatment.
Over the past 40 years or so, many people have been

successfully treated by receiving a kidney transplant. However,
they may have to wait months or years for a replacement organ
from a suitable organ donor.
Meanwhile, they need to be treated by Renal Dialysis...

the use of medical technology to remove wastes from the blood
artificially. In effect, a renal dialysis machine is an “artificial
kidney”.
Dialyser Cartridge
The key component of a modern dialysis machine is a disposable dialyser cartridge.
The patient’s blood flows through the cartridge from one end to the other inside thin
“dialysis tubes”. These tubes are made from a plastic which is semi-permeable.
The tubes are surrounded by a “dialysing fluid” which flows through the cartridge in
the opposite direction.
The dialysing fluid contains water, salts, sugars, minerals, Blood in

etc., exactly as in healthy blood plasma. Since there is no
concentration gradient for these chemicals they do not
diffuse in or out of the blood. However, the wastes such
as urea are in higher concentration in the blood, and so
they diffuse from the blood into the dialysis liquid, which is later disposed of. Dialysing
fluid out
Dialyser Blood flows

cartridge through
dialysis
tubes
Dialysing
Now complete fluid in
Worksheet 8
Blood out
Comparison of Renal Dialysis with Natural Kidney Function

Similarities Differences
•Both processes remove urea and • Kidney function involves the 2 steps of filtration and reabsorption;
other wastes from the blood. dialysis involves only 1 step of diffusion of wastes from blood.
•Both rely on movement of • In a kidney, movement across membranes is achieved by both

dissolved substances through active transport and by passive osmosis and diffusion; dialysis
semi-permeable membranes. involves only passive diffusion.

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KISS Resources for NSW Syllabuses & Australian Curriculum.

® KEEP IT SIMPLE SCIENCE

What is this topic about?

2. Cause & Effects

5. Technology & Disorders

keep it simple science

Temperature Impacts on Cells

These pathways might be in one of the many steps in cellular

Now look at the graph:

At the optimum pH the

At any pH higher or lower than

At extremes of pH, the enzyme

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK ACTION

Homeostasis is always “Negative Feedback” control.

What the Effectors Do

Constriction (narrowing) of If the hair follicle muscle is Thyroid Hormone

Maintaining a near-constant level of glucose in the bloodstream is another example of homeostasis.

Homeostasis of blood sugar levels

BLOOD GLUCOSE BLOOD GLUCOSE

More about the Pancreas

Temperature Control in Ectotherms

® Temperature Control in Endotherms

Responses of Plants to Temperature Change

keep it simple science

Types of Non-Infectious Disease

Image: National Cancer Institute

In fact, it is virtually unknown in females because to Cause

An Environmental Exposure Disease: Melanoma

Cause Prevention (always the preferred strategy)

keep it simple science

Cause of Death Rank Rank No. of %of Total %of Total

Heart Disease 1 1 18,590 11.6% 30.5%

Dementia, 2 40 13,729 8.5% 0.2%

Cerebrovascular 3 2 10,186 6.3% 14.0%

Chronic lower 4 3 8,357 5.2% 3.4%

Cancer (lung, etc.) 5 6 8,262 5.1% 2.6%

Cancer (bowel, etc.) 6 8 5,325 3.3% 2.3%

Diabetes 7 10 4,839 3.0% 1.8%

Cancer (lymph 8 14 4,499 2.8% 1.5%

Flu & pneumonia 9 5 4,269 2.7% 3.0%

Urinary Tract 10 11 3,565 2.2% 1.8%

Road Accidents 28 4 1,318 0.8% 3.3%

New-born baby 42 9 582 0.4% 2.2%

This drop in total mortality rate is a reflection of our Complete Worksheet 5

keep it simple science

Hospitals and health-

At that time, most people Snow arranged for the

Although the “germ- This was a turning point in

Methods of Modern Epidemiology

BMI values between 18 - 25 are considered healthy,

healthy BMI is possible with a balanced diet of

® Patterns Of Non-Infectious Disease in Populations

Causes of Death Deaths per 100,000 of population

Respiratory infections 128 40 “low” means figures were

Treatment, Management & Future Directions

keep it simple science

Case Study 1. A Genetic Disease Cystic Fibrosis

The faulty gene is relatively common among

CF affects many parts of the body, but notably

• poor eating habits and availability of convenience foods.

So, Are We Winning, or Not?

Preventing Cystic Fibrosis? Preventing Obesity?

We may (soon) be able to successfully treat and Other Management Strategies?