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A Model of Tourist Information Search Behavior

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 Journal of Travel Research
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A Model of Tourist Information Search Behavior

Dale Fodness and Brian Murray
Journal of Travel Research 1999; 37; 220

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FEBRUARY
JOURNAL OF1999
TRAVEL RESEARCH
A Model of Tourist
Information Search Behavior
DALE FODNESS AND BRIAN MURRAY
This research empirically examines, for the first time, the
correlates of tourist information search behavior. A model is
specified and tested in which tourist information search
strategies are related to search contingencies, individual
(tourist) characteristics, and behavioral search outcomes.
Using survey data from a large sample of leisure travelers,
tests of association showed substantial support for hypothe-
sized relationships. Tourist information search strategies
were found to be the result of a dynamic process in which
travelers used various types and amounts of information
sources to respond to internal and external contingencies in
vacation planning. A discussion of the key findings of the
model provides a rich source of managerial implications.
The purpose of this article is to expand the concept of
tourist information search by taking an explicit account of se-
lected relevant correlates of tourists’ choices of information
sources. Proceeding under the general assumption that the
combination of information sources used by tourists repre-
sents information search strategies (Snepenger et al. 1990;
Fodness and Murray 1998), the article is organized as fol-
lows. First, building on a review of previous research in con-
sumer behavior and tourism, we develop a model composed
of tourist information search strategies, search contingen-
cies, tourist characteristics, and search outcomes. Relation-
ships suggested by the model are cast as testable hypotheses.
Second, we describe the sample, survey instrument, and data.
Third, quantitative techniques used to analyze the data and
test the hypotheses are described, and results of the analyses
are reported. Finally, we present a general discussion of the
results, explore managerial implications of the study find-
ings, and outline directions for future research.
A MODEL OF THE TOURIST INFORMATION
SEARCH STRATEGY PROCESS
We propose a model of tourist information search strat-
egy within the tradition of previous consumer research.
Beatty and Smith (1987), Moore and Lehmann (1980), Bett-
man (1979), Newman (1977), and others have proposed sys-
tematic relationships among consumer search, the market
environment, situational variables, potential payoff, knowl-
edge and experience, individual differences, conflict and
conflict resolution, and cost of search. Likewise, Maute and
Forrester (1991), Selnes and Troye (1989), Urbany (1986),
Brucks (1985), Kiel and Layton (1981), and Furse, Punj, and
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Stewart (1984) have empirically explored linkages between
search activity and consumer characteristics. Srinivasan and
Ratchford (1991) and Punj and Staelin (1983) also have
attempted to construct and test comprehensive models of
search behavior. No similar models exist in the tourism
literature.
Our proposed framework (Figure 1) addresses this
research gap by incorporating three forces driving individual
tourists to develop unique information search strategies: con-
tingencies, tourist characteristics, and outcomes of search.
The model also incorporates prior research on the dimen-
sionality of information search strategies (Fodness and
Murray 1998). In the sections that follow, we offer a series of
hypotheses suggested by our model and test them with uni-
variate statistics. Readers will note, however, that the model
in Figure 1 implies interrelationships that cannot be tested
with univariate statistics. For example, we postulate that
information search strategy will vary as a function of the pur-
pose of trip (H3), and we empirically verify this. However,
following the flow of the arrows in the model, it implies that
purpose of trip also will influence Search Outcomes (H7 →
H10) and Tourist Characteristics (H5, H6). Clearly, these
more complex relationships are beyond the scope of univari-
ate analyses and this study. We recommend that the discrete
relationships that we postulate and empirically validate in
this study provide the basis for a future investigation of the
dynamics among the model’s four main elements. Detailed
descriptions of the model’s constructs, their first-order rela-
tionships, and associated univariate hypotheses follow.
Before proceeding, readers are reminded of the limita-
tions of any modeling effort and are cautioned not to view
Figure 1 more literally than is warranted. For example, it is
impossible for a discrete effect (Search Outcomes) to pre-
cede its cause (Information Search Strategies). Yet, the
model clearly identifies an indirect effect of outcomes on
processes. This relationship is basic learning theory: over
time, the results of past cause-effect relationships influence
future cause-effect relationships. Again, analyses of these
higher order relationships are not included in this study,
which limits itself to first-order relationships.
Dale Fodness is manager of market research at Dallas/Fort
Worth International Airport. Brian Murray is an assistant professor
of management at the University of Texas at San Antonio.
Journal of Travel Research, Vol. 37, February 1999, 220-230
© 1999 Sage Publications, Inc.

FIGURE 1
MODEL OF THE TOURIST INFORMATION SEARCH STRATEGY PROCESS
Information Search Strategies
The literature suggests that, in any given purchase situa-
tion, there are at least three distinct strategies for information
search: spatial, temporal, and operational (for a comprehen-
sive review, see Fodness and Murray 1998). The spatial
dimension of information search strategy reflects the locus of
search activity: internal (accessing the contents of memory)
or external (acquiring information from the environment).
The temporal dimension represents the timing of search
activity. Search can be either ongoing, building up a knowl-
edge base for unspecified future purchase decisions, or pre-
purchase, in response to a current purchase problem. The
third dimension is operational, reflecting the conduct of
search and focusing on the particular sources used and their
relative effectiveness for problem solving and decision
making.
Support for a tripartite theory of tourist information
search strategies was found in an associated study in which
the researchers used multidimensional scaling (MDS) and
cluster analysis to explore underlying dimensions of leisure
travelers’ perceptions of information sources and to confirm
the categories of tourist information search strategies pre-
dicted by the literature, respectively (Fodness and Murray
1998). In that study, 585 automobile travelers were asked
which information sources they used to plan their pleasure
trips to Florida from a list of 11 sources identified from the
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JOURNAL OF TRAVEL RESEARCH 221
tourism literature: auto clubs, brochures from services such
as hotels and attractions, commercial guidebooks, friends or
relatives, highway welcome centers, local tourist offices,
magazines, newspapers, official state travel guides, personal
experience, and travel agencies. Fully 68% of the respon-
dents reported using more than one of these information
sources, as indicated in Table 1.
The results of MDS applied to the preceding data pro-
vided empirical evidence that spatial, temporal, and opera-
tional dimensions underlie leisure travelers’ perceptions of
information sources used for trip planning. The first of three
MDS dimensions derived clearly was spatial. It separated an
internal strategy (use of personal experience) from an exter-
nal strategy composed of one or more of the remaining
sources. The temporal dimension distinguished an ongoing
strategy comprised of magazines and/or newspapers from a
prepurchase strategy that might include one or more of the
other sources. The operational dimension manifested itself in
terms of differentiating information sources that tended to be
used in combination with other sources from those that were
used as the sole source for trip planning. Commercial guide-
books, state travel guides, and brochures all tended to be used
in conjunction with three or more other sources. Personal
experience, travel agencies, and friends or relatives were the
three sources most likely to be used alone. The former group
of sources clearly served to complement other sources or, in
other words, to contribute to trip planning. The latter sources
222 FEBRUARY 1999

TABLE 1
INFORMATION SOURCES USED BY TRAVELERS SURVEYED

Users of Each Information Source Who . . .

Used That Used That
Used Only Source and Source and Average
Total Sample That Source One Other ≥ Two Others Number of
(n = 585) (n = 163) (n = 167) (n = 242) Sources Used
Information Source # % Rank # % Rank # % Rank # % Rank Mean Median
Automobile clubs 200 34.2 3 27 16.6 3 64 38.3 3 108 44.6 3 3.09 3
Brochures from hotels,
attractions, and the like 128 21.9 4 8 4.9 5 27 16.2 4 92 38.0 4 3.73 4
Commercial guidebooks 70 12.0 8 5 3.1 7 6 3.6 10 58 24.0 7 4.24 4
Friends or relatives 281 48.1 1 42 25.8 2 82 49.1 1 156 64.5 2 3.10 3
Highway welcome centers 263 45.0 2 8 4.9 5 80 47.9 2 174 71.9 1 3.47 3
Local tourist offices 58 10.0 9 3 1.8 11 5 3.0 11 50 20.7 8 4.26 4
Magazines 86 14.7 6 5 3.1 7 15 9.0 6 65 26.9 6 4.14 4
Newspapers 54 9.2 10 4 2.4 10 7 4.2 9 42 17.4 9 4.35 4
Official state travel guides 85 14.6 7 5 3.1 7 11 6.6 8 68 28.1 5 4.26 4
Personal experience 102 17.5 5 58 35.6 1 21 12.6 5 23 9.5 11 1.89 1
Travel agency 48 8.2 11 10 6.1 4 13 7.8 7 25 10.3 10 3.0 3

appeared to be decisive in that they were used as sole sources
of information on where to go, what to do, where to eat,
where to stay, and so on.
The results of cluster analysis applied to the data con-
verged with those of the MDS to provide empirical support
for the idea that leisure travelers could be classified into ho-
mogeneous groups on the basis of their information search
strategies, which were defined by the unique combination of
sources used to plan their trips. As Table 2 indicates, the
three information search strategies are not mutually exclu-
sive. Seven unique information strategies were identified.
Four of the clusters (3, 5, 6, and 7) suggested a strategy con-
sisting of the use of a single, decisive source (personal expe-
rience, friends or relatives, auto clubs, and travel agencies,
respectively, along with contributory sources). The three
other clusters documented strategies based on a combination
of related contributory sources (brochures and guidebooks;
highway welcome centers, local tourist offices, and state
travel guides; and magazines and newspapers), sometimes
along with the use of a single, decisive source (auto clubs).
Information Search
Strategies and Contingencies
To paraphrase Ajzen and Fishbein (1980), tourists con-
sider the implications of their choices before they decide to
engage in a given information search strategy or, alterna-
tively, before they choose to use any given information
source. Thus, it becomes critical to understand the factors
underlying search strategy choice. Whereas the quantity and
availability, as well as the perceived costs and benefits, of
information in the marketplace will determine choices to
some extent, Figure 1 suggests some general contingencies
affecting choice of spatial, temporal, and operational search
strategies that can be drawn from the literature. Reflecting an
intention to be illustrative rather than all-inclusive, we dis-
cuss two such factors: situational influences and product
characteristics.
Behavior always occurs within the context of some situa-
tion. In the study of consumer behavior, Belk (1974) defined
situational influences as those arising from factors that are
particular to a specific time and place and that are relatively
independent of consumer and product characteristics. Exam-
ples include physical surroundings, social settings, time, task
(type of decision to be made), and antecedent states such as
moods and physical conditions (Belk 1975). Turning to the
literature of information search, there is some conjec-
ture—but little hard evidence—of the influence of situational
variables on information search. Two exceptions are the type
of purchase decision making required and composition of the
traveling party.
Nature of decision making. The leisure traveler, like con-
sumers of other products, can approach a product decision
through routine, limited, or extended problem-solving be-
havior (Moutinho 1987). In the case of routine problem solv-
ing, travel decisions are made quickly and with little apparent
effort. Weekend visits to a nearby park or recreation area or
periodic visits to friends or relatives constitute routine leisure
travel decisions for many. Previsit (prepurchase) information
search probably is unnecessary if past experiences provide
an adequate basis for decision making. Limited decision
making, however, requires somewhat more time and effort.
In leisure travel planning, limited decision making may oc-
cur when the traveler plans variations to regular travel behav-
ior such as taking a new route or engaging in a new activity at
a familiar destination. Limited prepurchase search of both in-
ternal (past experience) and external sources (brochures from
hotels and attractions) might be expected, but the traveler’s
own past experience probably is largely decisive. When ex-
tensive problem solving is needed, such as when planning a
first-time cruise, European vacation, African safari, or
round-the-world trip, there is considerable time and effort
devoted to information search. Such a search would, by na-
ture, be prepurchase, emphasizing primarily external sources
because the trip would be unfamiliar. It also might be ex-
pected that the leisure traveler undertaking extensive prob-
lem solving might rely heavily on at least one decisive
source, such as travel agents or knowledgeable friends or
relatives, as well as on a wide variety of contributory sources,
such as commercial guidebooks, brochures, and travel maga-
zines, to reduce the perceived risks of an unfamiliar trip.

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 JOURNAL OF TRAVEL RESEARCH 223

TABLE 2 sources, internal rather than external sources, and de-

cisive rather than contributory sources. (b) For limited
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SEVEN INFORMATION
SEARCH CLUSTERS problem solving, strategies will reflect a greater use
of prepurchase than ongoing sources and both internal
Cluster Search decisive and external contributory sources. (c) In
Number Strategy Description cases of extended problem solving, strategies will be
1 Prepurchase Prepurchase, external strategy
prepurchase and characterized by a number of con-
mix (11%) Heavy use of a wide variety of tributory sources used to supplement external, deci-
contributory sources; minimal use sive sources.
of decisive sources
Used an average of 3.6 sources Traveling party composition. The social setting (presence
2 Tourist Prepurchase, external strategy or absence of others) that characterizes the consumption of a
bureau (8%) Most frequent users of state travel product also influences information search, as it does other
guides and local tourist offices as consumer behavior (Stayman and Deshpande 1989). The be-
contributory sources; limited use havior of leisure travelers is heavily influenced by the com-
of auto clubs as decisive sources position of the traveling party (McIntosh and Goeldner
Used an average of 4.1 sources
1990). Leisure travel is a product that often is jointly con-
3 Personal Ongoing (personal experience), sumed, and leisure travel activities reflect the influence (both
experience internal strategy direct and indirect) of all those traveling together (Chadwick
(14%) Almost completely reliant on 1987). In general, traveling parties can be composed of sin-
personal experience
Lowest average source usage: gle individuals, persons from different households traveling
1.3 sources together, and persons from the same household traveling to-
gether. This latter category frequently is subdivided into
4 Ongoing Ongoing (magazines and families traveling with children and couples traveling with-
(4%) newspapers), external strategy out children. The travel-related behaviors of the two groups
Heaviest use of magazines and
newspapers as contributory differ significantly. Traveling with children, for example, en-
sources; limited use of auto clubs tails greater planning efforts to coordinate schedules and
and travel agencies as decisive meet differential needs. A further breakdown of the couples
sources category frequently is made in tourism research to differenti-
Highest average source usage:
5.6 sources ate between younger, middle-aged, and retired couples. Re-
tirees often are active, experienced travelers without sched-
5 On-site Ongoing or prepurchase, external ule conflicts who tend to engage in less information search
(27%) strategy than do younger or middle-aged couples. Based on the forgo-
Greatest reliance on friends or ing, we hypothesized the following:
relatives as decisive sources
Used an average of 2.4 sources
Hypothesis 2 (H2): Choice of information search strategy
6 Automobile Prepurchase, external strategy will vary as a function of the traveling party composi-
club (24%) Highest use of auto clubs as tion: families traveling with children, younger cou-
decisive sources; also heavy use
of friends or relatives ples traveling without children, and retired couples
Moderate use of contributory traveling without children. (a) For families traveling
sources including brochures, with children, search strategies will tend to emphasize
guidebooks, newspapers, and prepurchase rather than ongoing sources, external
state travel guides rather than internal sources, and a combination of
Used an average of 2.4 sources
both decisive and numerous contributory sources.
7 Travel Prepurchase, external strategy (b) For younger couples without children in the trav-
agency Most frequent users of travel eling parties, strategies will reflect a greater use of
(12%) agents as decisive source; limited prepurchase rather than ongoing sources and decisive
use of contributory sources
including brochures, guidebooks, rather than contributory sources. (c) For retired cou-
newspapers, and state travel ples, strategies will be characterized by ongoing, in-
guides ternal, decisive sources.
Used an average of 1.6 sources
Information Search Strategies
and Product Characteristics
Features of the product clearly affect information search.
Thus, this study hypothesized that significant differences in For example, consumer search differs between goods and
information search will be based on the nature of the decision services. Because consumers have greater difficulty in evalu-
making facing the leisure traveler. ating service quality before purchase and, therefore, might
perceive greater risk in buying intangible-dominant products
Hypothesis 1 (H1): Choice of information search strategy such as touristic experiences, they adopt different search pat-
will vary as a function of the type of decision making terns (or strategies) to reduce perceived risk (Engel, Black-
required: routine, limited, or extended problem solv- well, and Miniard 1995). A recent empirical study found that
ing. (a) For routine problem solving, strategies will consumers relied more heavily on personal sources of infor-
tend to emphasize ongoing rather than prepurchase mation for decisions involving services (Murray 1991).
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224 FEBRUARY 1999
The proposed model (Figure 1) incorporates two impor-
tant factors that characterize the vacation product: purpose of
trip and mode of travel. Testable hypotheses for each factor
are developed from the discussion of the literature that
follows.
Purpose of trip. The purpose of the trip is perhaps the
greatest influence on the traveler’s behavior (Morrison
1996). Primary purposes for travel fall into four main catego-
ries: business, visiting friends or relatives (VFR), other per-
sonal business, and pleasure (Chadwick 1987). However,
splitting the travel market into two main groups, business
travel and leisure travel (which subsumes both pleasure trips
and visits to friends or relatives), is standard practice (Morri-
son 1996). It is generally agreed that the needs, wants, and
behaviors of business and pleasure/VFR travelers are quite
different (McIntosh and Goeldner 1990). The same distinc-
tion also is true in the leisure travel submarkets of pleasure
travelers (vacationers) and VFRs. We hypothesized that the
information search behaviors of the two groups would be
quite different as well. Given that the friends or relatives at
the destination represent an important and accessible source
of information to the traveler, VFR travelers are less likely to
conduct extensive search prior to their trips (Gitelson and
Crompton 1983), perhaps even engaging in ongoing searches
as they plan their upcoming visits with their hosts over ex-
tended periods of time. Vacationers, on the other hand, are
more likely to engage in prepurchase, external search using a
combination of contributory and decisive sources if they are
first-time visitors. People who vacation at the same place
regularly, however, probably engage in little prepurchase
search, relying instead on their accumulated knowledge from
past visits. Thus, we hypothesized the following:
Hypothesis 3 (H3): Choice of information search strategy
will vary as a function of the purpose of the trip: to va-
cation or to visit friends or relatives. (a) When the
purpose of trip is to vacation, strategies will tend to
emphasize prepurchase rather than ongoing sources,
external rather than internal sources, and a mixture of
decisive and contributory sources. (b) When the pur-
pose of the trip is to visit friends or relatives, search
strategies will reflect a greater use of ongoing rather
than prepurchase sources, external rather than internal
sources (specifically friends or relatives), and deci-
sive rather than contributory sources.
Mode of travel. The major means of leisure travel in
North America are commercial airplane and personal auto-
mobile as well as, to a lesser extent, bus, rail, and water trans-
portation (Chadwick 1987). The data used to explore the
model’s relationships included only the “drive market”; thus,
our hypothesis is restricted to that single mode. A compre-
hensive mode of travel comparison would have included
categories such as air, train, bus, and automobile. Thus, what
is really being tested in this hypothesis are variations across
different types of vehicles. Each type of vehicle, however, in-
volves unique traveler behaviors and associated information
needs that are largely related to autonomy. For example,
those traveling by recreational vehicle (RV) or in trucks/vans
outfitted for camping have a wider range of options at their
destinations. In addition, RV travelers generally are more ex-
perienced travel consumers and are more likely to have per-
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sonal experience on which to base their trip planning. Thus,
we hypothesized the following:
Hypothesis 4 (H4): Choice of information search
strategy will vary as a function of the mode of travel:
car, RV, or trucks/vans. (a) For those traveling by per-
sonal automobile, strategies will tend to emphasize
prepurchase rather than personal sources, external
rather than internal sources, and decisive rather than
contributory sources. (b) For RV travelers, strategies
will tend to reflect ongoing rather than prepurchase
sources, internal rather than external sources, and de-
cisive rather than contributory sources. (c) For those
traveling by truck or van, strategies will be character-
ized by prepurchase, external sources and heavy use
of contributory sources to supplement decisive
sources.
Information Search Strategy
and Tourist Characteristics
Information search strategies are not isolated from other
aspects of the consumer’s behavior. As our model (Figure 1)
suggests, information search strategies both affect and are
affected by characteristics of the tourist. For example, adop-
tion of search strategy frequently is dependent on knowledge
derived from past experience. Also, changes in household
structure often bring about changes in information search for
a variety of products including home improvement, tools,
appliances, furniture, entertainment, dining out, travel,
sports equipment, automobiles, and clothing (Wilkes 1995).
Family life cycle. In a number of studies, researchers have
suggested that the series of relatively predictable stages
through which the family unit evolves (life cycle) is mean-
ingfully related to consumer behavior (Wilkes 1995). Lei-
sure travel patterns also have been found to be associated
with the life stages of the family (Fodness 1992; Moutinho
1987). In general, the predictions made for the three catego-
ries of traveling parties should hold for family life cycle as
well. Accordingly, we hypothesized the following:
Hypothesis 5 (H5): Choice of information search strategy
will vary as a function of the stage of the family life
cycle: households with children, younger households
without children, and retired households. (a) For
households with children, strategies will tend to em-
phasize prepurchase rather than ongoing sources, ex-
ternal rather than internal sources, and a combination
of both decisive and numerous contributory sources.
(b) For younger households without children, strate-
gies will tend to reflect prepurchase rather than ongo-
ing sources, approximately equal use of internal and
external sources, and decisive rather than contribu-
tory sources. (c) For retired households, strategies
will be characterized by ongoing, internal, decisive
sources.
Socioeconomic status. The different social classes dem-
onstrate distinct preferences for a variety of products includ-
ing leisure activities (Kotler and Armstrong 1995; Morrison
1996). The exact role and measurement of social class, how-
ever, continues to be controversial among consumer re-
searchers (Boone and Kurtz 1995). Whereas social class

typically is a multivariate construct determined by things
such as occupation, sources of income, accumulated wealth,
highest level of income achieved, place of residence, and
family history, some have argued that income alone suffices
(Boone and Kurtz 1995).
In this study, we hypothesized that socioeconomic status,
as defined by income, influences information search. Travel-
ers at lower income levels might be expected to engage in
more search to offset their relatively greater perceived risk
(van Raaij 1986). Higher income levels, on the other hand,
have been found to be positively associated with greater lev-
els of information search including the use of destination-
specific sources (Gitelson and Crompton 1983).
Hypothesis 6 (H6): Choice of information search
strategy will vary as a function of higher or lower so-
cioeconomic status. (a) For travelers with lower so-
cioeconomic status, strategies will tend to emphasize
prepurchase rather than ongoing sources, external
rather than internal sources, and a combination of
both decisive and numerous contributory sources. (b)
For travelers with higher socioeconomic status,
strategies will tend to reflect ongoing rather than pre-
purchase sources, both internal and external sources,
and decisive rather than contributory sources.
Information Search Strategies
and Search Outcomes
From the consumer’s perspective, the most immediate
objective behind the development and implementation of
search strategies is to facilitate the purchase decision-making
process. Scholars, however, often frame search outcomes
more broadly and ascribe the primary motivation behind
information search to the desire to make better consumption
choices (Engel, Blackwell, and Miniard 1995). In our model,
we take an even broader approach and emphasize the multi-
dimensionality of search outcomes by adopting a cost-
benefit perspective. The basic proposition is that consumers
will expend effort in search so long as the perceived benefits
exceed the perceived costs (Maute and Forrester 1991; Punj
and Staelin 1983; Selnes and Troye 1989; Srinivasan and
Ratchford 1991).
The consumer perceives costs of search activities as
resource expenditures—the time and money required to
undertake search—as well as the cognitive effort required to
process the information required (Srinivasan and Ratchford
1991). Whereas the literature frequently has cited decreased
perceived risk as a desired outcome of search (Murray 1991),
Bloch, Sherrell, and Ridgway (1986) proposed additional
differential outcomes for prepurchase and ongoing searches.
For prepurchase search, better choice decisions, increased
product and market expertise, and heightened satisfaction
with purchasing have been suggested as outcomes. Ongoing
search, on the other hand, has been believed to result in fur-
ther purchasing efficiencies, personal influence (in terms of
opinion leadership), and impulse buying. Such outcomes
suggest interactions with consumer characteristics. Desired
outcomes no doubt are a function of the environmental influ-
ences affecting the consumer (e.g., culture, social class, fam-
ily). Conversely, each of the ongoing search outcomes could
influence future purchasing expertise, involvement, and
attitudes.
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JOURNAL OF TRAVEL RESEARCH 225
There is little hard evidence on how various potential out-
comes are actually weighed by the consumer. Clearly, how-
ever, the literature suggests both short-term (quantity and
quality of information acquired) and long-range (purchase
satisfaction) considerations as important criteria for evaluat-
ing potential outcomes of search strategies. To the extent that
such factors figure into search strategy formulation, they are
likely to vary in importance and relevance across consumers.
It is important to remember that the acquisition and use of
information sources is a means and not an end to consumer
behavior. The primary motivation behind information search
is the desire to make better consumption choices (Engel,
Blackwell, and Miniard 1995). The quality of purchase deci-
sions is measured from the consumer’s perspective in terms
of service quality, satisfaction/dissatisfaction, positive rec-
ommendations to others, and repurchase intentions (brand
loyalty). But are these the appropriate criteria by which to
measure the impact of information search activities?
Although information search itself influences purchase
behavior and satisfaction, there also are intervening variables
according to the consumer decision-making process model.
Depending on which model is chosen, the direct effect of
information may be mediated by evaluation and selection of
alternatives and trial use. So, although purchase satisfaction
may indeed be a result of information search, there are more
direct outcomes of information search as well.
The literature commonly identifies these in terms of
quantity and quality of alternatives identified, the “consid-
eration set” of alternatives perceived to be available to the
consumer (Engel, Warshaw, and Kinnear 1991). Leisure
travelers develop their consideration sets through informa-
tion search activities, as discussed previously. The size of the
consideration set is posited to be a function of information
search. It also has been suggested that there is a positive rela-
tionship between the size of the consideration set and the
extent of consumption for certain categories. Certainly, it
probably is not the case for most car buyers that the more one
knows about cars, the more one purchases. But in the case of
leisure travel, a bundled product, it has been shown that the
more activities and opportunities one is aware of at the
intended destination, the more one consumes (Chadwick
1987; McIntosh and Goeldner 1990; Moutinho 1987). In
addition, Etzel and Wahlers (1985) found a positive relation-
ship between increasing levels of information search and
increasing travel expenditures.
Therefore, we hypothesized that more extensive informa-
tion search would be related to higher levels of consumptive
behavior. However, we did not address causal flow. For ex-
ample, a traveler might be staying longer because informa-
tion search revealed more things to do. It is equally likely that
the anticipation of a longer trip stimulated more information
search. Similarly, visiting a greater number of destinations
and attractions and spending more money while traveling
could have either resulted from or caused more extensive
search. Investigation of these causal questions must await
further study.
Hypothesis 7 (H7): Choice of information search strategy
is related to the traveler’s length of stay such that
higher levels of information search are positively as-
sociated with longer stays.
Hypothesis 8 (H8): Choice of information search strategy
is related to the number of destinations visited by the
226 FEBRUARY 1999

TABLE 3
SITUATIONAL INFLUENCES HYPOTHESIZED TO AFFECT CHOICE OF SEARCH STRATEGY (PERCENTAGES)

Decision Type (Pre-Trip Planning Period) Traveling Party Composition

(χ2 = 27.19, p < .007) (χ2 = 24.76, p < .016)
Couples
Routine Limited Extended Family (no children,
Search Strategy (< 1 month) (1-6 months) (> 6 months) with Children not retired) Retirees
Prepurchase mix 8.0 10.6 12.7 14.8 7.4 10.3
Tourist bureau 7.2 8.0 7.6 3.0 13.1 6.7
Personal experience 13.6 10.9 19.8 14.8 14.8 13.3
Ongoing mix 2.4 5.3 5.1 3.7 2.8 5.9
Friends or relatives 37.6 27.5 16.6 22.2 28.4 28.1
Auto club 18.4 23.9 30.0 25.2 17.1 28.5
Travel agent 12.8 13.9 8.3 16.3 16.5 7.0

traveler such that higher levels of information search
are positively associated with more overnight stops.
Hypothesis 9 (H9): Choice of information search strategy
is related to the number of attractions visited by the
traveler such that higher levels of information search
are positively associated with more attraction visits.
Hypothesis 10 (H10): Choice of information search strat-
egy is related to entertainment expenditures such that
higher levels of information search are positively as-
sociated with higher travel-related expenditures.
Thus, tourist information search strategies are believed to
be the result of a dynamic process in which travelers use vari-
ous types and amounts of information sources to respond to
internal and external contingencies in vacation planning.
METHOD
Survey of Visitors to Florida
Traveling by Automobile
Automobile travelers who stopped at official Florida wel-
come centers and completed a short, self-administered wel-
come center evaluation (which included their names and
addresses) constituted the sampling frame for data collec-
tion. Of the approximately 1,800 visitors who completed the
welcome center evaluation in the period January through
June 1990, a random sample of 1,000 were mailed surveys. A
total of 716 surveys were returned (71.6%), and of these, 585
(58.5%) were usable for the purposes of this study. Nonre-
sponse bias could not be directly assessed because the sur-
veys were completed anonymously. However, a comparison
of the responses to all items on the questionnaire for each
week of returns provided an indirect assessment of nonre-
sponse bias. Armstrong and Overton (1977) suggested that
late respondents are similar to nonrespondents. This analysis
revealed no differences at the p < .05 level in the data across
time.
The self-report mail questionnaire used in this study was
modeled after the person-to-person questionnaire used by the
Florida Division of Tourism in its ongoing Domestic Tour-
ism Exit Survey Program. Unfortunately, the Florida Divi-
sion of Tourism survey asked only limited questions regard-
ing information sources, so it could not be used in this study.
It was possible, however, to make a detailed comparison
between the official Florida data and the data collected for
this study. Overall, the match between the two samples was
quite good in terms of demographic and behavioral charac-
teristics, even though auto travelers who did not stop at offi-
cial welcome centers were not included in our sample. Pre-
vious research from other states, likewise, has documented
the lack of significant differences between out-of-state trav-
elers who use welcome centers and those who do not (How-
ard and Gitelson 1989).
Measures
The response variables needed to operationalize the
information search strategy construct and to test the associ-
ated hypotheses included (1) information sources used,
(2) decision type, (3) purpose of trip, (4) traveling party
composition, (5) mode of travel, (6) stage of family life
cycle, (7) socioeconomic status, (8) length of stay, (9) desti-
nations visited, (10) attractions visited, and (11) entertain-
ment expenditures. These variables are commonly measured
in tourism research and have been addressed in a number of
previous studies (Ritchie and Goeldner 1987). In the present
study, measurement conformed with standard practice.
ANALYSES AND RESULTS
Contingency Factors
Affecting Information Search
Four contingency hypotheses were tested using chi-
square analysis. The results are presented in Tables 3 and 4.
These hypotheses predicted that there would be statistically
significant differences among leisure travelers classified by
their information search strategies with respect to their deci-
sion types (H1), traveling party composition (H2), purpose
of trip (H3), and mode of travel (H4). Support was found for
all contingency hypotheses.
H1 predicted that choice of information search strategy
would vary as a function of the length of the pre-trip planning
period. Table 3 shows that the Pearson chi-square statistic
(recommended for large samples) was significant, χ2 =
27.19, p < .007, supporting H1.
H1a, H1b, and H1c made specific predictions about how
decision type (as operationalized by pre-trip planning) would
affect choice of strategy. H1a predicted that a routine

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TABLE 4
PRODUCT CHARACTERISTICS HYPOTHESIZED TO AFFECT CHOICE OF SEARCH STRATEGY (PERCENTAGES)
Purpose of Trip
2
(χ = 24.99, p < .000)
Visit Friends
Search Strategy Vacation or Relatives
Prepurchase mix 11.5 8.0
Tourist bureau 8.7 4.7
Personal experience 16.8 6.0
Ongoing mix 4.4 5.3
Friends or relatives 24.1 34.0
Auto club 22.3 30.0
Travel agent 12.2 12.0
decision would be associated with an ongoing, internal or
external strategy, using a decisive source. Table 3 demon-
strates support for H1a, as travelers facing routine travel
decisions were most likely to use their friends or relatives to
plan for their trips. As an information search strategy, friends
or relatives represent an ongoing, external source whose
input is decisive. Next, H1b predicted that a limited decision
would be associated with a prepurchase strategy, incorporat-
ing both internal and external sources. A decisive source
would be used and, if present at all, one or two contributory
sources would be used as well. Substantial support was found
for H1b. Although use of internal sources was not a distin-
guishing factor of those facing limited travel decisions, their
strategy included the use of a single, decisive source (auto
clubs or travel agents) and a smaller number of supporting
contributory sources. Finally, H1c predicted that an extended
decision would require a prepurchase, external search using a
decisive source supplemented by an above-average number
of contributory sources. Table 3 shows that those travelers
undertaking extended travel decisions were most likely to
have used either a personal experience strategy or an auto
club strategy. In the case of the personal experience strategy,
although it was not predicted, it could be interpreted as an
effect of the heavy repeat visitor component of the sample.
Those travelers who return to the same destination year after
year (which is typical of many visitors to Florida) might
engage in a form of ongoing search. These travelers might
never really stop looking for or thinking up new ideas for
their subsequent Florida trips. The use of auto clubs, a deci-
sive source, partially supports H1c, although a greater use of
contributory sources was expected. The average number of
sources used in the auto club strategy was 2.4. Thus, Table 3
shows strong support for the general hypothesis that decision
type affects information search. Results of specific predic-
tions about the nature of these effects were mixed. Effects
were found as predicted for H1a and H1b. The test of H1c
failed to support our prediction but generated a reasonable
alternative interpretation.
H2 predicted that choice of information search strategy
would vary as a function of the traveling party composition.
The results reported in Table 3 are supportive. Search strat-
egy appeared to vary by the nature of the traveling party, χ2 =
24.76, p < .016. These results appear to confirm the powerful
effect that the presence of children has been found to have on
consumer behavior in other product categories (Wilkes
1995). H2a predicted that the search strategies of families
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JOURNAL OF TRAVEL RESEARCH 227
Mode of Travel
(χ2 = 20.83, p < .05)
Recreational
Car Vehicle Truck or Van
8.2 10.7 16.4
8.2 10.7 3.9
13.3 21.3 11.5
5.2 4.0 2.9
27.9 25.3 23.1
23.0 24.0 30.0
13.6 4.0 12.5
traveling with children would be characterized by the use of
prepurchase, external sources and a decisive source supple-
mented by an above-average use of contributory sources.
Their use of auto clubs and travel agents supports H2a. H2b
predicted that couples traveling without children would use a
search strategy composed of prepurchase, external, decisive
sources. Table 3 shows that they were the heaviest users of
tourist bureaus, a strategy that was characterized by the use
of prepurchase, external governmental sources (welcome
centers, local tourist offices, and state travel guides), and a
decisive source, auto clubs. Thus, H2b is supported. H2c pre-
dicted that retired couples, as experienced travelers, would
be most likely to use an ongoing, internal, decisive search
strategy. The results in Table 3 support this prediction.
H3 predicted that choice of information search would
vary as a function of the purpose of trip. General support was
found for this hypothesis. Table 4 reports a significant Pear-
son chi-square statistic, χ2 = 24.99, p < .000. The specific
effects of trip purpose on search strategy choice predicted by
H3a and H3b were tested next. H3a predicted that for this
sample of primarily repeat visitors to Florida, when their pur-
pose of trip was to vacation, their search strategy would be
internal (based on past experience), ongoing (indicating high
involvement), and decisive. H3b predicted that when their
purpose of trip was to vacation, the strategy used would be
ongoing, external, and decisive. In other words, their primary
source of trip planning information would be their friends or
relatives. Table 4 shows strong support for both H3a and
H3b. Those traveling to vacation were the most likely to rely
on their personal experience—an ongoing, internal, decisive
strategy—to plan their trips. Those traveling to visit friends
or relatives used them to help plan their trip. Thus, the results
of H3, H3a, and H3b strongly supported the idea that purpose
of trip affects information search.
H4 predicted that choice of information search strategy
would vary as a function of type of vehicle used. The Pearson
chi-square statistic was significant, χ2 = 20.83, p < .05, sup-
porting H4. H4a predicted that travel by car would be associ-
ated with a prepurchase, external, decisive strategy. Table 4
offers mixed support for this proposition. Those traveling by
car were somewhat more likely to use travel agents than were
those traveling by other modes, but the former also were
more likely to use their friends or relatives. H4b predicted
that RV travelers would be more likely to use an ongoing,
internal, decisive strategy. Table 4 shows that this was the
case. These travelers were the most likely to base their travel
228 FEBRUARY 1999
TABLE 5
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES HYPOTHESIZED TO AFFECT CHOICE OF SEARCH STRATEGY (PERCENTAGES)
Family Life Cycle
2
(χ = 18.70, p < .096)
Households Households
Search Strategy with Children without Children
Prepurchase mix 13.4 8.4
Tourist bureau 5.5 9.5
Personal experience 14.6 12.9
Ongoing mix 3.7 5.0
Friends or relatives 22.0 27.4
Auto club 24.4 22.4
Travel agent 16.5 14.5
planning on personal experience. Finally, H4c predicted that
those traveling by truck or van would use a prepurchase,
external strategy with a heavy emphasis on contributory
sources to supplement a decisive source. H4c was supported,
as these travelers were active users of travel agents and auto
clubs supplemented by a mixture of prepurchase sources
(brochures and guidebooks).
Thus, the results of the contingency hypotheses solidly
support the relationships predicted in the model between
contingency factors and information search. Decision type,
purpose of trip, traveling party composition, and mode of
travel (defined as vehicle type) all were found to be related to
choice of information search strategy.
Tourist Characteristics
Affecting Information Search
Two hypotheses regarding the effects of tourist charac-
teristics were tested using chi-square analysis. The results are
presented in Table 5. These hypotheses predicted that there
would be statistically significant differences among leisure
travelers classified by their information search strategy with
respect to their stage of family life cycle (H5) and income
(H6). Support was found for H6. The results of the test of H5,
stage of family life cycle, were not significant.
H5 predicted that choice of information search strategy
would vary as a function of the stage of family life cycle. Test
results (Table 5) revealed no significant association at the .05
level between information search and stage of the family life
cycle, χ2 = 18.70, p < .096, thus failing to support H5 (i.e.,
that the stage of the family life cycle would influence infor-
mation search). The failure to support H5 precluded further
discussion of H5a, H5b, and H5c. The test of H6 was sup-
ported, however, finding information search to be signifi-
cantly influenced by socioeconomic status, as measured by
income, χ2 = 15.04, p < .020.
H6a and H6b made specific predictions about how
income level would affect strategy choice. H8a predicted that
a lower income would be associated with a combination of
prepurchase and external sources, both decisive and con-
tributory. H6b predicted that a higher income would be asso-
ciated with an ongoing, internal, decisive strategy. Table 5
shows the opposite results for each prediction. A median split
technique was used to differentiate higher from lower
income levels.
The search strategy that distinguished those travelers
with lower incomes was reliance on their friends or relatives.
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Income
(χ2 = 15.04, p < .020)
Lower Higher
Retirees (≤ $40,000) (> $40,000)
10.3 10.0 11.3
7.9 4.5 11.3
14.5 14.0 14.0
5.0 3.7 5.9
29.3 31.0 21.1
25.6 24.3 24.2
7.4 12.1 12.1
The search strategy that differentiated those with higher
incomes was the use of governmental tourist information
sources: welcome centers, local tourist offices, and state
travel guides. In retrospect, these findings made sense given
the retiree status of much of the sample. Thus, for this sam-
ple, the lower income ranks included those with more travel
experience. Those with higher incomes tend to be still
employed and might require greater amounts of information
to get the most from their limited vacation time.
Search Outcomes and Information Search
In general, the model hypothesized that the nature of
information search would influence both qualitative (attitu-
dinal) and quantitative (behavioral) outcomes. Unfortu-
nately, no attitudinal data were available from the secondary
source on which this study was based. Certain behavioral
outcomes were measured, however, and although no
assumptions of causality could be made, four association
hypotheses were tested using one-way analysis of variance
(ANOVA). These hypotheses predicted relationships
between length of stay and information search (H7), between
number of destinations visited and information search (H8),
between number of attractions visited and information search
(H9), and between entertainment expenditures and informa-
tion search (H10). Results of the four ANOVAs are found in
Table 6.
One-way ANOVA results on length of stay were signifi-
cant, F = 2.44, p < .018. Evidence of significant association
was found as well for number of destinations visited, F =
2.36, p < .001, for number of attractions visited, F = 2.36, p <
.022, and for entertainment expenditures, F = 3.17, p < .003.
In general, as predicted, the level of search effort increased
along with increases in rates of consumption. For example,
those travelers who used the greatest number of sources,
Cluster 4, also stayed the longest. Those who made the few-
est overnight stops also consulted the fewest sources. Thus,
the model’s predicted relationships between search and
search outcomes was confirmed by these analyses.
DISCUSSION
From the consumer and tourist information search litera-
ture, we constructed a model of tourist information search
strategies with their interrelationships, determinants, and
outcomes. The model was field-tested in a field study of

OUTCOMES HYPOTHESIZED TO BE INFLUENCED BY CHOICE OF INFORMATION SOURCE
Length of Stay
(F = 2.44, p < .018)
Search Strategy (nights)
Prepurchase mix 18.4
Tourist bureau 19.7
Personal experience 23.7
Ongoing mix 30.5
Friends or relatives 17.7
Auto club 18.2
Travel agent 9.5
leisure travelers using chi-square analysis and one-way
ANOVA. Results converged to support the model and its
underlying proposition that tourist information search strate-
gies are the result of a dynamic process in which travelers use
various types and amounts of information sources to respond
to internal and external contingencies in vacation planning.
The findings of this research make several contributions
to the literature. These include (a) an expanded discussion of
a broad range of tourist information search behaviors, (b) a
synthesis and delineation of contingency factors affecting
tourist choice of search strategy and information sources,
(c) the consideration of potential interrelationships among
alternative tourist search strategies, (d) an emphasis on
increased awareness of potential differences in tourist
responses to diverse environmental conditions, (e) a descrip-
tion of testable hypotheses regarding the conditions under
which various search strategies or combinations of strategies
are employed, (f) a synthesis and discussion of the interrela-
tionships between information search and other tourist
behaviors, (g) the consideration of a broader range of infor-
mation search outcomes, and (h) suggestions for making
future information search research more relevant to tourism
scholars and practitioners.
Major caveats of this study must be observed in four
areas: empirical setting, sample, data collection, and analy-
sis. First, we examined a fairly homogeneous group of con-
sumers in a single product category. Although the respon-
dents were “real-world consumers,” information search may
be monomorphic, that is, specific to product category. The
sample also limited generalizability of the results. Given the
nonrandom nature of the sample and the focus on a single
mode of travel, there is no way of judging how representative
these real-world consumers are of the real world. This con-
cern extends to issues of data collection. Whereas issues
about the appropriate sampling unit in traveling parties
always are problematic in tourism research, this study also
suffers from the unknown respondent problem inherent in
mail surveys. We have no way of knowing who in the travel-
ing party filled out the questionnaire. Finally, the data were
collected retrospectively, with all measures taken at once
using a common method.
Managerial Implications
There has long been an interest in how travelers select,
acquire, evaluate, and use the information on which they
base their trip planning. The belief that systematic patterns of
tourist behavior are attributable to the information available
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JOURNAL OF TRAVEL RESEARCH 229
TABLE 6
Number of Number of Entertainment Expenditures
Overnight Stops Attractions Visited (F = 3.17, p < .003)
(F = 3.62, p < .001) (F = 2.36, p < .022) (dollars)
2.4 1.8 167
2.4 2.1 185
1.8 1.3 139
2.8 2.2 173
2.0 1.4 105
2.3 1.6 74
1.8 1.4 109
to them compels its study. Marketing managers have used
various types of analyses to identify customers’ search
behavior for purposes of segmentation, product positioning,
and development of targeted promotion strategies for differ-
ent market segments (Boone and Kurtz 1995; Evans and Ber-
man 1994; Kotler and Armstrong 1995). These activities
have been critical to the marketer who seeks to better under-
stand the differential needs driving consumer decision-
making processes and associated information searches to
communicate product benefits most effectively and effi-
ciently. This is especially important within an overall context
of rapidly increasing competition in the travel/tourism/hospi-
tality industry, where even marginal improvements in under-
standing and matching customers’ needs can increase com-
petitive advantage.
Managerially, our model provides a theoretical and
empirical basis for segmentation, product positioning, and
promotional strategy development related to tourist informa-
tion search behaviors. A close examination of the specific
findings of the hypothesis tests provides rich insights for
understanding, predicting, and possibly influencing a critical
component of tourist behavior.
Implications for Future Research
Consumer researchers interested in the purchase decision
process frequently have focused on information search
behavior either to identify and classify information sources
used or to examine the relationships between information
search and other factors affecting and affected by the con-
sumers (Berning and Jacoby 1974; Bettman 1979; Furse,
Punj, and Stewart 1984; Jacoby, Chestnut, and Fisher 1978;
Leigh and Rethans 1984; Lynch and Srull 1982; Moore and
Lehmann 1980; van Raaij 1977; Winter 1975). Additional
research on tourist information search is needed in many
areas. The focus here is on research that would be most use-
ful in testing, revising, and elaborating the model of tourist
information search presented. Both descriptive and prescrip-
tive research are needed.
A fertile area for future descriptive research would be to
more carefully explicate the strategies, constructs, and pro-
posed interrelationships outlined in our model. Outcomes are
an area of particular importance given their multidimension-
ality and the complexity of their relationships to both infor-
mation search activities and the tourist decision-making pro-
cess. Research is needed that examines how consumers
perceive, evaluate, and weigh various potential outcomes of
information search.
 230 FEBRUARY 1999
From a theoretical perspective, it also would be useful to
explore the link between the concept of information search
behavior as manifest by search strategy and the concept of
information processing behavior. The issue here is whether
the information gathered via one search strategy is processed
similarly to or differently from information gathered by
another search strategy and, ultimately, whether or not this
affects the nature of the decision processes and the decision
made.
Prescriptive research is needed as well to provide practi-
tioners with direction for achieving desired outcomes. Given
the complexity underlying seemingly straightforward con-
sumer use of information sources, practitioners need to be
sensitized to the various factors involved and their relation-
ships. In other words, prescriptive research should begin
with a more solid foundation of descriptive findings.
Our research represents a much-needed contribution to
the literature in terms of the “who, what, when, where, and
how” of tourist information search. It is an incomplete
model, however, as it is missing what is perhaps its most use-
ful and interesting element, “why.” We close by emphasizing
the need for more theoretical and empirical research on this
most important issue in understanding tourist information
search.
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