Combustible gas detectors, thermal

conductivity meters, infrared detectors &

Chemical detector tubes
Ships carrying toxic or flammable products (or both) should be
equipped with at least two instruments that are designed and
calibrated for testing the gases of the products carried. If the
instruments are not capable of testing for both toxic concentrations
and flammable concentrations, then separate sets of instruments
should be provided.

Vapour-detection instruments may be portable or fixed. If a fixed

system is installed at least one additional portable instrument
should be provided.

 Home

 Special Chemicals

 Stowage Planning

 Cargo Care

 Cargo Equipments

 Chemical Hazards

 Cargo Loading

 Cargo Unloading

 Cargo Documents
  Safe Stability

 Tank Cleaning

 Inert Gas Systems

 Gas Freeing

 Nitrogen Handling

 Cargo/ Ballast Pumps

 Cargo Tanks

 Spills Emergencies

 Fire Protection

 Safety Matters
When toxic-vapour-detection equipment is not available for certain
products that require such detection the Administration may exempt
the ship from the requirement, provided an appropriate entry is
made on the International Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of
Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk. When granting such an exemption,
the Administration should recognise the necessity for additional
breathing-air supply and a further entry must be made on the
International Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of Dangerous
Chemicals in Bulk.

The provision and use of vapour detection equipment is required by

the IBC Code for a number of functions, including:

• measuring concentrations of gas in or near the flammable range;

• detecting low concentraflons of cargo vapour in air and in inert

gas, or in the vapour of another cargo;

• measuring concentrations of oxygen in inert gas or cargo vapour,

or in enclosed spaces.

Personnel should fully understand the purpose and limitations of

different vapour detection equipment, whether fixed or portable.

Combustible gas detectors

Combustible gas detectors are very common and are used to detect
and measure combustible gases, usually within the concentration
range of 0-100% LFL; that is, up to the point of flammability.
Equipment can be fixed or portable.

A sensor containing a filament of a special metal is heated

electrically and a sample of gas is passed over it. Any combustible
gas in the sample is oxidised catalytically. The heat given out alters
the electrical resistance of the filament in proportion to the gas
concentration, and this effect is displayed on a suitably marked
meter. The filament can easily be de-activated by materials such as
silicones, halogenated gases, acids, water, oil and lead. Filters may
therefore be required in the sample lines.

The equipment needs oxygen to operate, and can only be relied

upon to detect combustible gas in air atmospheres, not in inerted
atmospheres. If a mixture of inert gas and cargo vapour has to be
tested, either an infrared or thermal conductivity meter must be
used, or a sample must be mixed with air before a combustible gas
detector can be used. A combustible gas detector will not indicate a
safe atmosphere if a toxic vapour is involved: in such a case a
different type of instrument should be used.

The instruments are calibrated against a known gas, called a span

gas. Performance in use may be affected if the gas sampled is
different from that used for calibration, and an appropriate
conversion factor may to be applied to the readings.

Portable combustible gas detectors are frequently used to confirm

the state of atmospheres believed to be free of cargo vapours, such
as prior to tank entry or hot work. When used for this purpose,
readings should be taken by or under the supervision of a
responsible officer who should be satisfied that the instrument
readings are correct, and are accurately interpreted, before allowing
the safety of personnel to depend upon them. The calibration should
be confirmed, and readings should be taken from the top or bottom
of a space depending on the vapour density of the cargo. Readings
will be inaccurate if inert gas is present in the sample.

When using the instrument every reaction of the meter is important,

and not just the final resting position. The first movement indicates
the presence of combustible vapour, while the final rest position
indicates the concentration, as follows:

• a final rest position within the scale indicates a gas concentration

below LFL, expressed as a percentage of LFL;

• a final rest position beyond 100% LFL indicates a concentration

within the flammable range;

• a needle movement first above 100% LFL and then to a final rest
position of zero indicates a concentration above UFL.

It is therefore strongly recommended that when a space is being

checked the responsible officer should not be satisfied that an
atmosphere is safe until consistent zero readings are obtained.
Fixed gas detectors working on this principle have the same
limitations as portable ones.

Personal combustible gas detectors, capable of continuously

sampling an atmosphere to detect the presence of small amounts of
combustible gas, are also available. They should automatically
provide an audible and visual alarm when the level of combustible
gas reaches a set level, to give the wearer adequate warning of
unsafe conditions.

Thermal conductivity meters

These instruments work by measuring thermal conductivity of

samples of gas. They are sometimes called catharometers. Electrical
power is applied to a heater filament which is used as the sensing
element: the filament temperature stabilises at a value depending
on the thermal conductivity of the gas around it. Any variation in
the concentration of the gas affects the filament temperature,
resulting in a change in electrical resistance which is in turn
indicated by a meter.

The principle is similar to that of the combustible gas detector, but

the filament temperatures are lower and the instruments can be
used to detect concentrations of gas from 0-100% by volume
(compared to 0-100% LFL).

The filament may be mounted so that the sampled gas flows directly
over it or diffuses into it. The direct flow type responds more quickly
to concentration changes but is dependent on flow rates. The
diffusion type gives a slower response but is less flow sensitive. It is
important to note that changes in operating conditions (e.g.
filament voltage or gas flow rate) may alter the filament
temperature. The maker's handbook for the instrument should be
checked.

A thermal conductivity meter can be set to detect cargo vapour

mixed with inert gas. The meter must be calibrated to suit the gas
being tested, or manufacturer's correction curves used. Reference
should be made to the manufacturer's instructions before every
occasion of use.

Note: The roles of combustible gas detector and thermal

conductivity meter can be combined into one instrument, although
the two functions - measuring percentage of LFL and concentration
of vapour by volume respectively - remain distinct. In some ships,
fixed gas detection equipment uses this combination technique.

Infrared detectors

Organic gases such as butane, methane and petroleum absorb

infrared radiation. This property is used in fixed or portable
equipment to detect such gases in concentrations over the range 0-
100% LFL or 0-100% volume. Infrared radiation is passed through
two tubes, one containing a known concentration of gas, the other
containing the sample to be measured.

The extent of absorption is in proportion to the gas concentration,

and the output from the two tubes is compared electronically. The
electronic signal can be used to drive an indicating meter or a pen
recorder, or to trigger other equipment such as an alarm.
Calibration of the instrument is set for each gas to be measured.

Infrared detectors will not reliably detect chemical gases, and are
not commonly used on chemical tankers.

Chemical detector tubes

These instruments, often referred to as Draeger tubes, normally

function by drawing a sample of the atmosphere to be tested
through a proprietary chemical reagent in a glass tube.

The detecting reagent becomes progressively discoloured if a

contaminant vapour is present in the sample. The length of the
discoloration stain gives a measure of the concentration of the
chemical vapour which can be read from the graduated scale
printed on the tube. Detector tubes give an accurate indication of
chemical vapour concentration, whatever the oxygen content of the
mixture.

It is important that the correct volume of atmosphere sample,

according to the manufacturer's instructions, is passed through the
tube, otherwise the measurement will not be accurate. Too small a
sample volume will give a low value. With some instruments the
length of hose is a critical factor in obtaining a correct reading. The
presence of a second gas may affect readings and cause
inaccuracies. Chemical detector tubes are specific for particular
gases or vapours, which need not have flammable or combustible
properties - for example, oxygen or water vapour (to establish
dewpoint).
The tubes are designed to measure low vapour concentrations
accurately, and are probably the most convenient and suitable
equipment to use. They should always be used when the cargo
vapour presents a serious inhalation hazard, e.g. acrylonitrile. The
storage life of these tubes is usually limited, and it is necessary to
ensure that out of date tubes do not remain available for use.

General precautions

Vapour detection is a means of measuring vapour concentrations,

and great care is necessary to ensure that the readings are
accurate, especially when the lives of personnel depend upon them.
The following precautions should be observed:

• the maker's handbook should be studied before calibration or use;

• zero points should be checked regularly and reset if necessary

before an instrument is calibrated. Great care should be taken when
the zero is being set to ensure that the sample is free from any gas
that would otherwise give a reading: pure nitrogen should be used if
necessary;

• the instrument should be calibrated as often as recommended by

the makers. The concentration and composition of the gas used for
calibration (known as span gas) should be accurately known. Re-
calibration should be recorded on or near the instrument;

• the same precautions must be observed when handling span gas

which is toxic or flammable as would apply if the chemical was
carried as cargo;

• tubes or liquids for equipment using the chemical absorption or

reaction principles have a limited life with an expiry date. They
should be replaced before expiry, otherwise readings may be
inaccurate;

• all sample lines should be clean, unobstructed, leak-tight and

connected to the correct point;

• all sample lines should be made of the correct material as

specified by the maker. Incorrect tubing may absorb gas from the
sample and cause misleading readings;

• if upper or lower sample points are provided (for lighter than air
or heavier than air vapours respectively) the correct position should
be used for the cargo;

• pumps, filters, flame screens and other components of the system

should be well maintained to ensure accurate readings;

• for fixed instruments, remote and local read-outs should be

compared to detect discrepancies;

• performance of most fixed instruments depends on flow rate, and

fluctuations can cause inaccuracy. Flows should be kept steady, and
flows from separate points should be balanced;

• the battery voltage of portable instruments should be checked

frequently to ensure an instrument will provide accurate readings.

Other info pages

Draegar Chemical detector tubes use and reading correction

guideline
These instruments, often referred to as Draeger tubes, normally
function by drawing a sample of the atmosphere to be tested
through a proprietary chemical reagent in a glass tube. The
detecting reagent becomes progressively discoloured if a
contaminant vapour is present in the sample. The length of the
discoloration stain gives a measure of the concentration of the
chemical vapour which can be read from the graduated scale
printed on the tube. Detector tubes give an accurate indication of
chemical vapour concentration, whatever the oxygen content of the
mixture
Requirements of various grade chemical cargo heating
: The voyage orders will contain heating information, if heating is
required. As a rule the final heating instructions are given by the
Shipper in writing to the Master / Chief Officer in the port of loading.
If those written instructions are not given, the master should
request them and issue a Letter of Protest if they are not received
at departure. In the latter case the management office should be
immediately informed.

Recommended temperature monitoring equipments onboard

:Temperature sensors are fitted so that the temperature of the
cargo can be monitored, especially where required by the IBC Code.
It is important to know the cargo temperature in order to be able to
calculate the weight of cargo on board, and because tanks or their
coatings often have a maximum temperature limit. Many cargoes
are temperature sensitive, and can be damaged by overheating or if
permitted to solidify. Sensors may also be fitted to monitor the
temperatures of the structure around the cargo system.

Cargo instruments
:In order to maintain a proper control of the tank atmosphere and
to check the effectiveness of gas freeing, especially prior to tank
entry, several different gas measuring instruments need to be
available for use. Which one to use will depend upon the type of
atmosphere being measured.

Liquid level gauges

:The accuracy required of chemical carrier level gauges is high
because of the nature and value of the cargo. To limit personnel
exposure to chemicals or their vapours while cargo is being handled,
or during carriage at sea, the IBC Code specifies three methods of
gauging the level of a liquid in a tank - open, restricted or closed

Overflow control
:Certain cargoes require the designated tank to be fitted with a
separate high level alarm to give warning before the tank becomes
full. The alarm may be activated by either a float operating a switch
device, a capacitive pressure transmitter, or an ultrasonic or
radioactive source. The activation point is usually pre-set at 95% of
tank capacity.

Oxygen analysers
:Oxygen analysers are normally used to determine the oxygen level
in the atmosphere of an enclosed space: for instance, to check that
a cargo tank can be considered fully inerted, or whether a
compartment is safe for entry.

Vapour detection
:Ships carrying toxic or flammable products (or both) should be
equipped with at least two instruments that are designed and
calibrated for testing the gases of the products carried. If the
instruments are not capable of testing for both toxic concentrations
and flammable concentrations, then separate sets of instruments
should be provided.

Alarm circuit
:An important feature of many modern measurement and control
instruments is the ability to signal a particular situation. This can be
a main operational alarm that gives an indication of a pre-set
situation such as liquid level in a tank, or a malfunction alarm
indicating a failure within a sensor's own operating mechanism. The
designs and purposes of alarm and shutdown circuits vary widely,
and their operating system may be pneumatic, hydraulic, electrical
or electronic. Safe operation of plant and systems depends on the
correct operation of these circuits and a knowledgeable reaction to
them.

Gas freeing
:Gas freeing onboard chemical tankers is required for entry into
cargo tanks, for hot works or washing for clean ballast tanks. Gas
Freeing is one of the most hazardous operations routinely
undertaken onboard a Chemical Tanker and the additional risk
created by cargo gases expelled from the tanks, which may be
toxic, flammable and corrosive, cannot be over-emphasised.

Cargo tank damage during pigging operations

 :Blowing and pigging of pipelines at terminals poses inherent risks
for the terminal and a chemical tanker. Frequent damages to tanks
have occurred. If there are doubts about the shore operation or
signs of problems ashore the OOW must immediately request
clarification.

Reference publications

Types of Gas Detectors

By Jane White

|Read Bio

Published: January 01st, 1970

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Gas is a commodity we could not live without, but we

cannot fail to recognise that it can be dangerous.
Covered in this article:

 Harmful and the not so harmful

 Identifying the hazards

 Two main types of gas detection

Many of the substances’ properties have the potential to

cause harm to both people and the environment if they
are not managed well.
Gases may be flammable, they can suffocate people and
cause serious and long lasting health problems. This
means engineers, health and safety professionals and
others responsible for removing or reducing the risk of
gases must deal with each hazard accordingly to ensure
these risks are managed to the lowest level.
Gas detection techniques and technology have an
integral role to play. They can enable the effective
management of risk when assessing and implementing
control strategies to protect a company’s workforce,
assets and third parties from unnecessary harm.
In May 2013, images of astronauts taking an emergency
spacewalk to investigate an ammonia leak coming from
the International Space Station were transmitted to
earth. While the six astronauts manning the station that
orbits the earth were not at direct risk the unplanned
moonwalk symbolises the urgency of detecting and
putting right a gas leak.
The Institution of Occupational Safety and Health (IOSH)
strongly encourages organisations to adopt good practise
methods for preventing unwanted gas release and
detecting leaks, as well as ways to protect employees,
the public and the environment if it is loose in the
atmosphere.

Harmful and the not so harmful

Carbon monoxide, chlorine, hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen

sulphide and ammonia are some of the most common
gases produced. Typically, these types of gas are found in
the production of iron and steel, chemicals and
petrochemicals, oil refining, natural gas sourcing,
refrigeration and water treatment.
Certain environments require finely tuned methods of
detection and precaution, simply because of the greater
risk they pose.
For example, petrochemical plants carry an increased risk
of serious gas leakage, which can lead to explosion or fire
that not only damages equipment, but puts lives at
serious risk. Meanwhile, nuclear power stations use
gases, such as CO2, as coolants to transfer heat to
generate steam and to prevent reactor overheating. Any
loss of CO2 could reduce the efficiency of heat removal
and possibly lead to overheating. In both of these
situations, gas detectors are used not only to keep the
process operating safely, but to keep people safe by
detection of any gas releases.
“an effective formal maintenance, audit and review
process is essential to ensure equipment is kept in good
working order and is still best suited to managing each
individual risk”
Some gases are relatively harmless, but it is vital that
gases which are identified as toxic or flammable are
controlled and managed safely. There are a number of
factors that affect the need for speed of detection. These
will include the type of gas, its temperature, pressure,
quantity and toxicity, its proximity to employees and the
public, the effectiveness of counteractive measures taken
against it, and the speed and effectiveness of medical
intervention available.

Escape routes

Any system which uses gas can develop leaks – this can
be through accidental damage or just as a result of
general wear and tear. But the common causes are
human error, corrosion, tired or faulty equipment, poor
maintenance, or accelerated chemical reactions that
increase pressure.
Obviously the significance a leak has on the business’s
ability to maintain normal activities will vary depending
on the type of gas being used, its pressure and
temperature, any products or reactions generated by the
process, where the leak is located, and the quantity of
gas that could be released.
The location and sensitivity of any sort of gas detection
device depends on from where and when the gas is likely
to escape.
Part of the health and safety management process for
selecting gas detection technology involves gas
dispersion modelling, using likely locations where the
substance could escape as a template. Varying densities,
volumes, and temperatures of the gas are tested, along
with differing weather conditions, to find out how the
gas cloud is likely to form and disperse in the event of a
leak. ‘Hazops’ – hazard and operability studies – also
examine a company’s equipment and its operation, to
determine the possible points at which gas may be
released.
Old and tired equipment is often a big problem, and wear
and tear is frequently related to poor and inadequate
maintenance. Failed pipe work, poor piping joints,
leaking pumps or valve seals, vents and drains can
become the leak culprits if they are not kept in good
condition. An effective formal maintenance, audit and
review process is essential to ensure equipment is kept in
good working order and is still best suited to managing
each individual risk.
Some types of gas can also cause issues in enclosed
spaces and workers can find themselves in a situation
where the atmosphere cannot support breathing, so gas
detection will be a part of the risk reduction measures.
Gas detection is an essential part of the risk assessment
process for working in confined spaces.
Workers can find themselves in unplanned, harmful
situations if they are not aware of the gases used,
produced, or discharged in the area they work in.
Workers need to be aware of the potential risk they face
and how to respond should an emergency situation arise.
For example, even a task as seemingly harmless as
setting concrete gives off carbon dioxide, which can act
as an asphyxiant in the right conditions. Organic food or
waste can remove oxygen, producing hydrogen and
methane as it decomposes, and process plants like oil
refineries can release toxic gases such a Hydrogen
Fluoride and flammable hydrocarbons.
“one of the main advantages of fixed gas detection is that
the gas detector will monitor an area constantly”

Identifying the hazards

Companies operating in high risk industries must take a

structured review of any risks to plant, people and the
environment, and that includes gas detection. The key is
to ensure that elements of protection are proportionate
to the level of risk involved. A common sense approach
should be adopted at all times.
IOSH suggests organisations consider three main areas to
make sure they are protected when using harmful gases:
• Process control – ensuring that presence, pressure,
reactions and concentration of any harmful gases are
controlled, so that gas does not escape into the
workplace or surrounding environment where it may
cause damage or harm
• Loss prevention – a process of good design,
maintenance, inspection, operation and corrosion
prevention should be in place to ensure gases are
contained
• Be prepared for loss – put in place good gas detection
and process monitoring, so that loss of gas is identified, if
it occurs, and suitable emergency arrangements to
protect people and the environment are in place
• Hierarchy of control
The latter of these dictates that gas detection is essential
for a worker’s health and safety, and is a key focus for
IOSH because of the organisation’s core aim of protecting
people at work.

Selecting the correct detection systems

Most gas detection systems can be broken down into

two categories – fixed and portable. Historically, the
early detection systems for gas were very basic, but the
principles remain the same to this day.

In 1986 it was reported that more than 200 canary birds

were being phased out of Britain’s mining pits, and
replaced by digital gas detectors following government
plans.
Dating back to 1911 canary birds were employed by each
mining pit. The birds were known to be sensitive to toxic
gases such as carbon monoxide – a gas that could easily
form underground during a mine fire or after an
explosion. The canaries were carried into a mine in a
cage and any sign of distress was a symbol that
conditions were unsafe.
Overall the birds were replaced as the digital gas
detectors were said to be cheaper and more effective
when it came to recognising pollutants.
“many hazardous industries will utilise ‘Hazan’ (Hazard
Analysis) and ‘Hazop’ (Hazard and Operability) studies
to identify risks with process plant and operations”

Two main types of gas detection

Portable

Modern electronic personal gas detection monitors

sound an alarm when the gas rises to a dangerous level,
allowing an individual to work in a hazardous area. The
safe working levels workers can be subject to may vary
from country to country – so if you work across different
countries, make sure you are familiar with local
requirements and legislation.
Portable detection systems often assist workers
undertaking tasks such as maintenance, where
employees might disturb or release gas that should not
be freely roaming in that environment. Portable devices
are also a useful way of sampling gases, where workers
need to measure the quality of the atmosphere.
These systems are mainly used to ensure the protection
of the wearer, whereas a fixed system is used to protect
many employees at one time. They check for weak points
in the plant where gas might escape, or detect dangerous
leaks that may harm many people on the plant, the local
community, and the environment.

Fixed

One of the main advantages of fixed gas detection is that

the gas detector will monitor an area constantly, so that
the leak is spotted even if an operator is not present,
prompting the appropriate emergency response
regardless.
In terms of where they are placed in a building or process
plant, this will depend on whether the gas is heavier or
lighter than air. By way of example, everyone is familiar
with smoke alarms and carbon monoxide detectors –
perhaps the two most common methods of fixed gas
detection. There would be little point in locating a smoke
alarm at floor level, as smoke rises with the heat of the
fire. The same principles apply to gas detection, in that
detectors are placed in locations that will allow for the
earliest warning.
A fixed gas detection system is often the most effective
way to detect gas, because building structures can
contain it, making it easy to pick up. But certain
structures release or allow the gas to escape away from
its source, meaning the detection process must be more
complex.
Gas detection outside requires many detectors to
provide blanket coverage across a wide area. After all,
without the restriction of building walls and structures, it
can escape in any direction, depending on wind and
weather conditions at the time. In these circumstances,
they are installed to cover a number of typically
predictable sources of leak, such as corrosion hotspots or
sampling points which might be overlooked by manual
detection.
To be effective, equipment must be able to detect the
gas at the concentration required to maintain control or
safe conditions. For example, there is very little point in
using a gas detection device that will only detect
flammable gas when it enters the ‘Upper Limit of
Flammability’. In this situation, it will have exceeded the
Lower Limit of Flammability and may have already
caused a fire or explosion. The sensitivity of the gas
detection device must reflect a substance’s lower
explosive limit or toxic levels, to give early warning of any
danger. Over the years, the acceptable exposure limits
have been reduced, either for safety or environmental
reasons.

A robust organisation-wide policy

The nature of hazardous industries is such that the board

is likely to have an increased focus on health and safety
decisions. The board may view safety reports that have
been compiled by multidisciplinary experts, who should
identify major hazards that exist within the organisation,
assessing their impact and the ways to control and
mitigate them. These reports can act as a framework for
the company to put effective equipment and procedures
in place to help reduce and manage the risks.
Many hazardous industries will utilise ‘Hazan’ (Hazard
Analysis) and ‘Hazop’ (Hazard and Operability) studies to
identify risks with process plant and operations. The
results from these studies can inform businesses which
level and standards of gas detection are required to keep
their plant, people and the environment safe.

Detection failures – lessons

There have been numerous fatalities from failures to

detect gas and minimise its harmful effects.
While it is less frequent for fatalities to be caused by
leaks of asphyxiating or toxics gases, leaks of flammable
gases have led to explosions and fires that have caused
large loss of life and extensive damage to infrastructure.
The most recent tragedy is Deepwater Horizon, where a
blowout from a natural gas leak in the Gulf of Mexico, in
May 2010, caused a fatal explosion and fire, killing 11
people. In 2005, 15 were killed and around 170 injured at
Texas City when a cold vent system allowed oil
production hydrocarbons to be released into the
atmosphere, which ignited.
Meanwhile, in the UK, in 1988 the Piper Alpha Disaster
claimed the lives of 127 people when a leak of natural
gas ignited, causing damage to fire protection and
secondary fires on an offshore platform. This remains the
worst offshore and gas incident in history and the
resulting legislation, proposed by Lord Cullen in his post-
tragedy enquiry, reshaped the offshore industry. All of
his findings have now been implemented, or at the very
least considered, across the whole of the offshore oil and
gas industry.
What makes these events more tragic is the fact that
each was preventable – the major hazards that could
result from the gases released were well known and
documented. What is more, the technologies to prevent
these accidents from happening were and still are
available. Organisations – in the hazardous industries
specifically – need to learn these lessons to prevent gas
releases in the future, putting in place the right measures
to detect them and control them if a leak occurs.
Published: 28th Jan 2014 in Health and Safety
International.
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