Unit II RWSOSS VIII Sem CE6 Class Note Material

RURAL WATER SUPPLY AND ONSITE SANITATION
SYSTEM
UNIT-II
Lecture slides by
Dr. Jnana Ranjan Khuntia
Dr. Jnana Ranjan Khuntia, CED CBIT
Syllabus
Unit – II
Water Treatment:
Need for water treatment, point of use water treatment systems, filters, bio-sand filters,
disinfection systems for rural areas, chlorination, solar disinfection systems, removal of
arsenic, fluoride and iron; hygiene and sanitation, epidemiological aspects of water quality
methods for low cost water treatment – specific contaminant removal systems.
1
Introduction
• Water is the most crucial compound for life on Earth, and having drinkable water
is a key worldwide concern for the twenty-first century.
• All living things require clean, uncontaminated water as a basic requirement.
Water covers more than 71 percent of the earth’s surface, but only around 1% of it
is drinkable according to international standards due to various contaminations .
• Water treatment is increasingly necessary due to drinking water shortages and the
growing needs of the global population.
• Of the planet's total water reserves, only 2.5% is freshwater - and of this amount
only 0.4% is water fit for human consumption.
• The end use may be drinking, industrial water supply, irrigation, river flow
maintenance, water recreation or many other uses, including being safely returned
to the environment.
Need for water treatment

• Water treatment is any process that improves the quality of water to make it appropriate for a
specific end-use.
• Water treatment removes contaminants and undesirable components, or reduces their concentration
so that the water becomes fit for its desired end-use.
• This treatment is crucial to human health and allows humans to benefit from both drinking and
irrigation use.
• Waste water discharge from industries, agricultural pollution, municipal wastewater, environmental
and global changes are the main sources of water contamination.
• Even trace levels of heavy metals, dyes, and microbes are hazardous to human health, aquatic
systems, and the environment.
• According to a Food and Agriculture Organization assessment from 2007, absolute water scarcity
will affect 1.8 billion people living in countries, and water stress might affect two-thirds of the
global population.
2
How Do Wastewater Treatment Plants Work?
How do wastewater treatment plants work?
3
Water Treatment Plant

• Treatment for drinking water production involves the removal of contaminants and/or
inactivation of any potentially harmful microbes from raw water to produce water that is
pure enough for human consumption without any short term or long term risk of any
adverse health effect.
• In general terms, the greatest microbial risks are associated with ingestion of water that is
contaminated with human or animal (including bird) faeces (waste matter remaining after
food has been digested).
• Faeces can be a source of pathogenic bacteria, viruses, protozoa and helminths.
• The removal or destruction of microbial pathogens is essential, and commonly involves
the use of reactive chemical agents such as suspended solids, to remove bacteria, algae,
viruses, fungi, and minerals including iron and manganese.
4
• Measures taken to ensure water quality not only relate to the treatment of the
water, but to its conveyance and distribution after treatment.
• It is therefore common practice to keep residual disinfectants in the treated
water to kill bacteriological contamination during distribution and to keep the
pipes clean.
• Water supplied to domestic properties such as for tap water or other uses, may
be further treated before use, often using an in-line treatment process. Such
treatments can include water softening or ion exchange.
• Many proprietary systems also claim to remove residual disinfectants and
heavy metal ions.
Point of use water treatment systems

• Point-of-use systems filter water at the “point” where water is being used and is installed
at a single water connection, typically under the sink in the kitchen or bathroom.
• The most common type of point-of-use system is a reverse osmosis drinking water system.
• Point-of-use (POU) technologies have been proposed as solutions for meeting the
Millennium Development Goal (MDG) for safe water.
• They reduce the risk of contamination between the water source and the home, by
providing treatment at the household level.
5
POE and POU Treatment
Continued…
• A Point of Use (POU) device is a treatment device installed on a single faucet or spigot
or tap used for the purpose of reducing contaminants in drinking water at that one tap.
• POU devices can sit on the counter, attach to the faucet, or be installed under the sink.
• A Point of Entry (POE) device is any unit installed to treat the water entering a house or
building for the purpose of treating water distributed throughout the entire house or
building.
• POE and POU devices are sometimes used by homeowners to enhance the aesthetic
quality (taste, color and odor) of drinking water supplied by a local public drinking water
system.
• In other cases they are installed by private well owners or Public Water Suppliers to meet
drinking water quality standards.
6
Filtration
• Water is one of the most important substances on the planet, it covers 71% of the Earth’s surface
and the human body can contain as much as 75% of the stuff.
• Water is vital to a huge number of applications including agriculture, science, medical,
transportation, heating, recreation and food processing as well as washing and perhaps most
important of all: drinking.
• For the majority of us, drinking water comes from a treated municipal supply which is safe to drink
but will often feature unpleasant tastes and odours from chemicals such as chlorine which are used
to disinfect the water and keep it free of germs and bacteria.
• Depending on where you live, you may also find that your mains water causes limescale deposits to
form which can block pipes and damage appliances.
• These issues, chlorine taste / odour and limescale formation are just two among a host of other
common water problems which can be solved by water filtration.
• But how do water filters actually work?
Traditional household water purification methods practiced by rural

communities in developing countries
• When drinking water is riddled with impurities it is necessary to purify it, as it is of
paramount importance to human health and well being of any society.
• Though numerous technologies have come up to purify water, majority of population in
developing countries, finds it difficult to use them.
• In such circumstances simple techniques with low level of mechanisation can be applied.
• Such techniques can serve small communities or individual households.
• These techniques are simple and can treat water to a minimum extent wherein visible
impurities can be removed.
• Thus they by no means can meet the set standards meant for consumption.
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Traditional household water purification methods practiced by rural
communities in developing countries
• The methods used by different communities in different countries are as follows:
• Winnowing sieve
• Through cloth
• Clay vessels
• Clarification and filtration through plant material
• Stone filter method
• Horizontal flow coarse media filter
• Upflow gravel filter
• Two-stage filter
• Upflow/downflow filter
8
Filters
• Filtration, in general, is a process of removal or separation of suspended solids from the
fluid.
• Sometimes it is also utilized to remove unwanted fluids, like oil or vapour, from water or
other process liquids.
• Various types of filtration techniques have been existent for centuries now.
• It was around 500 BC when Hippocrates, after realizing the importance of pure water,
constructed the first bag filter which was termed as ‘Hippocratic Sleeve’.
• In 4th century CE recommends filtering water through sand and gravel.
• With time our processes of filtration have evolved, new technologies have made it possible
to produce highly sophisticated and efficient filtration systems.
• Yet even today we utilize many of the historical techniques albeit in a slightly innovated
form.
Continued…
Sand Filters for Greywater Natural filter
9
Schematic diagrams of Biosand Filter (A), Bucket Filter (B), Ceramic candle filter (C) and Silver-impregnated
porous pot filterr (D).
Filters
• Water Filters remove unwanted impurities from water such as sediment, taste and odour, hardness
and bacteria to result in better quality water.
• From producing better-tasting drinking water to more specialist applications such as brewing
coffee and making crystal clear ice, we offer a huge range of filters and cartridges to solve any
number of water-related issues.
• In general, there are two common types of filters, each using a different set of media. These types
are liquid and gas filters.
• Subject to your application, i.e. what you’re trying to remove or in some circumstances trying to
stop, there are 5 types of water filters: Household Jug Water Filter
• Mechanical Filters https://www.aquacure.co.uk/knowledge-
• Absorption Filters base/how-water-filters-work
• Sequestration Filters
• Ion Exchange Filters https://filtration.gopani.com/types-of-filtration-
techniques/
• Reverse Osmosis Filters
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Bio-Sand Filters
• The biosand filter (BSF) is a simple household water
treatment device, which is an innovation on traditional
slow sand filters specifically designed for intermittent
use.
• A BSF consists of a concrete or plastic container filled
with specially selected and prepared sand and gravel.
• As water flows through the filter, physical straining
removes pathogens, iron, turbidity and manganese
from drinking water.
• A shallow layer of water sits atop the sand and a
biofilm develops.
• The biofilm contributes to the removal of pathogens
due to predation and competition for food of non-
harmful microorganisms contained in the biofilm and In: Freshwater
the harmful organisms in the water. Out: Drinking Water
Bio-Sand Filters
Advantages
• High removal of pathogens
• Removal of turbidity, colour, odour and iron (water tastes and looks good)
• Relatively high flow-rates can be achieved (over 30 L per hour)
• One-time installation with few maintenance requirements and negligible
operation costs
• Long life
• Can be fabricated from locally available materials generating an opportunity for
local businesses
• Easy to operate and maintain Dr. Jnana Ranjan Khuntia, CED CBIT
11
Bio-Sand Filters
Dis-advantages
• Biological layer takes 2o to 30 days to develop to maturity
• Low rate of virus inactivation
• High turbidity (> 50 NTU) will cause filter to clog and requires more maintenance
• Requires that the filter be used on a regular basis
• Cannot remove dissolved compounds
• Can be difficult to move or transport (due to weight)
• Lack of residual protection (risk of re-contamination)
• Requires that the filter be used on a regular basis
Bio-Sand Filters
• The biosand filter is an innovation on traditional slow sand water filters (which have been used
for community water treatment for hundreds of years CAWST 2009), specifically designed for
intermittent or household use. The BSFs was developed by Dr. David Manz in the 1990s at
University of Calgary, Canada.
• The filter is simple to use and can be produced locally anywhere in the world because it is built
using materials that are readily available.
• Their capital costs depend on the local material and labour costs. However, they require no
consumables and the operating costs are negligible.
• BSFs consist of a simple container with a lid, enclosing layers of sand and gravel, which traps
physically sediments, pathogens and other impurities from the water.
• A biofilm, which forms as a shallow layer of water, sits atop the sand column and contributes to
the elimination of pathogens.
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Bio-Sand Filters
• The filter operation is very simple. Water is poured onto the top
of the filter as needed.
• Then the water will travel slowly through the sand and gravel
bed.
• At the base of the filter the water is collected in a pipe and is
drained through plastic piping out of the filter for be collected
and stored in a clean water container.
• Concrete filters have the outlet pipe embedded in the concrete,
protecting it against breaks and leaks.
Fig: Family in Jhapa, Nepal • The treated water should be collected by the user in a safe
using a concrete biosand
filter to treat drinking storage container placed on a block or stand, so that the
water. container opening is just under the outlet, minimising the risk for
recontamination.
Bio-Sand Filters
Fig.: Plastic version of biosand filter connected
to traditional water storage recipient
• Pathogens and suspended solids are removed through a

combination of biological and physical processes that take
place in the biofilm layer and within the sand layer.
• These processes include mechanical trapping, predation, adsorption, and natural death.
• Mechanical trapping and sieving: Suspended solids and pathogens are physically trapped in
the spaces between the sand grains.
• Adsorption and attachment: Pathogens become attached to each other (and thus more easily
sieved), suspended solids in the water, and the sand grains.
• Predation: Pathogens are consumed by other microorganisms in the biological layer. This
biological layer matures over one to three weeks, depending on volume of water put
through the filter and the amount of nutrients and micro-organisms in the water.
• Natural death: Pathogens finish their life cycle or die because there is not enough food or
oxygen for them to survive. Dr. Jnana Ranjan Khuntia, CED CBIT
13
BSF: Effectiveness
• The bio-sand filter is a proven technology, which removes pathogens such as

bacteria, protozoa and helminth.
• BSFs are also somewhat effective for the removal of virus.
• Physical parameters such as turbidity and iron are also eliminated from
drinking water.
• However, dissolved chemicals (such as organic pesticides or arsenic) are not
removed.
• The treated water generally has an agreeable colour, taste and odour.
BSF: Operation & maintenance

• The flow rate through the filter will slow down over time as the pore openings between the
sand grains become clogged.
• For turbidity levels greater than 50 NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Units), the water should
first be strained through a cloth or sedimented before using the BSF.
• When the flow rate drops to a level that is inadequate for the household use the filter needs
to be cleaned.
• The need for cleaning depends on the amount and quality of water being put through the
filter.
• If the water is relatively clean (turbidity less than 30 NTU), the filter can likely run for
several months without this maintenance procedure.
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BSF: Applicability
• BSF are suitable for the treatment of water at household-, school- or community-level.
• BSF can efficiently and directly treat contaminated surface or ground water since it also
removes turbidity and iron. However, it is recommended not to use water with turbidity
more than 50 NTU. Further, dissolved chemicals (e.g. organic pesticides or arsenic) are not
removed.
• Chlorinated water should not be poured into this filter as chlorine kills microorganisms
presented in biofilm resulting in low pathogen removal performance.
• Nevertheless, the water can be chlorinated after filtration in order to improve the security
for elderly or infant members of the household/community.
• A BSF should be constructed only by trained technicians. Though the construction and
installation look very simple, incorrect filter design and installation can lead to poor filter
performance.
• However, materials are generally locally available and the construction by trained local
staff may create opportunities for local business.
Disinfection systems for rural areas

• Disinfection of water supplies is an important step in reducing the risk of waterborne
diseases.
• Disinfection of water is the process of destroying or inactivating disease-causing (pathogenic)
organisms in water supplies.
• Disinfection refers to the application of a chemical agent to destroy or inhibit the growth
of microorganisms.
• These chemical agents are known as disinfectants and antiseptics.
• Boiling and chlorination are the most common water and wastewater disinfection processes
in use throughout the world.
• Boiling is primarily used in rural areas in developing countries to eliminate living organisms,
especially bacteria, present in the water.
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Continued…
• Generally, two methods of disinfection are used:
1. chemical and 2. physical
• The chemical methods, of course, use chemical agents, and the physical methods use physical
agents.
• Historically, the most widely used chemical agent is chlorine.
• Disinfection is a process in which disease producing organisms are destroyed.
• This process may be accomplished by a no. of different physiochemical treatment methods, which
can be broadly divided into following two groups.
A. Physical methods: boiling water, ultraviolet radiation, Solar Water Disinfection (SODIS), and
filtration.
B. Chemical methods: chlorine gas and chlorine solution (hypochlorite), ozone gas, mixed oxidant
gases systems (MOGGOD), potassium permanganate, iodine, bromine and metallic ions such as
copper and silver.
Disinfection systems for rural areas

• Disinfection techniques in the developing countries context both at the household level and for community water
supplies in rural areas
• Boiling
• Solar Water Disinfection (SODIS)
• Chlorination
• Ultraviolet Radiations (UV)
• Mixed Oxidant Gases
1. Which method of disinfection is mainly used in rural areas?
• Explanation: The Potassium permanganate treatment is used in rural areas where most
of the water is drawn from a well which contains the least amount of bacteria.
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Continued…
• The most common waterborne diseases prevented by disinfection are shown in
Table 1.
Chlorination
• Water comes from a variety of sources, such as lakes and wells, which can be
contaminated with germs that may make people sick.
• Germs can also contaminate water as it travels through miles of piping to get to a
community.
• To prevent contamination with germs, water companies add a disinfectant—usually either
chlorine or chloramine—that kills disease-causing germs such
as Salmonella, Campylobacter, and norovirus.
• Chlorination is the process of adding chlorine to drinking water to kill parasites, bacteria,
and viruses.
• Different processes can be used to achieve safe levels of chlorine in drinking water.
• Using or drinking water with small amounts of chlorine does not cause harmful health
effects and provides protection against waterborne disease outbreaks.
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Chlorination
• Is chlorine treatment new?
• Chlorine was first used in the United States as a major disinfectant in 1908 in Jersey City,
New Jersey.
• Chlorine use became more and more common in the following decades, and by 1995 about
64% of all community water systems in the United States used chlorine to disinfect their
water.
• What are safe levels of chlorine in drinking water?
• Chlorine levels up to 4 milligrams per liter (mg/L or 4 parts per million (ppm)) are
considered safe in drinking water external icon.
• At this level, harmful health effects are unlikely to occur.
Chlorination
• As a strong oxidizing agent, chlorine kills via the oxidation of organic molecules.
• Chlorine and the hydrolysis product hypochlorous acid are not charged and therefore
easily penetrate the negatively charged surface of pathogens.
• It is able to disintegrate the lipids that compose the cell wall and react with
intracellular enzymes and proteins, making them nonfunctional.
• Microorganisms then either die or are no longer able to multiply.
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Chlorination
• When dissolved in water, chlorine converts to an equilibrium mixture of chlorine, hypochlorous
acid (HOCl), and hydrochloric acid (HCl):
Cl2 + H2O ⇌ HOCl + HCl
• In acidic solution, the major species are Cl 2 and HOCl, whereas in alkaline solution, effectively
only ClO− (hypochlorite ion) is present.
• Very small concentrations of ClO2−, ClO3−, ClO4− are also found.
• What are the methods of chlorination of water?
• The different types of chlorine disinfection are batch disinfection, simple chlorination, super-
chlorination followed by dechlorination, and shock chlorination. They vary in the amount of
chlorine used. Batch disinfection treats water in batches when the chlorine demand fluctuates.
Chlorination
• Simple chlorination maintains a low level (.3 to 0.5 milligram per liter) of free chlorine residual for
the necessary contact time. The residual should be measured at the faucet farthest from the chlorine
source.
• When the necessary contact time is unattainable, super-chlorination followed by dechlorination
(chlorine removal) is an option.
• Super-chlorination produces a free chlorine residual of 3.0 to 5.0 milligrams per liter -– ten times
higher than the residual from simple chlorination.
• At this concentration, the necessary contact time is reduced to less than five minutes for water at
pH 7.
• Super-chlorinated water has a strong chlorine smell and taste that is removed with an activated
carbon filter following chlorine treatment.
• If the water contains dissolved iron, manganese, or sulfur, it may be necessary to install a cartridge
sediment filter before the activated carbon unit to prevent clogging.
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Chlorination
• Shock chlorination
• Shock chlorination is a process used in many swimming pools, water wells, springs, and
other water sources to reduce the bacterial and algal residue in the water.
• Shock chlorination is performed by mixing a large amount of hypochlorite into the water.
• The hypochlorite can be in the form of a powder or a liquid such as chlorine bleach
(solution of sodium hypochlorite or calcium hypochlorite in water).
• Water that is being shock chlorinated should not be swum in or drunk until the sodium
hypochlorite count in the water goes down to three parts per million (PPM) or until the
calcium hypochlorite count goes down to 0.2 to 0.35 PPM.
Chlorination
Breakpoint chlorination is a technique used to remove combined chlorine by adding free

available chlorine. To reach breakpoint, sufficient chlorine must be added to the pool to raise
the free available chlorine level to 10 times the amount of combined chlorine.
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Chlorination
Fig: Breakpoint chlorination curve

Chlorination
• Chlorine is available in two formulations, as a dry powder or pellet (calcium
hypochlorite), or as a liquid (sodium hypochlorite).
Uses
• Chlorine disinfection is a point-of-entry treatment that kills pathogens, including certain

viruses and bacteria.
• In addition, chlorination can offer residual disinfection throughout the household water
distribution system.
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How Chlorination Works?
• The effectiveness of chlorination depends on various factors, including water
temperature, water pH, water turbidity, general water quality and contact time.
• The contact time is the time available to complete the reaction between the chlorine and
untreated water.
• A longer contact time results in more effective disinfection. As the chlorine

concentration increases, the required contact time decreases.
• Chlorination is more effective at a high temperature and a low pH.
• Particles in the water decrease the effectiveness of chlorination, as microorganisms

may ‘hide’ behind particles and avoid disinfection.
Chlorination
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Chlorination
Solar Water Disinfection

• Solar Water Disinfection (SODIS) is a simple water treatment technology that can be used
at household level.
• Solar water disinfection, in short SODIS, is a type of portable water purification that uses
solar energy to make biologically-contaminated (e.g. bacteria, viruses, protozoa and worms)
water safe to drink.
• Water contaminated with non-biological agents such as toxic chemicals or heavy metals
require additional steps to make the water safe to drink.
• As a point-of-use water purification method, SODIS improves the microbiological quality

of drinking water with solar radiation at almost zero investment and maintenance costs.
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• Solar thermal water disinfection uses heat from the sun to heat water to 70–100 °C for a
short period of time.
• A number of approaches exist. Solar heat collectors can have lenses in front of them, or use
reflectors.
• They may also use varying levels of insulation or glazing. In addition, some solar thermal
water disinfection processes are batch-based, while others (through-flow solar thermal
disinfection) operate almost continuously while the sun shines.
• Water heated to temperatures below 100 °C is generally referred to as pasteurized water.

• The ultraviolet part of sunlight can also kill pathogens in water.
• The SODIS method uses a combination of UV light and increased temperature (solar thermal) for
disinfecting water using only sunlight and repurposed PET plastic bottles.
• SODIS is a free and effective method for decentralized water treatment, usually applied at the
household level and is recommended by the World Health Organization as a viable method for
household water treatment and safe storage
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Suggested treatment schedule
Applications
• SODIS is an effective method for treating water where fuel or cookers are unavailable or
prohibitively expensive.
• Even where fuel is available, SODIS is a more economical and environmentally friendly option.
• The application of SODIS is limited if enough bottles are not available, or if the water is highly
turbid.
• In fact, if the water is highly turbid, SODIS cannot be used alone; additional filtering is then
necessary
• When the water is highly turbid, SODIS cannot be used alone; additional filtering or flocculation is
then necessary to clarify the water prior to SODIS treatment.
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Benefits of Solar Disinfection

• Proven reduction of viruses, bacteria, and protozoa in water
• Proven reduction of diarrheal disease incidence
• Simplicity of use and acceptability
• No cost if using recycled plastic bottles
• Minimal change in taste of the water
• Recontamination is low because water is served and stored in the small narrow necked
bottles
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Drawbacks of Solar Disinfection
• The drawbacks of Solar Disinfection are:
• Need to pretreat water of higher turbidity with flocculation and/or filtration
• Limited volume of water that can be treated all at once
• Length of time required to treat water
• Large supply of intact, clean, suitable plastic bottles required
• SODIS is most appropriate in areas where there is availability of bottles and community
motivation and training for users on how to correctly and consistently use SODIS for
treating household drinking water.
Continued…
• What are the methods of removing arsenic contamination?
• Conventionally applied techniques to remove arsenic species include oxidation,

coagulation-flocculation, and membrane techniques.
• Besides, progress has recently been made on the utility of various nanoparticles for the
remediation of contaminated water
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Continued…
• How is arsenic removed from water?
• Current methods to remove arsenic include precipitation, adding lime or coagulants to water,
using membranes to filter it out, or using an ion exchange process.
• But using a filter for removal is one of the most commonly used methods due to its ease of
operation, relatively low cost and high effectiveness.
• How is iron and arsenic removed from water?

• Arsenic can be removed via two primary mechanisms: adsorption and coprecipitation. First, soluble
iron [Fe(II)] and As(III) are oxidized.
• The As(V) then adsorbs onto the iron hydroxide precipitates that are ultimately filtered out of
solution.
Continued…
• How is fluoride removed from water?
• The different adsorbents used for fluoride removal include activated alumina, carbon, bone
charcoal and synthetic ion exchange resins.
• Essentially, reverse osmosis technology uses household water pressure to push tap water
through the filtration process.
• Membrane filtration process Reverse osmosis and electrodialysis are two membrane
filtration processes which can be used for removal of fluoride.
• A Reverse Osmosis (RO) system can remove 85-92%* of fluoride in your water.
• Nalgonda technique uses aluminum salt (alum) for removing fluoride.
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Continued…
• Where does fluoride in tap water come from?
• Fluoride is an ionic compound derived from fluorine, which is the single most reactive element; it
is naturally found in many rocks.
• About 95 percent of the fluoride added to public water supplies is produced from phosphorite
rock.
• Why is fluoride removed from water?

• Adding fluoride to the water supply reduces the incidence of tooth decay. Fluoride protects teeth
from decay by demineralization and remineralization.
• Too much fluoride can lead to dental fluorosis or skeletal fluorosis, which can damage bones and
joints.
Continued…
• Do water softeners remove fluoride?
• Fluoride, chloride, sulphate and nitrate are negatively charged, so your softener won't
remove fluoride from water.
• Fluoride is a mineral found in water and some foods. It occurs naturally in water, with
different levels in different areas.
• Is fluoride a mineral or chemical?
• Fluoride, a mineral, is naturally present in many foods and available as a dietary
supplement.
• Fluoride is the ionic form of the element fluorine, and it inhibits or reverses the initiation
and progression of dental caries (tooth decay) and stimulates new bone formation
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Continued…
• Oxidation Filtration (Iron Removal)
• Oxidation/filtration refers to precipitative processes that are designed to remove naturally

occurring iron and manganese from water. The processes involve the oxidation of the soluble
forms of iron and manganese to their insoluble forms and then removal by filtration.
Continued…
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Continued…
• In groundwater containing iron, both the iron and the arsenic are usually found in their reduced
form (i.e., Fe(II) and As(III)).
• For optimum arsenic removal, it is important that the iron and arsenic both be oxidized at the
same time.
• To accomplish this, a chemical oxidant is needed because air oxidation will only oxidize Fe(II)
and not As(III).
Continued…
Arsenic Speciation, Treatment
• Arsenic contamination primarily is a groundwater problem although some surface waters also are
affected.
• In groundwaters, only inorganic arsenic species in the form of arsenite (As III) and arsenate (As V)
are significant.
• At pH 6.5 to 8.5, As III is present as uncharged arsenious acid, H3AsO3, under reducing
conditions, whereas As V is present in the form of singly and doubly charged H2AsO4- and
HAsO42- anions in oxidizing waters.
• Thus, processes that remove anions (e.g., anion exchange and activated alumina adsorption) are
suitable for removing As V but not As III. Other small system processes that are suitable for
removing As V anions are iron coagulation followed by multimedia filtration or microfiltration.
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Continued…
Removal of Fluoride:
Continued…
• According to the World Health Organization the maximum acceptable concentration of
fluoride ions in drinking water lies below 1.5 ppm.
• Fluoride if taken in small amount is usually beneficial, but the beneficial fluoride
concentration range for human health is very small.
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Continued…
What does fluoride in water do?
• Fluoride helps to rebuild and strengthen the tooth's surface, or enamel. Water
fluoridation prevents tooth decay by providing frequent and consistent contact with
low levels of fluoride.
• By keeping the tooth strong and solid, fluoride stops cavities from forming and can
even rebuild the tooth's surface.
What is the health effects of excess fluoride in drinking water?
• Ingestion of excess fluoride, most commonly in drinking-water, can cause fluorosis

which affects the teeth and bones.
• Moderate amounts lead to dental effects, but long-term ingestion of large amounts
can lead to potentially severe skeletal problems.
Iron Removal
• According to WHO standards, the permissible limit of iron in drinking water is 0.3 mg/L.
• However, the dumping of domestic and industrial wastes in the water bodies is responsible
for elevated levels of iron in the water.
• The continuous consumption of such water with high iron content may lead to various health
problems.
• Bad odor, unpleasant taste, red color of water and stains on laundry and plumbing fixtures
are also some of the issues related with high iron content in water.
• These methods have been classified into 4 different categories: conventional strategies,
biological strategies, membrane technology-based strategies and nanotechnology-based
strategies.
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Continued…
• The conventional strategies involve 11 different remediation techniques for removing iron
from water, which have different iron removal efficiencies.
Hygiene and Sanitation

How can we improve water hygiene and sanitation?
• Improve sanitation facilities by providing toilets and latrines that flush into a sewer or safe
enclosure.
• Promote good hygiene habits through education. Proper hand washing with soap and water
can reduce diarrhea cases by up to 35 percent.
How can environmental sanitation be improved?
• Improving sanitation, in a nutshell:
• First, provide more support to local level sanitation plans and strategies.
• Second, do more work on faecal sludge monitoring and management.
• Third, communicate the benefits of investing in sanitation to communities.
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How can improvement in water and sanitation can control many diseases?
• Cholera, malaria, jaundice, typhoid, diarrhea, dysentery, and other diseases can all be
transmitted by polluted water.
• Such diseases can be avoided by ensuring that everyone has access to clean, healthy water.
How can we improve sanitation in rural areas in India?
• Accelerate sanitation coverage in rural areas. Generate a push from the people to get
facilities rather than expect the Government to do it (demand-led promotion).
• Focus on intensive education and awareness campaigns to ensure that people understand the
need for safe sanitation.

3 steps to improve rural sanitation in India- a pathway to scale and
sustainability
35
36

• WASH is the collective term for Water, Sanitation and Hygiene.
• While each is a separate field of work, they are interdependent and help keep refugees
healthy.
• Without toilets, water sources for drinking and cooking can become contaminated.
• Without safe water, refugees are exposed to diseases and infections.
• Without soap and other hygiene products, including feminine hygiene products, pathogens
can spread in households and communities.
• Safe water, toilets and good hygiene keep children alive and healthy.
• UNICEF work with government and partners to ensure that every child in India has access
to clean water, basic toilets and practices good hygiene behaviors.
37
Strengthening sustainable WASH programming
• India has made rapid progress in ending open defecation across the Country which is
having a huge impact on improving water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH).
• Just a few years ago, in 2015, nearly half of India’s population of around 568 million
people suffered the indignity of defecating in fields, forests, bodies of water, or other public
spaces due to lack of access to toilets.
• India alone accounted for 90 per cent of the people in South Asia and half of the 1.2 billion
people in the world that defecated in the open.
• By 2019, according to the latest estimates, the number of people without access to toilets
has reduced significantly by an estimated 450 million people.
• It is important to ensure that there is sustained usage of toilets by, all at all time.

• A tremendous achievement, only possible because of the Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) (Clean
India Campaign), led by the Prime Minister. UNICEF has been a proud partner of the Swachh
Bharat Mission.
• Whether in the cities or the countryside, open defecation has historically been most prevalent
among the poorest citizens.
• This practice amounted to tonnes of faeces introduced daily into the environment, which
regularly exposed India’s children to excrement through direct contact.
• The risk of spreading diarrheal and waterborne diseases is compounded by the lack of regular
handwashing and microbial contamination of water in their homes and communities.
• The situation contributed to nearly 100,000 diarrheal deaths of children under five years in
India.
38
• Poor sanitation can also have a ripple effect when it hinders national development because
workers are suffering from illnesses and living shorter lives, thereby producing and earning
less, and unable to afford education and stable futures for their children.
• Inadequate water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) services in India’s health facilities,
contributes to the high neonatal mortality rate, which is currently 24 deaths per 1000 live
births.
• Sepsis – mostly spread in health facilities – contributes to 15 per cent of the overall
neonatal mortality and 11 per cent of maternal deaths. And the risks do not end there when
they are brought home to a community that lacks toilets.

• Less than 50 per cent of the population has access to safely managed drinking water
(located on premises, available when needed and free of contamination).
• Chemical contamination of water, mainly through fluoride and arsenic, is present in
1.96 million dwellings.
• Moreover, two-thirds of India’s 718 districts are affected by extreme water depletion,
and the current lack of planning for water safety and security is a major concern.
• India has made rapid progress in ending open defecation across the Country.
• The number of people defecating in open in India has reduced significantly by an
estimated 450 million people.
• However, we all need to ensure sustained use of toilets and hygiene practices by all,
at all times.
39
The solution
• Collaboration and convergence are a key feature of our India Country Programme where
WASH is positioned as a cross-cutting support contributing towards results in all aspects of
a child’s survival, growth and development, notably to prevent malnutrition and
preventable diseases, to reduce neonatal mortality, and to improve education outcomes.
• We support the Government of India’s flagship programmes, which include the Swachh
Bharat Mission, the National Rural Drinking Water Programme (NRDWP), WASH in
Schools (including preschools called ‘anganwadis’), WASH in health facilities, and
district-wide WASH interventions supporting planning and implementation and
incorporating behaviour change into state and national guidelines and costed plans.
• To support states and districts that are lagging, UNICEF works in 16 states and 192 districts
and supports government technically, assists alternative service delivery approaches, and
mobilizes public institutions and partners, including the private sector around WASH
services.
• We have started expanding our programme from rural areas to urban areas, where the urban
poor are often left out of the sanitation equation.
• UNICEF also supports monitoring and evaluation including conducting third-party
verification and spot checks to help authenticate the real-time monitoring and information
dashboard hosted by the Ministry Jal Shakti.
40
• What are the requirements of rural sanitation?
• Rural sanitation is promoted as a total package consisting of safe handling of drinking

water, scientific disposal of waste water, safe disposal of human excreta including child
excreta, solid waste management, domestic sanitation and food hygiene, personal hygiene
and village sanitation.
Epidemiological aspects of water quality methods for low cost water

treatment- specific contaminant removal systems.
• Epidemiological: relating to the branch of medicine which deals with the incidence, distribution,
and control of diseases
• The various low cost water treatment method suitable in rural area as Bamboo charcoal (Activated
carbon) Solar sterilization, distillation, Chlorine filters, Bone, Everything-but-the-sink portable
filter, Slow sand filtration, and Emergency homemade filter
• Low-cost PoU water treatment systems may often offer advantages over networked water supply
and treatment systems, by minimizing the risk of contamination between the source and the point-
of-use.
• What are the water contamination methods?
• Improper storing or disposing of household chemicals such as paints, synthetic detergents, solvents,
oils, medicines, disinfectants, pool chemicals, pesticides, batteries, gasoline and diesel fuel can lead
to ground water contamination
41
treatment-specific contaminant removal systems.
What is the latest technology in applying low cost materials in water treatment?
• Photocatalytic water purification technology
• Water treatment using photocatalysis has gained prominence in recent years due to its
efficiency in treating contaminated water. The technology utilises photocatalyst and
ultraviolet (UV) rays to remove toxic substances from water.
• How are contaminants removed from water?

• Contaminants Removed from Water by Distillation
• Distillation can remove nearly all impurities from water. Compounds removed include
sodium, hardness compounds such as calcium and magnesium, other dissolved solids
(including iron and manganese), fluoride, and nitrate.

SLOW SAND FILTRATION
• Slow sand filtration has the advantage of working on an entire community’s water source,
not just individual households.
• Practical Action put together a technical manual for slow sand filtration systems, a complete
guide to their construction and maintenance. Follow the link above to see the manual.
• A slow sand filtration system is a combination of several parts: water storage tanks, an
aerator, pre-filters, slow sand filters, disinfection stages, and filtered water storage tanks.
• The number of filters and filter types that are used in a given slow sand filtration system
will depend on the quality of the source water and will be different for each community.
42
BAMBOO CHARCOAL
• In this spin on the charcoal filter, a team of E4C
members in Bangalore propose a filter made of locally
available materials including charred bamboo, gravel
and natural adsorbents.
• “The process we propose is indigenous, eco-friendly,
low cost and entails minimum maintenance,” the team
writes in their workspace.
• They estimate that their filter can handle 30 liters of
water per hour, and it would be affordable for average
households in the region.

SOLAR DISTILLATION
• Not to be confused with solar sterilization or disinfection, solar distillation purifies even muddy, salty or
otherwise undrinkable water through evaporation and condensation.
• The power of distillation to purify saltwater makes it unique among the treatment methods featured on this
page.
• A solar still can actually be a cheap and simple piece of shaped plastic or glass, or they can be more highly
designed devices.
• To work, the still allows sunlight to shine through a clear panel onto the impure water. The water heats and
evaporates, then condenses on the underside of the panel and runs off into a container of some kind.
• This simple process takes huge amounts of energy, which is why solar stills can make more sense than stills
powered by other fuels. Our Solutions Library links to a technical brief and construction guide
to several different still designs from Practical Action.
43
CHLORINE
• We saved the most reliable treatment method for last. Chlorine can work in the community water
supply to kill microbes before it enters people’s jerry cans or home water supplies. And it keeps the
water safe from new contaminations long after it is added.
• We’ve seen several interesting chlorination methods at work in resource-poor regions. Compatible
Technology International developed this tested and proven device that chlorinates water in gravity-
fed systems that fill a community water cistern.
• And these four experimental designs have worked in field tests to dose water accurately after people
fill their buckets at a community well, stream or other source.
• The chlorinator, shown here fully assembled and broken down, attaches to a loop in the water pipe
that feeds into the community tank. Image courtesy of CTI.
• Chlorine is one of the most versatile and effective clean water solutions in LMICs and everywhere
else.

EMERGENCY HOMEMADE FILTER
• The plastic bottle makes yet another appearance as a

water treatment device, this time as a simple filter that
can remove sediment and even disease-causing
microbes.
• Simply cut the bottom from the bottle, fill it with layers
of gravel, sand cloth and charcoal, filter the water
through it and hope for the best.
• This design is also featured in our list of the best

appropriate technology DIY plans.
44
Continued…
• What types of contaminants are removed from water at a
water treatment plant?
• The primary treatment generally removes up to 50

percent of the Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD; these
are substances that use up the oxygen in the water),
around 90 percent of suspended solids, and up to 55
percent of fecal coliforms.
45
Continued…
• What are the major contaminants in water?
• However, the most important contaminants from a health standpoint are naturally
occurring chemicals that are usually found in groundwater.
• Arsenic. ...
• Fluoride. ...
• Selenium and uranium. ...
• Iron and manganese. ...
• Agricultural chemicals. ...
• Urban pollution. ...
• By-products of water treatment. ...
• Endocrine disrupters.
Thank You
46

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RURAL WATER SUPPLY AND ONSITE SANITATION

Dr. Jnana Ranjan Khuntia, CED CBIT

Need for water treatment

Dr. Jnana Ranjan Khuntia, CED CBIT

How do wastewater treatment plants work?

Dr. Jnana Ranjan Khuntia, CED CBIT

Dr. Jnana Ranjan Khuntia, CED CBIT

Need for water treatment

Point of use water treatment systems

Dr. Jnana Ranjan Khuntia, CED CBIT

Dr. Jnana Ranjan Khuntia, CED CBIT

Dr. Jnana Ranjan Khuntia, CED CBIT

Traditional household water purification methods practiced by rural

Dr. Jnana Ranjan Khuntia, CED CBIT

Dr. Jnana Ranjan Khuntia, CED CBIT

Dr. Jnana Ranjan Khuntia, CED CBIT

Sand Filters for Greywater Natural filter

Dr. Jnana Ranjan Khuntia, CED CBIT

Dr. Jnana Ranjan Khuntia, CED CBIT

• Pathogens and suspended solids are removed through a

• The bio-sand filter is a proven technology, which removes pathogens such as

Dr. Jnana Ranjan Khuntia, CED CBIT

BSF: Operation & maintenance

Disinfection systems for rural areas

Disinfection systems for rural areas

• Solar Water Disinfection (SODIS)

• Ultraviolet Radiations (UV)

• Mixed Oxidant Gases

1. Which method of disinfection is mainly used in rural areas?

Dr. Jnana Ranjan Khuntia, CED CBIT

Dr. Jnana Ranjan Khuntia, CED CBIT

• Microorganisms then either die or are no longer able to multiply.

Dr. Jnana Ranjan Khuntia, CED CBIT

• What are the methods of chlorination of water?

Dr. Jnana Ranjan Khuntia, CED CBIT

Dr. Jnana Ranjan Khuntia, CED CBIT

Breakpoint chlorination is a technique used to remove combined chlorine by adding free

Fig: Breakpoint chlorination curve

• Chlorine disinfection is a point-of-entry treatment that kills pathogens, including certain

Dr. Jnana Ranjan Khuntia, CED CBIT

• A longer contact time results in more effective disinfection. As the chlorine

• Chlorination is more effective at a high temperature and a low pH.

• Particles in the water decrease the effectiveness of chlorination, as microorganisms

Dr. Jnana Ranjan Khuntia, CED CBIT

Dr. Jnana Ranjan Khuntia, CED CBIT

Solar Water Disinfection

• As a point-of-use water purification method, SODIS improves the microbiological quality

Dr. Jnana Ranjan Khuntia, CED CBIT

• Water heated to temperatures below 100 °C is generally referred to as pasteurized water.

Dr. Jnana Ranjan Khuntia, CED CBIT

Solar Water Disinfection

Dr. Jnana Ranjan Khuntia, CED CBIT

Solar Water Disinfection

Dr. Jnana Ranjan Khuntia, CED CBIT

Dr. Jnana Ranjan Khuntia, CED CBIT

Benefits of Solar Disinfection

• Proven reduction of diarrheal disease incidence

• Simplicity of use and acceptability

• No cost if using recycled plastic bottles

• Minimal change in taste of the water

Dr. Jnana Ranjan Khuntia, CED CBIT

• Need to pretreat water of higher turbidity with flocculation and/or filtration

• Limited volume of water that can be treated all at once

• Length of time required to treat water