Crete

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This article is about the Greek island. For other uses, see Crete (disambiguation).
"Creta" redirects here. For the car, see Hyundai Creta.

Crete (Kriti)

Native name: 

Κρήτη

NASA photograph of Crete

Geography

Location Eastern Mediterranean

35°12.6′N 24°54.6′ECoordinates:  35°12.6′
Coordinates
N 24°54.6′E
 Area 8,450 km2 (3,260 sq mi)

Area rank 88

Highest elevation 2,456 m (8058 ft)

Highest point Mount Ida (Psiloritis)

Administration

 Greece

Region Crete

Capital city Heraklion

Largest settlement Heraklion (pop. 144,442[1])

Demographics

Demonym Cretan, archaic Cretian

Population 636,504 (2020)

Population rank 73

Pop. density 75,3/km2 (1950/sq mi)

Ethnic groups Greeks;

historically, Minoans,

Eteocretans,

Cydonians and Pelasgians

Additional information

Time zone  GMT +2

HDI (2019) 0.879[2]

very high · 3rd of 13

Crete (Greek: Κρήτη, Modern: Kríti, Ancient: Krḗtē, [krέːtεː]) is the largest and most

populous of the Greek islands, the 88th largest island in the world and the fifth largest
island in the Mediterranean Sea, after Sicily, Sardinia, Cyprus, and Corsica. Crete rests
approximately 160 km (99 mi) south of the Greek mainland. It has an area of
8,336 km2 (3,219 sq mi) and a coastline of 1,046 km (650 mi). It bounds the southern
border of the Aegean Sea, with the Sea of Crete (or North Cretan Sea) to the north and
the Libyan Sea (or South Cretan Sea) to the south.
Crete and a number of islands and islets that surround it constitute the Region of Crete
(Greek: Περιφέρεια Κρήτης), which is the southernmost of the 13 top-level
administrative units of Greece, and the fifth most populous of Greece's regions. Its
capital and largest city is Heraklion, on the north shore of the island. As of 2020, the
region had a population of 636,504. [3] The Dodecanese are located to the northeast of
Crete, while the Cyclades are situated to the north, separated by the Sea of Crete.
The Peloponnese is to the region's northwest.
Humans have inhabited the island since at least 130,000 years ago, during
the Paleolithic age. Crete was the centre of Europe's first advanced civilization,
the Minoans, from 2700 to 1420 BC. The Minoan civilization was overrun by
the Mycenaean civilization from mainland Greece. Crete was later ruled by Rome, then
successively by the Byzantine Empire, Andalusian Arabs, the Venetian Republic, and
the Ottoman Empire. In 1898 Crete, whose people had for some time wanted to join the
Greek state, achieved independence from the Ottomans, formally becoming the Cretan
State. Crete became part of Greece in December 1913.
The island is mostly mountainous, and its character is defined by a high mountain range
crossing from west to east. It includes Crete's highest point, Mount Ida, and the range of
the White Mountains (Lefka Ori) with 30 summits above 2000 metres in altitude and
the Samaria Gorge, a World Biosphere Reserve. Crete forms a significant part of the
economy and cultural heritage of Greece, while retaining its own local cultural traits
(such as its own poetry and music). The Nikos Kazantzakis airport at Heraklion and
the Daskalogiannis airport at Chania serve international travelers. The palace
of Knossos, a Bronze Age settlement and ancient Minoan city, is also located in
Heraklion.[4]

Contents

 1Name
 2Physical geography
o 2.1Island morphology
o 2.2Mountains and valleys
o 2.3Gorges, rivers and lakes
o 2.4Surrounding islands
o 2.5Climate
 3Geography
o 3.1Administration
o 3.2Cities
o 3.3Economy
o 3.4Transport infrastructure
 3.4.1Airports
 3.4.2Ferries
 3.4.3Road Network
 3.4.4Railway
o 3.5Development
 4History
o 4.1Prehistoric Crete
o 4.2Minoan civilization
o 4.3Mycenaean civilization
o 4.4Archaic and Classical period
 o 4.5Roman rule
o 4.6Byzantine Empire – first period
o 4.7Andalusian Arab rule
o 4.8Byzantine Empire – second period
o 4.9Venetian rule
o 4.10Ottoman rule
o 4.11Cretan State 1898–1908
o 4.12Second World War
o 4.13Civil War
 5Tourism
o 5.1Transportation
o 5.2Holiday homes and immigration
o 5.3Archaeological sites and museums
o 5.4Harmful effects
 6Fauna and flora
o 6.1Fauna
 6.1.1Prehistoric fauna
 6.1.2Mammals
 6.1.3Birds
 6.1.4Reptiles and amphibians
 6.1.5Arthropods
 6.1.6Crustaceans and molluscs
 6.1.7Sealife
o 6.2Flora
o 6.3Environmentally protected areas
 7Mythology
 8Culture
o 8.1Sports
 9Notable people
 10See also
 11References
 12Sources
 13External links

Name[edit]

Crete

Keftiu

Egyptian hieroglyphs

The earliest references to the island of Crete come from texts from the Syrian city
of Mari dating from the 18th century BC, where the island is referred to as Kaptara.
[5]
 This is repeated later in Neo-Assyrian records and the Bible (Caphtor). It was known
in ancient Egyptian as Keftiu or kftı͗ w, strongly suggesting a similar Minoan name for the
island.[6]
The current name Crete is first attested in the 15th century BC in Mycenaean
Greek texts, written in Linear B, through the words ke-re-te (𐀐𐀩𐀳, *Krētes; later
Greek: Κρῆτες [krɛː.tes], plural of Κρής [krɛːs])[7] and ke-re-si-jo (𐀐𐀩𐀯𐀍, *Krēsijos; later
Greek: Κρήσιος [krέːsios],[8] 'Cretan').[9][10] In Ancient Greek, the name Crete (Κρήτη) first
appears in Homer's Odyssey.[11] Its etymology is unknown. One proposal derives it from
a hypothetical Luwian word *kursatta (compare kursawar 'island', kursattar 'cutting,
sliver').[12] Another proposal suggests that it derives from the ancient
Greek word "κραταιή" (krataie̅), meaning strong or powerful, the reasoning being that
Crete was the strongest thalassocracy during ancient times.[13][14]
In Latin, the name of the island became Creta. The original Arabic name of Crete
was Iqrīṭiš (Arabic: ‫اقريطش‬ < (τῆς) Κρήτης), but after the Emirate of Crete's establishment
of its new capital at ‫ربض الخندق‬ Rabḍ al-
Ḫandaq (modern Heraklion; Greek: Ηράκλειο, Irákleio), both the city and the island
became known as Χάνδαξ (Chandax) or Χάνδακας (Chandakas), which gave Latin,
Italian, and Venetian Candia, from which were derived French Candie and
English Candy or Candia. Under Ottoman rule, in Ottoman Turkish, Crete was
called Girit (‫)كريد‬. In the Hebrew Bible, Crete is referred to as (‫)ְּכרתִ ים‬
ֵ "kretim".

Physical geography[edit]
Main article: Geography of Greece

Messara Plain

The palm beach of Vai

Lefka Ori

View of Psiloritis

Crete is the largest island in Greece and the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean
Sea. It is located in the southern part of the Aegean Sea separating the Aegean from
the Libyan Sea.
Island morphology[edit]
The island has an elongated shape: it spans 260 km (160 mi) from east to west, is
60 km (37 mi) at its widest point, and narrows to as little as 12 km (7.5 mi) (close
to Ierapetra). Crete covers an area of 8,336 km2 (3,219 sq mi), with a coastline of
1,046 km (650 mi); to the north, it broaches the Sea of Crete (Greek: Κρητικό Πέλαγος);
to the south, the Libyan Sea (Greek: Λιβυκό Πέλαγος); in the west, the Myrtoan Sea,
and toward the east the Carpathian Sea. It lies approximately 160 km (99 mi) south of
the Greek mainland.
Mountains and valleys[edit]
Crete is mountainous, and its character is defined by a high mountain range crossing
from west to east, formed by six different groups of mountains:

 The White Mountains or Lefka Ori 2,454 m (8,051 ft)

 The Idi Range (Psiloritis)  35.18°N 24.82°E 2,456 m (8,058 ft)
 Asterousia Mountains 1,231 m (4,039 ft)
 Kedros 1,777 m (5,830 ft)
 The Dikti Mountains 2,148 m (7,047 ft)
 Thripti 1,489 m (4,885 ft)
These mountains lavish Crete with valleys, such as Amari valley, fertile plateaus, such
as Lasithi plateau, Omalos and Nidha; caves, such as Gourgouthakas, Diktaion,
and Idaion (the birthplace of the ancient Greek god Zeus); and a number of gorges.
Mountains in Crete are the object of tremendous fascination both for locals and tourists.
The mountains have been seen as a key feature of the island's distinctiveness,
especially since the time of Romantic travellers' writing. Contemporary Cretans
distinguish between highlanders and lowlanders; the former often claim to reside in
places affording a higher/better climatic but also moral environment. In keeping with the
legacy of Romantic authors, the mountains are seen as having determined their
residents' 'resistance' to past invaders which relates to the oft-encountered idea that
highlanders are 'purer' in terms of less intermarriages with occupiers. For residents of
mountainous areas, such as Sfakia in western Crete, the aridness and rockiness of the
mountains is emphasised as an element of pride and is often compared to the alleged
soft-soiled mountains of others parts of Greece or the world. [15]
Gorges, rivers and lakes[edit]
The island has a number of gorges, such as the Samariá Gorge, Imbros
Gorge, Kourtaliotiko Gorge, Ha Gorge, Platania Gorge, the Gorge of the Dead (at Kato
Zakros, Sitia) and Richtis Gorge and (Richtis) waterfall at Exo Mouliana in Sitia.[16][17][18][19]
The rivers of Crete include the Ieropotamos River, the Koiliaris, the Anapodiaris, the
Almiros, the Giofyros, and Megas Potamos. There are only two freshwater lakes in
Crete: Lake Kournas and Lake Agia, which are both in Chania regional unit. [20] Lake
Voulismeni at the coast, at Aghios Nikolaos, was formerly a freshwater lake but is now
connected to the sea, in Lasithi.[21] Three artificial lakes created by dams also exist in
Crete: the lake of Aposelemis Dam, the lake of Potamos Dam, and the lake of
Mpramiana Dam.

Ha Gorge
 

Samariá Gorge
 
 

Aradaina Gorge
 

Venetian Bridge over Megalopotamos River

Surrounding islands[edit]
Main article: List of Greek islands §  Cretan islands

Map this section's coordinates in "List of islands of Greece"

using: OpenStreetMap 

Download coordinates as: KML

Map this section's coordinates in "List of islands of Greece"

using: OpenStreetMap 

Download coordinates as: KML

A large number of islands, islets, and rocks hug the coast of Crete. Many are visited by
tourists, some are only visited by archaeologists and biologists. Some
are environmentally protected. A small sample of the islands includes:

 Gramvousa (Kissamos, Chania) the pirate island opposite the Balo lagoon

 Elafonisi (Chania), which commemorates a shipwreck and an Ottoman
massacre
  Chrysi island (Ierapetra, Lasithi), which hosts the largest natural Juniperus
macrocarpa forest in Europe
 Paximadia island (Agia Galini, Rethymno) where the god Apollo and the
goddess Artemis were born
 The Venetian fort and leper colony at Spinalonga opposite the beach and
shallow waters of Elounda (Agios Nikolaos, Lasithi)
 Dionysades islands which are in an environmentally protected region together
the Palm Beach Forest of Vai in the municipality of Sitia, Lasithi
Off the south coast, the island of Gavdos is located 26 nautical miles (48 km) south
of Hora Sfakion and is the southernmost point of Europe.
Climate[edit]
Main article: Climate of Greece
Crete straddles two climatic zones, the Mediterranean and the North African, mainly
falling within the former. As such, the climate in Crete is primarily Mediterranean. The
atmosphere can be quite humid, depending on the proximity to the sea, while winter is
fairly mild. Snowfall is common on the mountains between November and May, but rare
in the low-lying areas. While some mountain tops are snow-capped for most of the year,
near the coast snow only stays on the ground for a few minutes or hours. However, a
truly exceptional cold snap swept the island in February 2004, during which period the
whole island was blanketed with snow. During the Cretan summer, average
temperatures reach the high 20s-low 30s Celsius (mid 80s to mid 90s Fahrenheit), with
maxima touching the upper 30s-mid 40s.
The south coast, including the Mesara Plain and Asterousia Mountains, falls in the
North African climatic zone, and thus enjoys significantly more sunny days and high
temperatures throughout the year. There, date palms bear fruit, and swallows remain
year-round rather than migrate to Africa. The fertile region around Ierapetra, on the
southeastern corner of the island, is renowned for its exceptional year-round agricultural
production, with all kinds of summer vegetables and fruit produced
in greenhouses throughout the winter.[22] Western Crete (Chania province) receives more
rain and the soils there suffer more erosion compared to the Eastern part of Crete. [23]

Geography[edit]
Crete is the most populous island in Greece with a population of more than 600,000
people. Approximately 42% live in Crete's main cities and towns whilst 45% live in rural
areas.[24]
Administration[edit]
Crete Region
Περιφέρεια Κρήτης

Administrative region of Greece

 Coordinates:  35°13′N 24°55′E

Country  Greece

Established 1912

Capital Heraklion

Regional units hide

List

 Chania
 Heraklion
 Rethymno
 Lasithi

Government
 • Regional governor Stavros Arnaoutakis (PASOK)

Area
 • Total 8,335.88 km2 (3,218.50 sq mi)

Population
 (2011)[25]
 • Total 623,065
 • Density 75/km2 (190/sq mi)

Time zone UTC+2 (EET)

 • Summer (DST) UTC+3 (EEST)

ISO 3166 code GR-M

 Website www.crete.gov.gr

Crete with its nearby islands form the Crete Region (Greek: Περιφέρεια

Κρήτης, Periféria Krítis, [periˈferia ˈkritis]), one of the 13 regions of Greece which were
established in the 1987 administrative reform. [26] Under the 2010 Kallikratis plan, the
powers and authority of the regions were redefined and extended. The region is based
at Heraklion and is divided into four regional units (pre-Kallikratis prefectures). From
west to east these are: Chania, Rethymno, Heraklion, and Lasithi. These are further
subdivided into 24 municipalities.
The region's governor is, since 1 January 2011, Stavros Arnaoutakis, who was elected
in the November 2010 local administration elections for the Panhellenic Socialist
Movement.
Cities[edit]
Main article: Cities of Greece
Heraklion is the largest city and capital of Crete, holding more than a fourth of its
population. Chania was the capital until 1971. The principal cities are:

 Heraklion (Iraklion or Candia) (144,422 inhabitants)[27]

 Chania (Haniá) (53,910 inhabitants)[27]
 Rethymno (34,300 inhabitants)[27]
 Ierapetra (23,707 inhabitants)
 Agios Nikolaos (20,679 inhabitants)
 Sitia (14,338 inhabitants)

Venetian fortress in Heraklion

 

Chania cathedral
 
 

Rethymno Fortezza Mosque

Economy[edit]
Further information: Economy of Greece
The economy of Crete is predominantly based on services and tourism. However,
agriculture also plays an important role and Crete is one of the few Greek islands that
can support itself independently without a tourism industry. [28] The economy began to
change visibly during the 1970s as tourism gained in importance. Although an emphasis
remains on agriculture and stock breeding, because of the climate and terrain of the
island, there has been a drop in manufacturing, and an observable expansion in its
service industries (mainly tourism-related). All three sectors of the Cretan economy
(agriculture/farming, processing-packaging, services), are directly connected and
interdependent. The island has a per capita income much higher than the Greek
average, whereas unemployment is at approximately 4%, one-sixth of that of the
country overall.[citation needed][when?]
As in many regions of Greece, viticulture and olive groves are
significant; oranges, citrons and avocadoes are also cultivated. Until recently there were
restrictions on the import of bananas to Greece, therefore bananas were grown on the
island, predominantly in greenhouses. Dairy products are important to the local
economy and there are a number of speciality cheeses such as mizithra, anthotyros,
and kefalotyri.
The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the region was €9.4 billion in 2018, accounting
for 5.1% of Greek economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was
€17,800 or 59% of the EU27 average in the same year. The GDP per employee was
68% of the EU average. Crete is the region in Greece with the fifth highest GDP per
capita.[29]
Transport infrastructure[edit]

European route E75 near Malia

Airports[edit]
The island has three significant airports, Nikos Kazantzakis at Heraklion,
the Daskalogiannis airport at Chania and a smaller one in Sitia. The first two serve
international routes, acting as the main gateways to the island for travellers. There is a
long-standing plan to replace Heraklion airport with a completely new airport at Kastelli,
where there is presently an air force base.
Ferries[edit]
The island is well served by ferries, mostly from Piraeus, by ferry companies such
as Minoan Lines and ANEK Lines. Seajets operates routes to Cyclades.
Road Network[edit]
Although almost everywhere is covered by the road network, there is a lack of modern
highways, although this is gradually changing with the completion of the northern
coastal spine highway.[30] In addition, a European Union study has been devised to
promote a modern highway to connect the North and the South parts of the island via a
tunnel. The study proposal includes a 15.7 km of section of road between the villages of
Agia Varvara and Agia Deka in central Crete. It is hoped to benefit both tourists and
locals by improving the connections to the southern part of the island and by reducing
accidents. The new road section forms part of the route between Messara in the south
and Crete's largest city Heraklion, which houses the island's main airport and principal
ferry links with mainland Greece. Traffic speeds on the new road will increase by
19 km/hour (from 29 km/hours to 48 km/hour), which should reduce journey times
between Messara and Heraklion by 55 minutes.[citation needed] The scheme is also expected to
improve road safety by cutting the number of accidents along the route. Building works
include construction of three road tunnels, five bridges and three junctions. This project
is expected to create 44 jobs during the implementation phase. [citation needed]
The investment falls under Greece's "Improvement of Accessibility" Operational
Programme, which aims to improve the country's transport infrastructures as well as its
international connections. The Operational Programme works to link Greece's more
prosperous and less developed regions,and thus help to promote greater territorial
cohesion.[citation needed]
Total investment for the project "Completion of construction of the section of Ag.
Varvara - Ag. Deka (Kastelli) (22+170 km to 37+900 km) of the vertical road axis
Irakleio – Messara in the prefecture of Irakleio, Kriti" is EUR 102 273 321, of which the
EU's European Regional Development Fund is contributing EUR 86 932 323 from the
Operational Programme "Improvement of Accessibility" for the 2007 to 2013
programming period. Work falls under the priority "Road Transport – trans-European
and trans-regional route network of the regions on the Convergence objective". [31]
Railway[edit]
Also, during the 1930s there was a narrow-gauge industrial railway in Heraklion, from
Giofyros in the west side of the city to the port. There are now no railway lines on Crete.
The government is planning the construction of a line from Chania to Heraklion via
Rethymno.[32][33]
Development[edit]
Newspapers have reported that the Ministry of Mercantile Marine is ready to support the
agreement between Greece, South Korea, Dubai Ports World and China for the
construction of a large international container port and free trade zone in southern Crete
near Tympaki; the plan is to expropriate 850 ha of land. The port would handle 2 million
containers per year, but the project has not been universally welcomed because of its
environmental, economic and cultural impact. [34] As of January 2013, the project has still
not been confirmed, although there is mounting pressure to approve it, arising from
Greece's difficult economic situation.
There are plans for underwater cables going from mainland Greece to Israel and Egypt
passing by Crete and Cyprus: EuroAfrica Interconnector and EuroAsia Interconnector.[35]
[36]
 They would connect Crete electrically with mainland Greece, ending energy isolation
of Crete. At present Greece covers electricity costs differences for Crete of around
€300 million per year.[37]

History[edit]
Main article: History of Crete

Minoan rhyton in the form of a bull, Heraklion Archaeological Museum

Minoan fresco from Knossos, Heraklion Archaeological Museum

Palace of Knossos

Hominids settled in Crete at least 130,000 years ago. In the later Neolithic and Bronze
Age periods, under the Minoans, Crete had a highly developed, literate civilization. It
has been ruled by various ancient Greek entities, the Roman Empire, the Byzantine
Empire, the Emirate of Crete, the Republic of Venice and the Ottoman Empire. After a
brief period of independence (1897–1913) under a provisional Cretan government, it
joined the Kingdom of Greece. It was occupied by Nazi Germany during the Second
World War.
Prehistoric Crete[edit]
Main article: Prehistoric Crete
In 2002, the paleontologist Gerard Gierlinski discovered fossil footprints possibly left by
ancient human relatives 5,600,000 years ago.[38]
The first human settlement in Crete dates before 130,000 years ago, during
the Paleolithic age.[39][40][41] Settlements dating to the aceramic Neolithic in the 7th
millennium BC, used cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and dogs as well as
domesticated cereals and legumes; ancient Knossos was the site of one of these major
Neolithic (then later Minoan) sites.[42] Other neolithic settlements include those
at Kephala, Magasa, and Trapeza.
Minoan civilization[edit]
Main article: Minoan civilization
Crete was the centre of Europe's first advanced civilization, the Minoan (c. 2700–1420
BC).[4] This civilization wrote in the undeciphered script known as Linear A.
Early Cretan history is replete with legends such as those of King Minos, Theseus and
the Minotaur, passed on orally via poets such as Homer. The volcanic
eruption of Thera may have been the cause of the downfall of the Minoan civilization.
Mycenaean civilization[edit]
Main article: Mycenaean Greece
In 1420 BC, the Minoan civilization was overrun by the Mycenaean civilization from
mainland Greece. The oldest samples of writing in the Greek language, as identified
by Michael Ventris, is the Linear B archive from Knossos, dated approximately to 1425–
1375 BC.[43]
Archaic and Classical period[edit]
After the Bronze Age collapse, Crete was settled by new waves of Greeks from the
mainland. A number of city states developed in the Archaic period. There was very
limited contact with mainland Greece, and Greek historiography shows little interest in
Crete, and as a result, there are very few literary sources.
During the 6th to 4th centuries BC, Crete was comparatively free from warfare.
The Gortyn code (5th century BC) is evidence for how codified civil law established a
balance between aristocratic power and civil rights.
In the late 4th century BC, the aristocratic order began to collapse due to endemic
infighting among the elite, and Crete's economy was weakened by prolonged wars
between city states. During the 3rd century BC, Gortyn, Kydonia
(Chania), Lyttos and Polyrrhenia challenged the primacy of ancient Knossos.
While the cities continued to prey upon one another, they invited into their feuds
mainland powers like Macedon and its rivals Rhodes and Ptolemaic Egypt. In 220 BC
the island was tormented by a war between two opposing coalitions of cities. As a
result, the Macedonian king Philip V gained hegemony over Crete which lasted to the
end of the Cretan War (205–200 BC), when the Rhodians opposed the rise of Macedon
and the Romans started to interfere in Cretan affairs.
In the 2nd century BC Ierapytna (Ierapetra) gained supremacy on eastern Crete.
Roman rule[edit]
Main article: Crete and Cyrenaica
Crete was involved in the Mithridatic Wars, initially repelling an attack by Roman
general Marcus Antonius Creticus in 71 BC. Nevertheless, a ferocious three-year
campaign soon followed under Quintus Caecilius Metellus, equipped with three legions
and Crete was finally conquered by Rome in 69 BC, earning for Metellus the title
"Creticus". Gortyn was made capital of the island, and Crete became a Roman
province, along with Cyrenaica that was called Creta et Cyrenaica. Archaeological
remains suggest that Crete under Roman rule witnessed prosperity and increased
connectivity with other parts of the Empire. [44] In the 2nd century AD, at least three cities
in Crete (Lyttos, Gortyn, Hierapytna) joined the Panhellenion, a league of Greek cities
founded by the emperor Hadrian. When Diocletian redivided the Empire, Crete was
placed, along with Cyrene, under the diocese of Moesia, and later by Constantine I to
the diocese of Macedonia.
Byzantine Empire – first period[edit]
Main article: Byzantine Crete

Arkadi Monastery
Crete was separated from Cyrenaica c. 297. It remained a province within the eastern
half of the Roman Empire, usually referred to as the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire
after the establishment of a second capital in Constantinople by Constantine in 330.
Crete was subjected to an attack by Vandals in 467, the great earthquakes of 365 and
415, a raid by Slavs in 623, Arab raids in 654 and the 670s, and again in the 8th
century. In c. 732, the Emperor Leo III the Isaurian transferred the island from the
jurisdiction of the Pope to that of the Patriarchate of Constantinople.[45]
Andalusian Arab rule[edit]
Main article: Emirate of Crete

The Byzantines under the general Damian attack Crete but are defeated by the Saracens, c. 828, as depicted
by Ioannes Scylitzes (see Skylitzes Chronicle).

In the 820s, after 900 years as a Roman island, Crete was captured
by Andalusian Muwallads led by Abu Hafs,[46] who established the Emirate of Crete. The
Byzantines launched a campaign that took most of the island back in 842 and 843
under Theoktistos. Further Byzantine campaigns in 911 and 949 failed. In
960/1, Nikephoros Phokas' campaign completely restored Crete to the Byzantine
Empire, after a century and a half of Arab control.
Byzantine Empire – second period[edit]
Main article: Byzantine Crete
In 961, Nikephoros Phokas returned the island to Byzantine rule after expelling the
Arabs.[47] Extensive efforts at conversion of the populace were undertaken, led by John
Xenos and Nikon "the Metanoeite".[48][49] The reconquest of Crete was a major
achievement for the Byzantines, as it restored Byzantine control over the Aegean littoral
and diminished the threat of Saracen pirates, for which Crete had provided a base of
operations.
In 1204, the Fourth Crusade seized and sacked the imperial capital of Constantinople.
Crete was initially granted to leading Crusader Boniface of Montferrat[47] in the partition of
spoils that followed. However, Boniface sold his claim to the Republic of Venice,
[47]
 whose forces made up the majority of the Crusade. Venice's rival the Republic of
Genoa immediately seized the island and it was not until 1212 that Venice secured
Crete as a colony.
Venetian rule[edit]
Main article: Kingdom of Candia
Frangokastello was built by the Venetians in 1371–74

From 1212, during Venice's rule, which lasted more than four centuries,
a Renaissance swept through the island as is evident from the plethora of artistic works
dating to that period. Known as The Cretan School or Post-Byzantine Art, it is among
the last flowerings of the artistic traditions of the fallen empire. The most notable
representatives of this Cretan renaissance were the painter El Greco and the
writers Nicholas Kalliakis (1645–1707), Georgios Kalafatis (professor) (c. 1652–
1720), Andreas Musalus (c. 1665–1721) and Vitsentzos Kornaros.[50][51][52]
Under the rule of the Catholic Venetians, the city of Candia was reputed to be the best
fortified city of the Eastern Mediterranean.[53] The three main forts were located
at Gramvousa, Spinalonga, and Fortezza at Rethymnon. Other fortifications include
the Kazarma fortress at Sitia. In 1492, Jews expelled from Spain settled on the island.
[54]
 In 1574–77, Crete was under the rule of Giacomo Foscarini as Proveditor General,
Sindace and Inquisitor. According to Starr's 1942 article, the rule of Giacomo Foscarini
was a Dark Age for Jews and Greeks. Under his rule, non-Catholics had to pay high
taxes with no allowances. In 1627, there were 800 Jews in the city of Candia, about
seven percent of the city's population. [55] Marco Foscarini was the Doge of Venice during
this time period.
Ottoman rule[edit]
Main articles: Ottoman Crete, Cretan Turks, and Cretan Revolt (1866–1869)

The Siege of Candia, regarded as one of the longest sieges in history, lasted from 1648 to 1669
Nicolas Sanson. Crete in 1651

Greek Orthodox (blue) and Cretan Muslim/Turkish (red) ethnic makeup of the island in 1861

Kara Musa Pasha mosque, Rethymno

The Ottomans conquered Crete (Girit Eyâleti) in 1669, after the siege of Candia. Many

Greek Cretans fled to other regions of the Republic of Venice after the Ottoman–
Venetian Wars, some even prospering such as the family of Simone Stratigo (c. 1733 –
c. 1824) who migrated to Dalmatia from Crete in 1669.[56] Islamic presence on the island,
aside from the interlude of the Arab occupation, was cemented by the Ottoman
conquest. Most Cretan Muslims were local Greek converts who spoke Cretan Greek,
but in the island's 19th-century political context they came to be viewed by the Christian
population as Turks.[57] Contemporary estimates vary, but on the eve of the Greek War of
Independence (1830), as much as 45% of the population of the island may have been
Muslim.[58] A number of Sufi orders were widespread throughout the island,
the Bektashi order being the most prevalent, possessing at least five tekkes.
Many Cretan Turks fled Crete because of the unrest, settling in Turkey, Rhodes, Syria,
Libya and elsewhere. By 1900, 11% of the population was Muslim. Those remaining
were relocated in the 1924 population exchange between Greece and Turkey.[59]
During Easter of 1770, a notable revolt against Ottoman rule, in Crete, was started
by Daskalogiannis, a shipowner from Sfakia who was promised support by Orlov's
fleet which never arrived. Daskalogiannis eventually surrendered to the Ottoman
authorities. Today, the airport at Chania is named after him.
Crete was left out of the modern Greek state by the London Protocol of 1830, and soon
it was yielded to Egypt by the Ottoman sultan. Egyptian rule was short-lived and
sovereignty was returned to the Ottoman Empire by the Convention of London on 3 July
1840.
Heraklion was surrounded by high walls and bastions and extended westward and
southward by the 17th century. The most opulent area of the city was the northeastern
quadrant where all the elite were gathered together. The city had received another
name under the rule of the Ottomans, "the deserted city". [53] The urban policy that the
Ottoman applied to Candia was a two-pronged approach. [53] The first was the religious
endowments. It made the Ottoman elite contribute to building and rehabilitating the
ruined city. The other method was to boost the population and the urban revenue by
selling off urban properties. According to Molly Greene (2001) there were numerous
records of real-estate transactions during the Ottoman rule. In the deserted city,
minorities received equal rights in purchasing property. Christians and Jews were also
able to buy and sell in the real-estate market.
The Cretan Revolt of 1866–1869 or Great Cretan Revolution (Greek: Κρητική
Επανάσταση του 1866) was a three-year uprising against Ottoman rule, the third and
largest in a series of revolts between the end of the Greek War of Independence in
1830 and the establishment of the independent Cretan State in 1898. A particular event
which caused strong reactions among the liberal circles of western Europe was
the Holocaust of Arkadi. The event occurred in November 1866, as a large Ottoman
force besieged the Arkadi Monastery, which served as the headquarters of the rebellion.
In addition to its 259 defenders, over 700 women and children had taken refuge in the
monastery. After a few days of hard fighting, the Ottomans broke into the monastery. At
that point, the abbot of the monastery set fire to the gunpowder stored in the
monastery's vaults, causing the death of most of the rebels and the women and children
sheltered there.
Cretan State 1898–1908[edit]
Main articles: Cretan State; Theriso revolt; Candia massacre; and International
Squadron (Cretan intervention, 1897–1898)

Revolutionaries at Theriso

Following the repeated uprisings in 1841, 1858, 1889, 1895 and 1897 by the Cretan
people, who wanted to join Greece, the Great Powers decided to restore order and in
February 1897 sent in troops. The island was subsequently garrisoned by troops from
Great Britain, France, Italy and Russia; Germany and Austro-Hungary withdrawing from
the occupation in early 1898. During this period Crete was governed through a
committee of admirals from the remaining four Powers. In March 1898 the Powers
decreed, with the very reluctant consent of the Sultan, that the island would be granted
autonomy under Ottoman suzerainty in the near future.[60]
In September 1898 the Candia massacre in Candia, modern Heraklion, left over 500
Cretan Christians and 14 British servicemen dead at the hands of Muslim irregulars. As
a result, the Admirals ordered the expulsion of all Ottoman troops and administrators
from the island, a move that was ultimately completed by early November. The decision
to grant autonomy to the island was enforced and a High Commissioner, Prince George
of Greece, appointed, arriving to take up his post in December 1898. [61] The flag of
the Cretan State was chosen by the Powers, with the white star representing the
Ottoman suzerainty over the island.

Flag of Cretan State

In 1905, disagreements between Prince George and minister Eleftherios Venizelos over
the question of the enosis (union with Greece), such as the Prince's autocratic style of
government, resulted in the Theriso revolt, one of the leaders being Eleftherios
Venizelos.
Prince George resigned as High Commissioner and was replaced by Alexandros
Zaimis, a former Greek prime minister, in 1906. In 1908, taking advantage of domestic
turmoil in Turkey as well as the timing of Zaimis's vacation away from the island, the
Cretan deputies unilaterally declared union with Greece.
With the break out of the First Balkan War, the Greek government declared that Crete
was now Greek territory. This was not recognised internationally until 1 December 1913.
[61]

Second World War[edit]

German paratroopers landing on Crete during the Battle of Crete

Main articles: Battle of Crete and Cretan resistance

During World War II, the island was the scene of the famous Battle of Crete in May
1941. The initial 11-day battle was bloody and left more than 11,000 soldiers and
civilians killed or wounded. As a result of the fierce resistance from both Allied forces
and civilian Cretan locals, the invasion force suffered heavy casualties, and Adolf
Hitler forbade further large-scale paratroop operations for the rest of the war. During the
initial and subsequent occupation, German firing squads routinely executed male
civilians in reprisal for the death of German soldiers; civilians were rounded up randomly
in local villages for the mass killings, such as at the Massacre of Kondomari and
the Viannos massacres. Two German generals were later tried and executed for their
roles in the killing of 3,000 of the island's inhabitants. [62]
Civil War[edit]
In the aftermath of the Dekemvriana in Athens, Cretan leftists were targeted by the right
wing paramilitary organization National Organization of Rethymno (EOR). Which
engaged in attacks in the villages of Koxare and Melampes, as well as Rethymno in
January 1945. Those attacks did not escalate into a full scale insurgency as they did in
the Greek mainland and the Cretan ELAS did not surrender its weapons after the Treaty
of Varkiza. An uneasy truce was maintained until 1947, with a series of arrests of
notable communists in Chania and Heraklion. Encouraged by orders from the central
organization in Athens, KKE launched an insurgency in Crete; marking the beginning of
the Greek Civil War on the island. In eastern Crete the Democratic Army of
Greece (DSE) struggled to establish its presence in Dikti and Psilorites. On 1 July 1947,
the surviving 55 fighters of DSE were ambushed south of Psilorites, the few surviving
members of the unit managed to join the rest of DSE in Lefka Ori.[63]
The Lefka Ori region in the west offered more favorable conditions for DSE's
insurgency. In the summer of 1947 DSE raided and looted the Maleme Airport and
motor depot at Chrysopigi. Its numbers swelled to approximately 300 fighters, the rise of
DSE numbers compounded with crop failure on the island created serious logistical
issues for the insurgents. The communists resorted to cattle rustling and crop
confiscations which solved the problem only temporarily. In the autumn of 1947, the
Greek government offered generous amnesty terms to Cretan DSE fighters and
mountain bandits, many of whom opted to abandon armed struggle or even defect to
the nationalists. On 4 July 1948, government troops launched a large scale offensive
on Samariá Gorge. Many DSE soldiers were killed in the fighting while the survivors
broke into small armed bands. In October 1948, the secretary of the Cretan KKE
Giorgos Tsitilos was killed in an ambush. By the following month only 34 DSE fighters
remained active in Lefka Ori. The insurgency in Crete gradually withered away, with the
last two hold outs surrendering in 1974, 25 years after the conclusion of the war in
mainland Greece.[64]

Tourism[edit]
Main article: Tourism in Greece

Matala beach
Crete is one of the most popular holiday destinations in Greece. 15% of all arrivals in
Greece come through the city of Heraklion (port and airport), while charter journeys to
Heraklion make up about 20% of all charter flights in Greece. The number of hotel beds
on the island increased by 53% in the period between 1986 and 1991.
Today, the island's tourism infrastructure caters to all tastes, including a very wide range
of accommodation; the island's facilities take in large luxury hotels with their complete
facilities, swimming pools, sports and recreation, smaller family-owned apartments,
camping facilities and others. Visitors reach the island via two international airports in
Heraklion and Chania and a smaller airport in Sitia (international charter and domestic
flights starting May 2012)[65] or by boat to the main ports of Heraklion,
Chania, Rethimno, Agios Nikolaos and Sitia.
Popular tourist attractions include the archaeological sites of the Minoan civilisation, the
Venetian old city and port of Chania, the Venetian castle at Rethymno, the gorge
of Samaria, the islands of Chrysi, Elafonisi, Gramvousa, Spinalonga and the Palm
Beach of Vai, which is the largest natural palm forest in Europe.
Transportation[edit]
Crete has an extensive bus system with regular services across the north of the island
and from north to south. There are two regional bus stations in Heraklion. Bus routes
and timetables can be found on KTEL website.[66]
Holiday homes and immigration[edit]
Crete's mild climate attracts interest from northern Europeans who want a holiday home
or residence on the island. EU citizens have the right to freely buy property and reside
with little formality.[67] In the cities of Heraklion and Chania, the average price per square
metre of apartments ranges from €1,670 to €1,700. [68] A growing number of real estate
companies cater to mainly British immigrants, followed
by Dutch, German, Scandinavian and other European nationalities wishing to own a
home in Crete. The British immigrants are concentrated in the western regional units
of Chania and Rethymno and to a lesser extent in Heraklion and Lasithi.[32]
Archaeological sites and museums[edit]
Main article: List of museums in Greece §  Crete
The area has a large number of archaeological sites, including the Minoan sites
of Knossos, Malia (not to be confused with the town of the same
name), Petras and Phaistos, the classical site of Gortys, and the diverse archaeology of
the island of Koufonisi, which includes Minoan, Roman, and World War II era ruins (nb.
due to conservation concerns, access to the latter has been restricted for the last few
years, so it is best to check before heading to a port).
There are a number of museums throughout Crete. The Heraklion Archaeological
Museum displays most of the archaeological finds from the Minoan era and was
reopened in 2014.[69]
Harmful effects[edit]
Helen Briassoulis, in a qualitative analysis, proposed in the Journal of Sustainable
Tourism that Crete is affected by tourism applying pressure to it to develop at an
unhealthy rate, and that informal, internal systems within the country are forced to
adapt. According to her, these forces have strengthened in 3 stages: from the period
from 1960 to 1970, 1970–1990, and 1990 to the present. During this first period, tourism
was a largely positive force, pushing modern developments like running water and
electricity onto the largely rural countryside. However, beginning in the second period
and especially in the third period leading up to the present day, tourist companies
became more pushy with deforestation and pollution of Crete's natural resources. The
country is then pulled into an interesting parity, where these companies only upkeep
those natural resources that are directly essential to their industry. [70]