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Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction

Module 011 - Other Related Geological Hazards

Executive Summary:

What are Geological hazards? Do they happen naturally? Are they human induced? You may have
experienced earthquake once in your life or maybe witnessed the MayonVolcano’s eruption. According
to the Association of Environmental and Engineering Geology, these are natural geologic processes that
become hazardous when humans get in their way. For example, consider the natural process of “Mass
wasting”, which is a generic term for the movement of soil and rock downhill in response to the pull of
gravity. Mass wasting, which includes landslides among other things, is constantly occurring in
mountainous and hilly terrain throughout the world. Yet, this natural process isn’t much of a hazard
until humans build something that gets in the way of a landslide. In this module, we will look into other
geological hazards, how do they happen and what should we do about it.

At the end of this module, you will be able to:

 Discuss the different geological hazards;
 Analyze the causes of geological hazards;
 Recognize signs of impending geological hazards;
 Interpret geological maps; and
 Apply mitigation strategies to prevent loss of lives and properties;

This module comes in two parts, M601 and M602. This module will discuss the following subtopic
under Other Related Geological Hazards:
11.1 Different geological hazards
11.2 Causes of geological hazards
11.3 Signs of impending geological hazards
The second part of this module (M602) will be about:
12.1 Geological maps and
12.2 Mitigation strategies to prevent loss of lives and properties

What are other geological hazards?

Mankind lives on the earth, while the ground upon which we live seems to be, for the most part, firm,
stable and static, in actuality it is dynamic and in a continual state of flux as the lithosphere (the earths’

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 outermost crust) adjust to the Earth’s inner, molten core. Geologic hazards are naturally occurring (or
man made) geologic conditions capable of causing damage or loss of property and/or life. While
Volcanic eruptions and Earthquakes are the most known geological hazards, there are other geological
phenomena that could potentially cause damage to properties and people. In this module we will
consider other related geological hazards such asRainfall-induced landslides, and sinkholes.

What is a landslide?

Landslides occur when masses of rock, soil, or debris move down a slope under the force of gravity.
The term landslide includes a wide range or ground movement such as rockfalls, mud and debris flows,
and surface failures called slumps, earthflows, and translational slides. Landslides can occur in a matter
of seconds or over the course of weeks and longer.

Anatomy of a Landslide

Figure 1: An idealized slump-earth flow showing commonly used nomenclature for labeling the
parts of a landslide. Image source: USGS

What are the different types of Landslides?

Landslides can be classified into different types on the basis of the type of
movement and the type of material involved. In other words, material in a
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landslide mass is either rock or soil (or both); this is describe as earth if mainly composed of sand-sized or finer
particles and debris if composed of coarser fragments. The type of movement describes the actual internal
mechanics of how the landslide mass is displaced: fall, topple, slide, or flow. Thus, landslides are described
using two terms that refer respectively to material and movement. For example rockfall, debris flow, and so
forth.

1. SLIDES (translational or planar)

Down-slope movement of soil and/or rock on a plane of weak material can occur on relatively
moderate to steep slopes, especially in weak geologic materials.[Image source: USGS]

2. ROCKFALLS

Rapid, near vertical, movement of rocks that involves free-falling,

bouncing, and rolling; often occurs in areas with near vertical
exposures on rock.[Image Source: USGS]

3. SLUMPS (Rotational)

Unconsolidated materials (such as soil and debris) move down-

slope in a distinctive rotational motion, usually occurs on moderate to
steep slopes.[Image source: USGS]

4. EARTH FLOWS

Unchannelized flow of water, soil, rock, and vegetation that moves

down-slope, occurs on steep slopes. No failure surface at bottom. [Image
source: USGS]

5. DEBRIS/MUD FLOWS

Rapidly moving, channelized slurry flow of water, soil, rock, and

vegetation; occurs mainly in drainage channels. [Image source: USGS]

What causes Landslides?

There are many factors that may cause a landslide. Physically there two forces
affecting landslides; they are Driving Forces (DF) and Resisting Forces (RF).
Driving forces causes the slope to move with the force of gravity, and resisting forces stabilize the slope and
prevent movement.

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When the driving forces exceed the resisting forces, landslides occur. To prevent or mitigate landslides, one
must increase the resisting forces or decrease the driving forces.

What are the factors that increase the driving force for landslide?

1. Over-steepened slopes
2. Adding water to slope from landscape irrigation, roof downspouts, broken sewer and water lines, and
poor storm-water drainage
3. Heavy rainfall
4. Loading extra material at the top of the slope

Earthquakes and heavy precipitation can also trigger landslides on susceptible slopes.

What are the factors that increase resisting force?

1. Removing excess water from slopes

2. Adding buttress material at base of a slope
3. Building retaining walls

What are the signs of impending landslides?

The following could be signs of a landslide activity in your land area. Monitor your house and surrounding
property for the following signs:

 New cracks or unusual bulges in the ground, street pavements or sidewalks

 Tilted or cracked chimney
 Doors or windows that stick or jam for the first time
 Outside walls, walkways, o stairs start pulling away from the house
 Soil moves away from the foundation
 Plumbing or gas lines develop leaks
 Bulging ground at base of slope
 Leaning fence posts or retaining walls
 Springs, seeps, or saturated soil in areas that have been typically dry
 Cracks in the ground
 Tilted trees or utility poles

What are sinkholes?

Sinkholes are depressions or openings in the ground surface. They are generally formed as the result of a
collapse in the ceiling of an underground cavity or cavern. Sinkholes typically develop slowly, but can also form
suddenly when a collapse occurs.

Sinkholes naturally occur in areas underlain by soluble carbonate or evaporate rocks like limestone, dolomite,
gypsum, and salt.
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What are the different types of sinkholes?

There are three types of sinkholes; Dissolution sinkholes, Cover-subsidence sinkholes, and Cover-collapse
sinkholes.

Dissolution of the limestone or dolomite is most intensive where the water first contacts the rock surface.
Aggressive dissolution also occurs where flow is focused in pre-existing openings in the rock, such as along
joints, fractures, and bedding planes, and in the zone of water-table fluctuation where ground water is in
contact with the atmosphere.

Image source: sinkhole.org

Rainfall and surface water percolate through joints in the limestone. Dissolved carbonate rock is carried away
from the surface and a small depression gradually forms.

Cover-subsidence sinkholes tend to develop gradually where the covering sediments are permeable and
contain sand.

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 Image source: sinkholes.org

In areas where cover material is thicker or sediments contain more clay, cover-subsidence sinkholes are
relatively uncommon, are smaller, and may go undetected for long periods.

Cover-collapse sinkholes may develop abruptly over a period of hours and cause catastrophic damages. They
occur where the covering sediments contain a significant amount of clay.

Image source: sinkholes.org

Over time, surface drainage, erosion, and deposition of sediment transform the steep-walled sinkhole into a
shallower bowl-shaped depression.

What is Karst?

Karst terrain is a type of topography that is formed by dissolution of bedrock in areas underlain by limestone,
dolostone or, as in some western states, gypsum. Such terrain has underground drainage systems that are
reflected on the surface as sinkholes, springs, disappearing streams or even caves.
Karst is any land with sinkholes, springs, and streams that sink into subsurface caverns.
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What causes sinkholes?

According to the Florida Department of Environmental Protection, the two most common carbonate rocks in
Florida are limestone and dolomite. These rocks tend to erode when exposed to acidic water. Most rainwater
is already slightly acidic, and may become more so by passing through decaying plant debris. Limestone is a
porous rock, and acidic water can percolate down through it. Over time, this process of erosion has created
“extensive underground voids and drainage systems in much of the carbonate rocks throughout the state”.
Sometimes slowly, and sometimes suddenly, overlying sediments collapse into these underground cavities,
and a sinkhole is born.

Image source: Southwest Florida Management District

Human activity can create sinkholes, too, for example, via collapsed or broken sewer and drain pipes
or broken septic tanks, improperly compacted soil after excavation work, and buried trash, logs and
other debris. They can also occur from the overpumping and extraction of groundwater and
subsurface fluids.Some sinkholes form when the land surface is changed, maybe when when
industrial and runoff-storage ponds are created. In those cases, the weight of the new material above
ground can trigger an underground collapse, creating a sinkhole.

What are the signs of impending sinkholes?

Although a sinkhole can form without warning, specific signs can signal potential development. Below are
some of the most common signs of a sinkhole.

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 Cracks in interior joint areas, windows or doors
 Cracks in your exterior block or stucco
 Windows and doors become harder to close properly
 Depressions in your yard or the street or other yards near you
 Deep cracks and separation of paved concrete walks and drives
 Circular patches of wilting plants
 Sediment in you water
 Neighbors have had or confirmed possible sinkhole activity
 Observation of an actual cavity beginning to open.
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References and Supplementary Materials

Teaching Guide for Senior High School; Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction

UNISDR, 2009; Terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction; Geneva, United Nations International
Strategy for Disaster Reduction.

Deborah Byrd, 2013; What Causes Sinkholes?; Earth; Accessed from

http://earthsky.org/earth/what-causes-sinkholes

Burns, S.F., Harden, T.M., and Andrew, C.J. (n.d.). Homeowner’s Guideto Landslides. Retrieved
from http://www.oregongeology.org/sub/landslide/homeowners-landslide-guide.pdf; Accessed
30 July 2017
http://www.sinkhole.org/facts.php; Accessed 30 July 2017
https://landslides.usgs.gov/learn/prepare.php; Accessed 30 July 2017
Disaster Risk Index; http://www.worldriskreport.org/; Accessed 25 July 2017

http://inspectapedia.com/vision/Karst_Sinkholes.php; Accessed 30 July2017

http://www.icsm.gov.au/mapping/tactual_mapping/Map_User_Guide-3.pdf ; Accessed 30 July

2017

http://www.mgbregion5.ph/g_cs_naga_landslide.jpg; Accessed 30 July 2017

http://www.usu.edu/geo/physical/Geologic%20Maps_lab.pdf; Accessed 30 July 2017