SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY

School of Engineering and Architecture

Department of Mechanical Engineering

3524 ME 2251L - #04

INTRODUCTION TO SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES

Submitted By: Submitted To:

Engr. FLORENCE LESLIE CAMPOLET
REYES, MARC GABRIEL G. SEA-ECE Faculty

Date of Submission: February , 2021

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 Experiment No: 4

INTRODUCTION TO SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES

TLO 4: Test a semiconductor diode by using an ohmmeter. Connect a circuit and record the
forward voltage as the forward current is increasing.

I. INTRODUCTION:

Diodes are basic unidirectional semiconductor devices that will only allow current to flow
through them in one direction only, acting more like a one-way electrical valve, (Forward Biased
Condition). Diodes are made from a single piece of Semiconductor material which has a positive
“P-region” at one end and a negative “N-region” at the other, and which has a resistivity value
somewhere between that of a conductor and an insulator.

II. EQUIPMENT/ MATERIALS NEEDED:

Transformer - 220V : 12V
2 VOM
Oscilloscope
CR1-CR4 - Silicon Diodes
(CR1:1N4001 CR2: 1N4002, CR3: 1N4001G CR4: 1N4002G)
RL - 1kΩ, 1 W
S1 - SPST, Component Board M
Experiment Board K

III. PROCEDURES:

Objective A: Identify the anode and the cathode and test a semiconductor diode by performing
a forward-reversed resistance check by using an ohmmeter.

1.
a. Examine the four silicon diodes and identify the cathode and anode terminals. The cathode
end of the diode is usually marked by a circular band or by a dot of paint on the case or lead.
Describe how the cathodes of diodes CR1-CR2 are marked. In lieu of this activity, attach 4
photos of CR1 to CR4 diodes and describe their markings. Label terminals.

______________________________________________________________

b. The polarity of the ohmmeter supply voltage at the leads must be determined by checking
with a voltmeter. Set Electronic VOM to the Ohm Function on the Rx10 range and set the dc
voltmeter to the 0-10Vdc range.

c. Connect the red lead of the VOM to the negative terminal of the DC voltmeter.
Connect the black lead of the VOM to the positive terminal of the DC voltmeter.

Watch: How to determine polarity using a voltmeter.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xoUHbf_bRxw

d. Record the polarity of the ohmmeter leads and the voltage indicated by the
voltmeter.
 Common lead =_____________
Ohm’s lead = _____________
Voltage measurement = _____________Vdc
2.
a. Connect the common lead (negative) to the cathode end of one of the silicon diodes,
and the Ohm’s lead (positive) to the anode end . The diode is now in the forward bias condition.
Simulate the circuit using Multisim.

Sample:

b. Measure the forward resistance of each silicon diode.

CR1 forward resistance =_____________Ω

CR2 forward resistance =_____________Ω
CR3 forward resistance =_____________Ω
CR4 forward resistance =_____________Ω

c. Reverse the doped connections so the anode is connected to common lead, and the
cathode to the Ohm’s lead. The diode is now in a reverse bias condition. Use the highest
resistance range of the ohmmeter to measure the reverse resistance of each silicon diode.
Simulate the circuit using Multisim
Sample:

CR1 reverse resistance =_____________Ω

CR2 reverse resistance =_____________Ω
CR3 reverse resistance =_____________Ω
CR4 reverse resistance =_____________Ω
Watch:
Testing the diode using a digital voltmeter:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nQpXBHEn09A

Objective B. Observe how forward and reverse bias voltages affect current flow through a
semiconductor diode.

3. a. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 2. Be sure the polarity of the ammeter and the
diode are correct. Series resistor R1 is included as a protective device only and will limit the
power supply current to a safe value. Simulate in Multisim.

Figure 2

1 kΩ 1 mA

Es
0-40V V

Sample:

b. Gradually increase the source voltage Es until the ammeter indicates 0.1mAdc of the forward
diode current If for each of the If listed on Table 1.
 Table 1

If Ef If Ef

0.10 mA 0.80 mA
0.20 mA 0.90 mA
0.30 mA 1.0 mA
0.40 mA 2.0 mA
0.50 mA 3.0 mA
0.60 mA 4.0 mA
0.70 mA 5.0 mA

c. Return the voltage to zero and reverse the connections to the silicon diode.

d. Adjust the source voltage to 40 Vdc and measure the diode reverse (leakage) current
IR.
IR indicated = _______________uAdc

e. Return the voltage to zero.

Objective C. Demonstrate the voltage-current relationship of a semiconductor diode by plotting

a curve.

4.
a. Plot the data obtained in Procedure 3 on the graph shown. Draw a smooth curve through your
plotted points.

b. Examine the plotted curve and note that the diode forward voltage drop E, increases with
forward current flow I, until a point is reached where E, remains relatively constant while I,
continues to increase. At this point, the diode is said to be completely forward biased. At
approximately what voltage is the diode completely forward biased?

Ef = _________________ Vdc

GRAPH:
IV. DATA AND RESULTS

1. a.

Cathode is marked by silver band.

Cathode is marked by silver band.

1N4001G: Cathode is marked by silver band.

1N4002G: Cathode is marked by silver band.

 d. Record the polarity of the ohmmeter leads and the voltage indicated by the voltmeter.
Common lead = Negative (-)
Ohm’s lead = Positive (+)
Voltage measurement = ------ Vdc

2. Provide MultiSim screenshots of CR1 to CR4, summarize results for b. and c.

b. Measure the forward resistance of each silicon diode.
CR1 forward resistance = 1.407 MΩ
CR2 forward resistance = 1.407 MΩ
CR3 forward resistance = 2.831 MΩ
CR4 forward resistance = 2.831 MΩ

c. Measure the reverse resistance of each silicon diode.

CR1 reverse resistance = 1.94 MΩ
CR2 reverse resistance = 1.939 MΩ
CR3 reverse resistance = 8.04 MΩ
CR4 reverse resistance = 8.04 MΩ
d. What does the above data and results imply?
= The forward resistance of the 4 silicon diodes has lesser values than their reverse
resistances.
 FORWARD RESISTANCE REVERSE RESISTANCE

CR1:
1N4001

CR2:
1N4002

CR3:
1N4001G

CR4:
1N4002G

Screenshots from Multisim

3. Provide MultiSIm screenshots for If and Ef. Arrange and label. Organize your work.
If Ef If Ef

0.10 mA 0.427304 V 0.80 mA 0.525865 V

0.20 mA 0.460166 V 0.90 mA 0.53145 V
0.30 mA 0.479412 V 1.0 mA 0.536473 V
0.40 mA 0.492971 V 2.0 mA 0.569352 V
0.50 mA 0.503593 V 3.0 mA 0.588639 V
0.60 mA 0.512212 V 4.0 mA 0.602322 V
0.70 mA 0.519525 V 5.0 mA 0.61294 V

*Screenshots arranged from smallest If to highest (0.10 mA to 5.0 mA).

If = 0.1 mA

If = 0.2 mA

If = 0.3 mA
If = 0.4 mA

If = 0.5 mA

If = 0.6 mA

If = 0.7 mA
If = 0.8 mA

If = 0.9 mA

If = 1 mA

If = 2 mA
 If = 3 mA

If = 4 mA

If = 5 mA

d. Adjust the source voltage to 40 Vdc and measure the diode reverse (leakage) current IR.
IR indicated = 39.288 mAdc
4. Plot the graph, you may use MS Excel. Interpret data, answer the questions.

At approximately what voltage is the diode completely forward biased?

Ef = 0.7 Vdc

V. OBSERVATIONS

After measuring the Forward and Reverse resistance of diodes CR1 to CR4, I have
observed the following: First, is that there is no difference between the measured values of 1N4001
& 1N4002, as well the measured values of 1N4001G & 1N4002G (both in forward and reverse
resistances). Next, is that the version of diodes which has (G) has greater resistances - 1N4001G &
1N4002G > 1N4001 & 1N4002. Lastly, is that the reverse resistances have a greater value than the
forward resistances. Forward biased would mean that the diode allows the flow of current while
the reverse-biased blocks the current flow.

Prior to the next procedure, adjusting the source voltage (Es) is quite tricky to get exact
(Is). Technically and generally, more current means more voltage, less voltage means less current.
Although as I have observed, once the voltage gets to about the forward voltage rating,
large increases in current still only mean a very small increase in voltage. Even, a difference of
1mA or even between 0.1 mA and 5 mA, the increase in voltage is very minimal – with just point
something i.e. 0.185636 (Es5-0.1).
VI. DISCUSSION OF THEORY

Semiconductor Diodes

Semiconductor diode – type of diode, which contains “p-n junction” made from differently
doped semiconductor materials. It is double-ended, nonlinear electronic component, where
terminal attached to the “p” layer (+) is called anode and “n” layer (–) cathode. This electronic
component is mainly used because of its ability of making electric current flow only in one
direction (from anode to cathode) after forward-biasing the aforementioned “p-n junction” with
the positive electric voltage.

However, in the opposite direction (reverse bias of the “p-n” junction with the negative
electric voltage) we can say that in ideal semiconductor diode electric current will not flow. This
is why semiconductor diode is often described as the “electric valve”, which can pass or block
the flow of the electric current.

Bias

A diode (PN junction) in an electrical circuit allows current to flow more easily in one
direction than another. Forward biasing means putting a voltage across a diode that allows
current to flow easily, while reverse biasing means putting a voltage across a diode in the opposite
direction. The voltage with reverse biasing does not cause any appreciable current to flow. This is
useful for changing AC current to DC current. It has other uses in manipulating electronic signals
as well.

Reverse Bias

If a voltage is applied across the diode in such a way that the n-type half of the diode was
connected to the positive terminal of the voltage source and the p-type half was connected
to the negative terminal, electrons from the external circuit would create more negative ions
in the p-type region by "filling the holes" and more positive ions would be created in the n-type
region as electrons are displaced toward the positive terminal of the voltage source (see
Figure 2). Hence, the depletion region would increase and the voltage between the p-type
and n-type regions would also increase as the total charge on each side of the junction
increases in magnitude until the voltage across the diode equals and opposes the applied
voltage and cancels it out, ceasing the current through the circuit. This process happens
nearly instantaneously and results in essentially no current flow through the circuit when
voltage is applied in this direction across the diode. This is known as a reverse-biased p-n
junction.

Forward Bias

When the voltage is applied in the opposite direction across the diode, the depletion region
begins to shrink. In a reverse-biased diode, the electrons and holes would be pulled away from
the junction, but a forward-biased scenario ensures that the electrons and holes move toward
the junction as they are repelled from the positive and negative terminals of the voltage
source, respectively. Given a great enough applied voltage, both the holes and the electrons
 would overcome the depletion region and meet near the junction, where they could combine
in a continuous process, closing the circuit and allowing current flow.

Forward and Reverse Resistance of a Diode

In practice, no diode is an Ideal diode, this means neither it acts as a perfect conductor
when forward biased nor it acts as an insulator when it is reverse biased. In other words, an actual
diode offers a very small resistance (not zero) when forward biased and is called a forward
resistance. Whereas it offers a very high resistance (not infinite) when reverse biased and is called
as a reverse resistance.

Under the forward biased condition, the opposition offered by a diode to the forward
current is known as forward resistance. The forward current flowing through a diode may be
constant, i.e., direct current or changing i.e., alternating current.

The forward-biased resistance of a good diode should range from 1000 Ω to 10 MΩ. The
resistance measurement is high when the diode is forward-biased because current from the
multimeter flows through the diode, causing the high-resistance measurement required for testing.

Under the Reverse biased condition, the opposition offered by the diode to the reverse
current is known as Reverse Resistance. Ideally, the reverse resistance of a diode is considered to
be infinite. However, in actual practice, the reverse resistance is not infinite because diode
conducts a small leakage current (due to minority carriers) when reverse biased.

The reverse-biased resistance of a good diode displays OL on a multimeter. The diode is

bad if readings are the same in both directions. The value of reverse resistance is very large as
compared to forward resistance. The ratio of reverse to forward resistance is 100,000 : 1 for silicon
diodes, whereas it is 40,000 : 1 for germanium diode.

Electron Flow / Electric Current

While the normal motion of “free” electrons in a conductor is random, with no particular
direction or speed, electrons can be influenced to move in a coordinated fashion through a
conductive material. This uniform motion of electrons is what we call electricity or electric current.
To be more precise, it could be called dynamic electricity in contrast to static electricity, which is
an unmoving accumulation of electric charge. Just like water flowing through the emptiness of a
pipe, electrons are able to move within the empty space within and between the atoms of a
conductor. The conductor may appear to be solid to our eyes, but any material 14 composed of
atoms is mostly empty space! The liquid-flow analogy is so fitting that the motion of electrons
through a conductor is often referred to as a “flow.”

As each electron moves uniformly through a conductor, it pushes on the one ahead of it,
such that all the electrons move together as a group. The starting and stopping of electron flow
through the length of a conductive path is virtually instantaneous from one end of a conductor
to the other, even though the motion of each electron may be very slow.

Conventional Current
 The flow of electrons is termed electron current. Electrons flow from the negative terminal
to the positive. Conventional current or simply current, behaves as if positive charge carriers cause
current flow. Conventional current flows from the positive terminal to the negative. In general,
analyzing an electrical circuit yields results that are independent of the assumed direction of
current flow. Conventional current flow is the standard that most all of the world follows.

VII. CONCLUSIONS

After conducting the experiment, I have learned the main purpose of diodes which is to
make sure that the current will flow in one direction. Understanding its basics is essential in studying
electronics. It is a must to know the anode and cathode part of the diode so that damaging the
circuit can be avoided; usually they have markings. If the diode is to be forward-biased, the
cathode must be connected to the source's positive terminal and the anode to the source's
negative terminal. On the other hand, if the diode is to be reversed-biased, the cathode must be
connected to the source's negative terminal and the anode to the source's positive terminal. A
low resistance reading implies a forward biased, and vice versa, high resistance reading implies a
reverse biased.

Moreover, I have understood the relationship of the forward current with the forward
voltage; although they have a direct relationship the increase in the voltage is not gradual.
Analyzing the diode deeper, it will possess either a forward or reversed resistance. The forward
resistance will significantly be lower than the reversed resistance. Given that in the forward-biased,
the current will flow. Likewise, in the reversed-biased, the diode will block the current.

VIII. REFERENCES

All About Circuits (n.d.). Conductors, Insulators, and Electron Flow. Retrieved from
https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/direct-current/chpt1/conductors-insulators-
electron-flow/

Circuit Globe (n.d.). Difference Between Forward & Reverse Biasing. Retrieved from
https://circuitglobe.com/difference-between-forward-and-reversebiasing.html

J.M.K.C. Donev et al. (2018). Energy Education - Diode operation [Online]. Available:
https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Diode_operation#.

Michal, M. (2015). Semiconductor Diode – Definition, Characteristic and Applications. Retrieved

from https://911electronic.com/semiconductor-diode/