DELHI PUBLIC SCHOOL R.N.

EXTENSION
(Under the aegis of the Delhi Public School Society, New Delhi)
Chapter-2 Units & Measurement
Quantity: Anything that can be measured is called a quantity.
Physical quantities: These are the quantities used in physics.
Measurement: It is the comparison of given unknown quantity with known standard (called unit) of that quantity. In
measurement we determine how many times (numerical value or magnitude) a unit is present in unknown quantity.
Magnitude or Numerical Value of Quantity: It determines the number of times (numerical value or magnitude) a unit is
present in unknown quantity.
Unit: It is reference standard of a quantity used for the measurement of that quantity.
Characteristics of a unit: (i) It should be defined without any doubt, (ii) it should not be perishable, (iii) it should be easily
reproducible, (iv) it should be of convenient size and (v) it should not change with place or time.
Depending upon their existence quantities are of two types
(i) Fundamental or basic physical quantities: These are the physical quantities that have their own existence i.e. which do
not depend on other physical quantities for their existence. There are nine fundamental physical quantities: (i) Length: it is
separation between two positions, (ii) Mass: it is amount of matter contained in a body, (iii) Time: it is the interval between
two events, (iv) Temperature: temperature of a body is the measure of average kinetic energy (translational + rotational +
vibrational) possessed by the molecules of the body, (v) Electric current: it is the amount of charge passing through any
section of conductor per unit time, (vi) Luminous Intensity: luminous Intensity of a source of light is the luminous flux (energy
in visible region emitted by source per second) emitted by source per unit solid angle, (vii) Amount of substance: It is quantity
of a substance containing 6.023x1026 constituent particles of that substance, (viii) Angle: It is the inclination of two lines or
planes and (viii) Solid angle: It is three dimensional angle subtended by a surface at a point.
Note: Last two quantities Angle and Solid angle are called supplementary Fundamental physical quantities.
(ii) Derived physical quantities: These are the physical quantities obtained from (by multiplying and dividing) fundamental
physical quantities e.g. velocity = length/time, acceleration = length/time2, force = mass-length/time2, work = mass-
length2/time2 and so on.
As physical quantities are of two types their units are also of two types:
(i) Fundamental or basic units: These are the units that have their own existence i.e. which do not depend on other units for
their existence.
(ii) Derived units: These are the units obtained from (by multiplying and dividing) fundamental units e.g. unit of velocity =
m-s-1, unit of acceleration = m-s-2, unit of force = kg- m-s-2 and so on.
System of units: Initially mechanics was considered as sole physics that uses only three quantities mass, length and time so
initial system of units had only units of these quantities like
(i) MKS system: In this system length is measured in metre, mass in kilogram and time in second.
(ii) CGS or French System: In this system length is measured in centimetre, mass in gram and time in second.
(iii) FPS or British System: In this system length is measured in foot, mass in pound and time in second.
(iv) International System of units or System International’d units (SI Units): It is System of units that includes units of all
physical quantities and is accepted all over the world. SI fundamental units are:
(i) metre (m): It is the distance containing 1650763.73 waves of orange red light in emission spectrum of krypton-86. Or It is
1
the distance covered by light in vacuum in 299792458 of a second.
(ii) kilogram (kg): It is mass of 1 litre of water at 4 °C. Or It is mass of a body in which a force of 1 N produces an acceleration
of 1 m-s-2.
1
(iii) second (s): It is 86400 of a mean solar day(interval between two consecutive noon). Or It is the time interval in which Cs-
atom in an atomic clock completes 9192631770 oscillations.
1
(iv) kelvin (K): One kelvin is 273.15 of temperature difference of boiling point of water and melting point of ice. Or One kelvin
1
is of triple point of water (temperature at which all three states of water co-exist in equilibrium.
273.16
(v) ampere (A): One ampere is the current which when passed through two infinitely long straight parallel conductors placed
one metre apart in vacuum, each of them exerts a force of 2x10-7 N per meter length of other.
1
(vi) candela (cd): One candela is 600000 of luminous intensity of 1 m2 area of a black body kept at freezing point of platinum
at pressure of 101325 pascal.
(vii) mole (mol): It is quantity of a substance containing 6.023x1026 constituent particles of that substance.
(viii) radian (rd): One radian is the angle subtended by an arc of length equal to radius at centre of circle.
(ix) ste-radian (st-rd): One ste-radian is the solid angle subtended by an area equal to square of radius on the surface of sphere,
at its centre.
Note: International System of units (i) is called rational system of units as it uses only one unit for one physical quantity and
(ii) is called coherent system of units as in it units of all derived physical quantities are obtained from same fundamental units.
Prefixes used for sub units:
Prefix deci(d) centi(c) milli(m) micro(μ) nano(n) pico(p) femto(f) atto(a) zepto(z) yocto(y)
-1 -2 -3 -6
Value 10 10 10 10 10-9 10-12 10-15 10-18 10-21 10-24

Prefixes used for multiple units:

Prefix deca(da) hecto(h) kilo(k) mega(M) giga(G) tera(T) peta(P) exa(E) zetta(Z) yotta(Y)
2 3 6
Value 10 10 10 10 109 1012 1015 1018 1021 1024
Nonmetric Units of length: Sub units:
(i) micron: It is equal to 1 µm = 10-6 m. It is used to measure size of bacteria and viruses.
(ii) angstrom (Å): It is equal to 10-10 m. Thus 1 Å = 10-10 m. It is used to measure size of atoms and wavelength of light waves.
(iii) fermi: It is equal to 10-15 m or 1 femto-metre (fm). It is used to measure size of nucleus.
Multiple units: (i) Astronomical Unit (AU): It is average distance between earth and sun.
1 AU = 1.496 x 1011 m ≈ 1.5 x 1011 m
(ii) light-year (ly): It is distance travelled by light in vacuum in one year.
1 ly = 299792458 m/s x 365.25 x 86400 s = 9.467 x 1015 m ≈ 9.5 x 1015 m
(iii) Parallactic second or parsec: It is the distance at which an arc of length 1 AU subtends an angle of 1 second. As π radian
= 180° = 180 x 60 x 60 second, 1 s = π/180 x 60 x 60 radian. Angle = arc/ radius gives
arc 1 AU 1.496 x 1011 m x 180 x 60 x 60 radian
parsec = angle = 1s
= 𝜋
= 3.08 x 1016 m = 3.26 ly.
Nonmetric units of mass: (i) 1 pound = 0.4536 kg, (ii) 1 Quintal = 100 kg, (iii) 1 metric ton or 1 MT or 1 tonne = 1000 kg
(iv) 1 atomic mass unit (amu) = 1/12 of the mass of one carbon-12 atom = 1.66 x 10-27 kg, (v) 1 slug = 14.57 kg, (vi) 1 solar
mass = 1.99 x 1030 kg and (vii) 1 Chandra Shekhar Limit (CSL) = 1.4 solar mass = 2.786 x 1030 kg.
Nonmetric units of time: (i) 1 Mean Solar Day (MSD) = Average time taken by earth to complete one rotation about its axis
taken throughout the year = 24 hour = 86400 s, (ii) 1 Fortnight = Time interval between two consecutive full moon days or
between two consecutive no moon days = 14 consecutive days, (iii) Lunar month: time taken by moon to complete one rotation
about its own axis or one revolution around the earth = 27.3 days, (iv) 1 year = 365.25 days, (v) 1 leap year = 366 days(February
having 29 days), (vi) 1 decade = 10 years, (vii) 1 century = 100 years, (viii) 1 millennium = 1000 years, (ix) 1 shake = 10 -8
second.
Practical units of Area: (i) 1 barn = 10-28 m2, (ii) 1 acre = 4047 m2, (iii) 1 hectare = 104 m2.
Estimation of radius of the nucleus:
On bombarding a thin metal foil by fast moving α-particles, Rutherford observed that some of the α-particles
retraced path after arriving at a certain minimum distance ro to the nucleus called distance of nearest approach. At
this distance, electrostatic potential energy of the nucleus and α-particle = kinetic energy of the incident α-particle
1 Ze 2e 1
i.e. 4πϵ r = 2 mv 2 , where Z is atomic number of the metal, 2e is the charge on α-particle, m is mass of α-
0 0
Ze2
particle and v is velocity of the α-particle. It gives, r0 = πϵ0 mv2
.
The distance of closest approach is of the order of 10-14 m. So, the radius of the nucleus should be less than
-14
10 m.
Calculation of radius of an atom using avogadro's hypothesis: Volume of one atom V = 4/3 πr3, where r is the radius
of the atom.
N 4
Volume occupied by atoms in one gram of element =M × 3 πr 3 , where N is Avogadro's number and M is molecular
N 4
weight. Let us suppose that the atoms occupy two-thirds of the total volume V of the specimen. ThenM × 3 πr 3 =
1
2 VM 3
V, it gives r = ( )
3 2πN
Estimation of molecular size: To form mono-molecular layer of oleic acid on water surface, dissolve 1 cm3 of oleic acid in
alcohol to make a solution of 20 cm3. Then take 1 cm3 of this solution and dilute it to 20 cm3, using alcohol. So, the concentration
1
of the solution is equal to 20×20 cm3 of oleic acid/ cm3 of solution. Now lightly sprinkle some lycopodium powder on the
surface of water in a large trough and put n drops of this solution in the water. The oleic acid spreads into a thin, large and
roughly circular film of molecular thickness on water surface. Then quickly measure the diameter of the thin film to get its
area A. If approximate volume of each drop is V cm3, then volume of n drops of solution = nV cm3
 1
Volume of oleic acid in this solution = n V (20×20) cm3
If film has mono-molecular thickness t, then this becomes the size or diameter of a molecule of oleic acid.
Volume of the film 𝑛𝑉
t = Area of the film = 20×20𝐴.
The value of this thickness comes out to be of the order of 10-9 m.
Determination of height of an electric pole on a sunny day: On sunny day pole AB casts
its shadow BC on the ground. Place a small stick DE perpendicular to the ground such
that the tip of its shadow is at C. From ∆ABC, tan θ = AB/BC and from ∆DEC, tan θ =
DE/DC. So AB/BC = DE/DC, it gives height of the pole, AB = (BC x DE)/DC
Determination of width of a river: To find width of the river AB, take some reference
object B (like tree, pole etc) on other bank of the river. Fix a pole at some point C on
the bank of river. Now, moving along the line of sight of BC, fix another pole E such
that B, C and E are in the same line. From E, drop a perpendicular ED on the bank
of the river. The lengths DE, CD and AC can be measured. So, AB can be calculated.
Determination of height of a mountain: To
find height of mountain AB, the angles of
elevation θ1 and θ2 are measured from two convenient points C and D with the
help of sextant.
From ∆ABC, cot θ1 = BC/AB and from ∆ABD, cot θ2 = BD/AB. It gives, CD =
BD – BC = AB (cot θ2 - cot θ1) or AB = CD/(cot θ2 - cot θ1). CD, θ1 and θ2 being
known, AB can be calculated.
Echo Method SONAR and RADAR : SONAR is Sound Navigation and Ranging. RADAR is radio detection and
Ranging in which radio waves are used. In SONAR ultrasonic waves are sent from the transmitter to the submarine (in
ocean). By noting the time interval t between the generation of a probe wave and the reception of its echo after
reflection from a submarine, we can calculate the distance of submarine, d = vt/2. Here v is speed of waves in water.
Determination of diameter of moon: The moon is observed with the help of a telescope from a
place E on the Earth. The angle θ subtended by two diametrically opposite ends A and B of the moon
at the point E is measured. This angle is called the angular diameter of the moon. Angular diameter of
the moon is the angle subtended by two diametrically opposite ends of the moon at a point on the Earth.
As angle = arc/radius, from fig-1, θ = d/D or d = D θ.
Thus diameter of moon is the product of distance of moon from Earth and the angular diameter of
moon. Since distance D of moon from Earth and angular diameter θ of moon are known therefore the
diameter d of moon can be measured.
Determination of distance of moon from earth (parallax method): Parallax is
apparent shift in position of a body with respect to its surroundings, with change in position of observer.
The nearer body always appears to move in a direction opposite to that of our eye. The distance between
the two points of observation is called the basis.
In figure, C is the centre of the Earth. From two diametrically opposite places on the surface of
the Earth A and B, the parallaxes θ1 and θ2 respectively of moon M with respect to some distant star
whose direction and position remain almost unchanged even after travelling a distance equal to diameter
of earth are determined with the help of an astronomical telescope, to get total parallax of the moon
subtended on Earth, θ = θ1 + θ2 radian. Then θ = AB/AM, but AM ≈ MC, so θ = AB/MC or MC = AB/θ.
Knowing the values of AB and θ, we can calculate the distance of moon from Earth.
Determination of distance of nearby star from earth: From two
diametrically opposite positions A and B on the orbit of the Earth around Sun, the parallaxes θ 1
and θ2 respectively of nearby star with respect to some distant star whose direction and position
remain almost unchanged even after travelling a distance equal to diameter of earth’s orbit are
determined. Positions A and B are separated by a time interval of six months. Total angle
subtended by star S1 on the Earth's orbital diameter
AB, θ = (θ1 + θ2) radian. From fig-3, θ = (θ1 + θ2)
= AB/AS1 or distance of nearby star,
AB 2 A.U. 3×1011
AS1 = = = m.
θ1 + θ2 θ θ
Inertial mass: Mass of an object obtained, using
Newton’s second law of motion, F = ma, it gives, m = F/a.
It is measured by beam or physical balance. In it mass of an object is
determined by comparing its mass with that of known masses. It works on
the principle of moments of forces i.e. if a body is in rotational equilibrium
then algebraic sum of the moments of all the forces about fulcrum will be
zero. Beam balance is shown in Fig. The arrangement is enclosed in a wooden box having glass windows to save
apparatus from air currents. With the help of the leveling screws, the apparatus is made vertical. The beam is raised with
the help of a lever provided near the bottom of box. The beam is now free to turn. With the help of the
balancing screws provided with the beam, the pointer is adjusted to oscillate equally on both sides of
the zero mark of the scale. The body to be weighed is placed in left pan and standard weights are put
in the right pan so that the beam becomes horizontal. Now, the gravitational mass of the body equals the
gravitational mass of the standard weights.
Gravitational mass: Mass of an object obtained, using universal law of gravitation. Gravitational pull
𝐺𝑀𝑒 𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑒 𝐹
experienced by a body of mass m due to earth, 𝐹 = gives, 𝑚 = . It is measured by spring
𝑟2 𝑟2
balance.
SPRING BALANCE: It is used to measure the weight or gravitational mass of a body. It works on
Hooke's law which states within the limit of elasticity, extension produced in a spring is directly
proportional to the force applied.
It consists of a helical spring fixed to a rigid support and connected to a pointer P at the other end. The
pointer P is connected to the hook H by means of a rigid rod R. The balance is suspended by means
of a hook provided at the top of the balance. The body to be weighed is loaded at H. Due to the load,
the spring gets extended. As a result of this, the pointer P moves down on a scale calibrated in kg.
Thus, the reading of the pointer on the scale directly gives the weight of the body in kgf or in gf.
Dimensional analysis
Dimensions: These are the powers raised over the fundamental physical quantities (or their units) to obtain derived physical
quantities (or their units) e.g. universal gravitational constant, G = Fr2/m1m2 or G = length3/(mass-time2) = mass-1-length3-time-
2
. Thus dimensions of G in mass, length and time are -1, 3 and -2.
Dimensional Formula: If in the expression of a physical quantity (or its unit) in terms of fundamental physical quantities (or
units), mass (or its unit) is replaced by M, length (or its unit) is replaced by L, time (or its unit) is replaced by T, electric current
(or its unit) is replaced by I, temperature (or its unit) is replaced by θ and so on, then expression of physical quantity obtained
is called dimensional formula of the quantity.
For example: D F of surface tension (F/l) = MT-2, D F of universal gravitational constant, G = M-1L3T-2, D F of coefficient of
viscosity, η (= F/6πrv) = MLT-2/LLT-1 = ML-1T-1 etc.
Principle of homogeneity of dimensions: According to it, only like quantities can be added, subtracted, equated or compared.
Uses of dimensions: The uses of dimensions are:
(i) To convert physical quantity from one system of units to other system of units: If numerical value and unit of physical
quantity in two systems of units are n1, u1 and n2, u2, then
Physical quantity = n1u1 = n2u2 …..(i)
If dimensions of physical quantity in mass, length and time are a, b and c and unit of mass, length and time in two systems
of units are M1, L1, T1 and M2, L2, T2, then from (i), n1[M1a L1b T1c] = n2[M2a L2b T2c].
M a L b T c
It gives, n2 = n1 [(M1 ) (L1 ) (T1 ) ].
2 2 2
(ii) To check the correctness of a give relation among physical quantities: This use is based upon the principle of
homogeneity of dimensions. A relation will be true only if dimensions of each term on L. H. S. = dimensions of each term on
R. H. S.
(iii) To determine dimensions of an unknown physical quantity in a relation if true: This use is also based upon the
principle of homogeneity of dimensions i.e. dimensions of each term on L. H. S. = dimensions of each term on R. H. S.
(iv) To establish relation among given physical quantities: By knowing the physical quantities, on which a given physical
quantity depends, we can obtain relation among those quantities. For example: we know centripetal force (F) on a body
executing circular motion depends upon mass of body m, its speed v and radius of circular path r. Let centripetal force, F ∝
mavbrc, then F = k mavbrc ……(i)
Replacing quantities by their corresponding dimensions, MLT-2 = Ma(LT-1)bLc = MaLb+cT-b.
On comparing indices of like terms, we get a = 1, b = 2 and b + c = 1 or c = 1 – b = - 1. So from (i),
F = k m1v2r-1 or F = kmv2/r.
Limitations of dimensional analysis:
(i) Dimensionless constant appearing in formula relating physical quantities can not be found using dimensional analysis. It
can be found either by mathematical analysis or by experimentation.
(ii) Dimensional analysis can’t be used to obtain relations involving trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic functions.
(iii) Dimensional analysis can’t be used to obtain exact form of a relation having more than one term on its either side.
(iv) Dimensional analysis can’t be used to obtain exact form of a relation involving more than four physical quantities.
Significant digits
Significant digits: These are the digits in a measurement for which we are reasonably sure. Significant digits are reliably
known digits plus first uncertain digit in a measurement. Greater is the number of significant digits in a measurement, more
accurate is the measurement.
Rules for determining the number of significant in a measurement:
(i) All non-zero digits are significant. As an example, 132.73 contain five significant digits.
(ii) All zeros between two non-zero digits are significant. As an example, 207.009 contain six significant digits.
(iii) If there is no decimal point, all zeros to the right of the right-most non-zero digit are not significant. Thus 123 m = 12300
cm = 123000 mm has three significant figures, the trailing zeroes being not significant.
(iv) If there is no decimal point, all zeros to the right of the right-most non-zero digit are significant if they come from a
measurement. As an example, consider a distance of 900 m. This distance is measured to the nearest metre so both
zeros in this value are significant.
(v) All zeros to the right of a decimal point are significant. As an example 30.7000 contain six significant figures.
(vi) Zeros before and after decimal are significant only if there is a non-zero digit before them. As an example, 0.003040
and 40.00 m each contain four significant digits.
(vii) The number of significant digits does not change with system of units. Consider a value 200 m. It is a distance which
has been measured to the nearest metre. Since the given value has come from a measurement therefore both zeros are
significant. So, the given value has three significant figures. If the given distance is expressed as 20,000 cm, then the
last two zeros cannot be counted as significant because these have come as a result of multiplication by a factor of 100
and not from measurement. But a reader cannot know which zeros have come from a measurement or otherwise. So a
convention is adopted. Only such zeros as are the result of a measurement are put to the right of the rightmost non-zero
digit. Other zeros (which have come as a result of choice of different units) are included in powers of 10. The powers
of 10 do not influence the accuracy of the measurement. So, 200 m, 2.00 x 102 m, 2.00 x 104 cm, 2.00 x 105 mm are all
equivalent and each of these has accuracy of 3 significant digits.
Use of significant digits in (i) Addition or Subtraction: In addition or subtraction result should have as many digits after
decimal as least number of digits after decimal in any of the number used. Let us find the sum of the measurements of length
3.7 m + 13.07 m + 0.311 m = 17.1 m.
(ii) Multiplication and Division: In multiplication or division, the result should have as many significant digits as
least number significant in any of the number used.
Rules for Rounding off: (i) If the digit to be rounded off is smaller than 5, then the preceding digit should be left unchanged
e.g. 8.34 is rounded off to 8.3 or 7.934 is rounded off to 7.9.
(ii) If the digit to be rounded off is greater than 5, then the preceding digit should be raised by 1 e.g. 8.36 is rounded off to 8.4
or 7.938 is rounded off to 7.94.
(ii) If the digit to be rounded off is 5, then if (a) preceding digit is even then it is left unchanged e.g. 8.45 is rounded off to 8.4
or 7.945 is rounded off to 7.94 and if (b) preceding digit is odd then it is raised by 1 e.g. 8.35 is rounded off to 8.4 or 7.915 is
rounded off to 7.92.
Estimation: It is the quick judgment about the magnitude of quantity. It is done when deviation of true value from measured
value does not matter a lot.
Order of magnitude: The order of magnitude of a quantity is the representation of its magnitude in nearest powers of
ten. It does not give us the absolute value of the quantity. It merely gives us the value nearest to the actual value, in terms
of the suitable powers of 10.
Rule: Express the magnitude with decimal after first digit multiplied with powers of 10. If numerical part is less than 5,
it is considered closer to 1. So power of 10 gives order of magnitude. But if numerical part is greater than 5, it is
considered closer to 10. So power of 10 increased by 1 gives order of magnitude.
Error analysis
Least count of measuring instrument: It is the minimum measurement that can be taken using instrument.
True or absolute value of a quantity: It is the actual value of the quantity. Whenever actual value of quantity is not known,
mean of all of its measured values is taken as its true value.
Accuracy: It measures how close our measured value is to the true value of quantity. Closer is the measured value to the true
value of quantity more is the accuracy.
Precision: Precision refers to the closeness of two or more measurements to each other. If during measurement same magnitude
is obtained each time, then measurement is very precise. Precision is independent of accuracy but depends upon least count of
measuring instrument. Smaller is the least count greater is the accuracy. Measurement can be very precise but inaccurate or it
can be accurate but imprecise.
Error: It is deviation of measured value of the quantity from its true value.
Errors can be classified into following types:
(i) Constant errors: If same error appears in each measurement then error is said to be constant error. It is due to faulty
calibration of scale of instrument.
(ii) Systematic errors: These are the errors that appear in measurement due to known reasons and can be minimized by locating
the source.
Systematic errors can be classified into following types:
(a) Instrumental errors: Error due to incorrect design or calibration or due to improper least count of the instrument.
(b) Errors due to external sources: These are the errors due to change in eternal conditions like pressure, temperature, wind
etc and can be minimised by controlling the external conditions.
(c) Errors due to internal sources: These are the errors due to limitations of experimental arrangement and can be minimised
by applying necessary correction.
(d) Personal Errors: These are the errors due to carelessness of experimenter.
(iii) Random Errors: These are the errors of different magnitude appearing in various measurements even after all precautions.
Error in measurement can be expressed in three ways:
(i) Absolute Error (A. E.): It is the magnitude of difference between the measured value and the true value of the quantity. If
x1, x2, x3,……, xn are measured values of the quantity, then true value of the quantity,
x + x + x ………… + xn
x= 1 2 3 . Hence absolute errors in various measurements are, Δ x1 = x ~ x1, Δ x2 = x ~ x2, Δ x3 = x ~ x3
n
……. Δ xn = x ~ xn. So mean absolute error in measurement,
Δx + Δx2 + Δx3 ………… + Δxn
Δx = 1 n
.
(ii) Relative Error (R. E.): It is the mean absolute error per unit true value of the quantity. Thus
A.E. Δx
R. E. = True value = x .
(ii) Percentage Error (%age Error): It is the mean absolute error per hundred true value of the quantity or it is R. E. multiplied
A.E. Δx
by hundred. Thus %age error = True value x 100 = x x 100.
Combination of Errors: As a measurement is never perfect, if ΔA and ΔB are absolute errors in the measurement of A and B
then A = A ± ΔA and B = B ± ΔB. So errors in their sum, difference product or division can be calculated as:
(i) Sum: Let sum, S = A + B. If absolute error in measurement of S is ΔS, then S ± ΔS = A ± ΔA + B ± ΔB. It gives ± ΔS = ±
ΔA ± ΔB. Minimum error in measurement being zero, we are always interested in maximum possible error. For maximum
error in calculation of sum, ΔA and ΔB should have same sign. So maximum possible absolute error in S, ΔS = ± (ΔA + ΔB).
Thus absolute error in sum = sum of absolute errors in individual measurement.
(ii) Difference: Let difference of A and B is D i.e. D = A – B. If absolute error in measurement of D is ΔD, then D ± ΔD = A
± ΔA – (B ± ΔB). It gives ± ΔD = ± ΔA ± ΔB. Minimum error in measurement being zero, we are always interested in maximum
possible error. For maximum error in calculation of difference, ΔA and ΔB should have same sign. So maximum possible
absolute error in D, ΔD = ± (ΔA + ΔB). Thus absolute error in difference = sum of absolute errors in individual measurement.
(iii) Product: Let product of A and B is P i.e. P = AB. If absolute error in measurement of P is ΔP, then P ± ΔP = (A ± ΔA) (B
± ΔB). It gives P ± ΔP = AB ± BΔA ± AΔB ± ΔAΔB. Minimum error in measurement being zero, we are always interested in
maximum possible error. For maximum error in calculation of product, ΔA and ΔB should have same sign. ΔA and ΔB being
very small term containing their product will be negligible. So maximum possible absolute error in P, ΔP = ± (BΔA + AΔB).
ΔP BΔA AΔB 𝚫𝐏 𝚫𝐀 𝚫𝐁
Dividing both sides by P i.e. AB, we get P = AB + AB or 𝐏 = 𝐀 + 𝐁 .
Thus relative error in product = sum of relative errors in individual measurement.
(iv) Division: Let division of A and B is Q i.e. Q = A/B. If absolute error in measurement of Q is Δ Q, then Q ± Δ Q = (A ±
A ± ΔA A ± ΔA 𝐴 ΔA ΔB −1 ΔB
ΔA)/ (B ± ΔB). It gives Q ± Δ Q = = ΔB = ( ± ) (1 ± ) . As is <<1. Q ± Δ Q
B ± ΔB 𝐵(1 ± ) 𝐵 𝐵 𝐵 B
𝐵
𝐴 ΔA ΔB 𝐴 𝐴 ΔB ΔA ΔA ΔB
=( ± ) (1 ∓ ) = ± ± ± . Minimum error in measurement being zero, we are always interested in
𝐵 𝐵 𝐵 𝐵 𝐵 𝐵 𝐵 𝐵 𝐵
maximum possible error. For maximum error in calculation of division, ΔA and ΔB should have same sign. ΔA and ΔB being
𝐴 ΔB ΔA
very small term containing their product will be negligible. So maximum possible absolute error in Q, Δ Q = ±(𝐵 𝐵 + 𝐵 ).
ΔQ A ΔB B ΔA B 𝚫𝐐 𝚫𝐀 𝚫𝐁
Dividing both sides by Q i.e. A/B, we get Q
= B B A
+ B A
or 𝐐
= 𝐀
+ 𝐁
.
Thus relative error in division = sum of relative errors in individual measurement.
Ra Sb
In general if a quantity,P = Tc Uf
, then relative error in P,
ΔP ΔR ΔR ΔS ΔS ΔT ΔT ΔU ΔU
P
= R + R + ⋯ a times + S + S + ⋯ b times + T + T + ⋯ c times + U + U + ⋯ f times.
𝚫𝐏 𝚫𝐑 𝚫𝐒 𝚫𝐓 𝚫𝐔
Or 𝐏 = 𝐚 𝐑 + 𝐛 𝐒 + 𝐜 𝐓 + 𝐟 𝐔 .
1 1 1 df dv du 1 1 1
For reciprocal relation like, f = v ± u, expression for error becomes, f2 = v2 + u2 Or for R = R + R expression for error
1 2
dR dR1 dR2
becomes R2 = R 2 + R 2 .
1 2