PHYSICS 1

HUSSEIN MOHAMED HASSAN

2018

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Module 1
Unit 1: Introduction
Unit 2: Units and Dimensions
Unit 3: Cartesian coordinate
Module 2
Unit 1 Vectors

Unit 2: Vectors in three Dimensions

Module 3
Unit 1: Linear Motion
Unit 2: Motion in More Than One Dimension
Unit 3: The Projectile Motion
Unit 4: Uniform Circular Motion
Module 4
Unit 1: Force and dynamic
Unit 2: Force of Friction
Unit 3: Momentum and Impulse
Unit 4: Linear Collision
Module 5
Unit 1: Work
Unit 2: Energy
Unit 3: Conservative forces and non-conservative forces.
Module 6
Unit 1: Static Electricity
Unit 2: Electric Potential
Unit 3: Capacitors and Capacitance
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Unit 3: Source of Electric current
Unit 4:Resistors and Resistance

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 Module 1

UNIT 1: Introduction to Physics

What is Physics?
Physics is branch of physical science, the term “physics” originated from a
Greek word meaning “nature” and therefore physics is about nature
Like all other scientific terms, there is no one single definition for the
word physics. Definitions vary from time to time, from one physicist to
another, from location to another, and so on.
Here some universally accepted definitions of physics:
 Physics is the science of measurement.
From the point of view of this definition physics is all about
measurement, it deals with only what we can measure. In
science things are meaning full and understandable only if they
can be measured.
 Physics is a branch of science that involves the study of the physical
world: energy, matter, and how they are related.
 Physics is the study of matter and energy.
This definition is very vital, its components (matter & energy)
have very broad meanings:
 Matter: is anything with mass and volume. It has four
common phases
1. Solid
2. Liquid
3. Gas
4. Plasma
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  Energy: Ability to do work. It has many forms including:
light energy, heat energy, electric energy, potential energy,
kinetic energy, chemical energy, mechanical energy, etc.
Please note: Quantities like light, heat, are not matter.
Branches of physics
The branch of natural science, physics, can be subdivided into many
branches according to a verity of aspects; one of those aspects is based on
time and domain.
Based on time together with domain (scope), physics can be divided
into the following branches
 Classical physics (Newtonian Physics) is composed of all branches
of physics that are developed prior to 1900s. Classical physics deals
only with object that we can see with our naked eye, so it is about
macroscopic domain of physics.
Classical Physics Include:
 Mechanics
 Electricity
 Optics
 Magnetism
 Thermodynamics
 Acoustics
 Etc.
 Modern Physics.
Modern physics contains all branches of physics that are developed
after 1900s. it is the newly developed branches. It deals with objects
that we cannot see with our naked eye like atoms, electrons, proton,

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neutrons, other particles like  ,  and  etc. So, modern physics
deals with microscopic domain of physics.
Modern physics include:
 Atomic physics
 Nuclear physics
 Quantum mechanics
 Particle physics
 Relativity theory
 Wave mechanics

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Unit 2: Measurements and Units
Measurement is the comparison between known and unknown physical
quantities.

Physical quantity: The quantities which can be measured like length, mass,
time, temperature, area, are called as physical quantities (or quantities of
physics). It is represented by a number with a unit.The 'magnitude' (or size)
of the physical quantity is the 'number plus unit'

Physical quantities are of two types:

a. Fundamental (Basic) physical quantities: it is the physical quantities

which cannot be expressed in terms of other physical quantity. There are
seven physical quantities: Length, Mass, Time, Electric current,
Temperature, Luminous intensity and Amount of substance.

b. Derived physical quantities. The physical quantity obtained by

multiplying or dividing one basic physical quantity with another basic
physical quantity. The derived physical quantities can be expressed in
terms of other physical quantities such as speed, it is obtained by
dividing one basic physical quantity 'distance or length' by another basic
physical quantity.
c. Definition of unit: a unit is a quantity or dimension used as a standard of
measurement

Units are of two types

(a) Basic or fundamental units: are those units which are independent
and not related to each other.
(b) Derived units: are the units which are derived from fundamental units.
E.g. units of area, volume, density, etc.

Characteristics of a standard unit

The unit chosen for measuring any physical quantity must have the
following features:

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 (1) It should be of convenient size
(2) It should be well defined.
(3) It should be easily reproduceable, i.e. replicas of the unit should be
available easily.
(4) It should not change with time and place
(5) It should not change with the change in physical conditions, e.g.
temperature, pressure, etc.
(6) It should be easily available and accessible
Some Units of Length, Mass and Time in Common Use

Some units of length in common use in science are:

1 angstrom unit = 1Α= 10-10m (used by spectroscopists)

1 nanometer = 1nm = 10-9m(used by optical designers).

1 micrometer = 10-6m (used commonly in Biology)

1 millimeter = 1mm = 10-3m

1 centimeter = 1cm = 10-2m (used most often)

1 kilometer = 1km = 103m (a common unit of distance)

The device used to subdivide the standard of mass, the kilogram, into
equal Submasses is called the equal arm balance. The frequently used units
of mass are:

1 microgram = 10g = 10-9 kg

1milligram = 10g = 10-6kg

1gram = 1g = 10-3kg

1pound mass = 1lb m = 0.45359237 kg

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1 mile =1 609 m = 1.609 km 1 ft = 0.304 8 m = 30.48 cm

1 m = 39.37 in. = 3.281 ft 1 in. = 0.025 4 m = 2.54 cm (exactly

Definitions of some important SI units

1. Metre (m)
 In 1799 the meter was defined as one ten-millionth of the distance from
the equator to the North Pole.
 In 1889 the meter was redefined as the distance between two lines on a
specific bar of platinum-iridium alloy stored under controlled
conditions.
 In 1960 the meter was redefined again as 1 650 763.73 wavelengths of
orange-red light emitted from a krypton-86 lamp.
 Lastly the current definition of meter was adopted in 1983.Meter is the
distance traveled by light in vacuum during a time interval of
1
second.
299,792,458

2. Kilogram (kg)
 At the end of 18th century the kg was defined as the mass of a cubic
decimeter of water.
 In 1897 the kg was redefined as the mass of a specific platinum–
iridium alloy cylinder.
And has not being changed since 1889 because Platinum-iridium is
unusually stable alloy

3. Second(s)
 A second is defined at the atomic level using atomic clock as “9 192
631 700 times the period of oscillation of radiation from the cesium-
133 atom.”
Such clock is known as “atomic clock”
4. Kelvin (K)
 Kelvin is the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of
the triple point of water.

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 5. Ampere (A):
 It is defined as that constant current which when flowing in two
straight parallel conductors of infinite length of negligible area of
cross-section placed one metre apart in vacuum would produce
between them a force of 2  10 7 newton per metre of length.
6. Candela (cd):
 Candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source
that emit monochromatic radiation of frequency 540  10 12 hertz and
that has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per
steradian.
7. Mole (mol):
 Mole is the amount of substance of a system, which contains as many
elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon-
12.
Prefixes
In physics, we have to deal from very small (micro) to very large
(macro) magnitudes as one side we talk about the atom while on the other
side of universe, e.g., the mass of an electron is 9.1  10–31kg while that of
the sun is 2  1030kg. To express such large or small magnitudes
simultaneously we use the following prefixes:
Power of 10 Prefix Symbol
1018 exa E
1015 peta P
1012 tera T
109 giga G
106 mega M
103 kilo k
102 hecto h
101 deca da

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 10–1 deci d
10–1 centi c
10–3 milli m
10–6 micro 
10–9 nano n
10–12 pico p
10–15 femto f
10–18 atto a

Length
The distance between two objects or places is referred to as length.The
standard unit of length according to the metric system is meter (m).Based on
the length that needs to be measured, meter can be converted into different
units like millimetre (mm), centimetre (cm) and kilometre (km).
 1 km = 1000 m
 1 m = 100 cm
 1 cm = 10 mm
For example, the length of a pencil is measured in centimetres, while the
distance between two places is measured in kilometres.
Other common units are kilometer, hectometer, Decameter, meter,
decimeter, centimeter, millimeter, etc.

Some Practical Units

 1 micron (1  )  10 4 cm  10 6 m
0
 1 Angstrom (  )  10 8 cm  10 10 m
 1 Fermi (1 F)  10 12 cm  10 15 m

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  1 x  ray unit  10 11 cm  10 13 m
 1 astronomical unit = 1 AU  1.49  10 11 m (Radius of earth’s orbit)
 1 light year = 1 ly  9.46  10 15 m (Distance travelled by light in vacuum
in 1 year)
 1 Parsec  3.08  10 16 m  3.26 light years.
Mass
Mass is the quantity of matter contained in a body. It is independent of
temperature and pressure. It does not vary from place to place. The SI unit of
mass is kilogram.
The kilogram is equal to the mass of the international prototype of the
kilogram (a plantinum−iridium alloy cylinder) kept at the International
Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sevres, near Paris, France.
An atomic standard of mass has not yet been adopted because it is not
yet possible to measure masses on an atomic scale with as much precision as
on a macroscopic scale.

Some practical units of the standard of mass

 Chandra Shekhar limit (C.S.L): It is largest practical unit of mass.
1 C.S.L = 1.4 times the mass of sun.
 1 metric ton  1000 kg
 Atomic mass unit (a.m.u): It is not the atomic standard of mass but
a practical unit of mass used in atomic and nuclear physics and is
the smallest unit. It is defined at present as 1/12 of the mass of one
C12 atom.
1
1a.m.u  of mass of 6 C 12 atom  1.67  10 27 kg
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Time
Until 1960 the standard of time was based on the mean solar day, the
time interval between successive passages of the sun at its highest point
across the meridian. It is averaged over a year. In 1967, anatomic standard
was adopted for second, the SI unit of time.
One standard second is defined as the time taken for9 192 631 770
periods of the radiation corresponding to unperturbedtransition between
hyperfine levels of the ground state of cesium –133atom. Atomic clocks are
based on this. In atomic clocks, an error of onesecond occurs only in 5000
years.

Some practical units of standards of time

 Year: It is the time taken by earth to complete 1 revolution around the
sun in its orbit.
 Lunar month: It is the time taken by moon to complete 1 revolution
around the earth in its orbit
1 L.M. = 27.3 days
 Solar day: It is the time taken by earth to complete one rotation about
its axis with respect to sun. Since this time varies from day to day,
average solar day is calculated by taking average of the duration of all
the days in a year and this is called Average Solar day. Since 1 year
=365 days there occur a difference of 1 day every fourth year.
1 Solar year = 365.25 average solar day
1
or average solar day  the part of solar year
365 . 25

 Sedrial day: It is the time taken by earth to complete one rotation about
its axis with respect to a distant star.

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 1 Solar year = 366.25 Sedrial day = 365.25 average solar day
Thus 1 Sedrial day is less than 1 solar day.
 Shake: It is an obsolete and practical unit of time.
1 Shake = 10 8 sec

Rules and conventions for writing SI units and their symbols

1. The units named after scientists are not written with a capital initial
letter. For example: newton, henry, watt
2. The symbols of the units named after scientist should be written by a
capital letter. For example: N for newton, H for henry, W for watt
3. Small letters are used as symbols for units not derived from a proper
name. For example: m for metre, kg for kilogram
4. No full stop or other punctuation marks should be used within or at the
end of symbols. For example: 50 m and not as 50 m.
5. The symbols of the units do not take plural form.
For example: 10 kg not as 10 kgs.
6. When temperature is expressed in kelvin, the degree sign isomitted.
For example: 273 K not as 273  K (If expressed in Celsius scale, degree
sign is to be included. For example, 100 C and not 100 C)
7. Use of solidus is recommended only for indicating a division ofone letter
unit symbol by another unit symbol. Not more than onesolidus is used.
For example: ms 1 or m / s , J / K  mol or JK 1 mol 1 but notJ/K/mol.
8. Some space is always to be left between the number and thesymbol of
the unit and also between the symbols for compound units such as force,
momentum, etc.

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 For example, it is not correct to write 2.3m. The correctrepresentation is
2.3 m; kg m s 2 and not as kgms2 .
9. Only accepted symbols should be used.
For example: ampere is represented as A and not as amp. or am;second
is represented as s and not as sec.
10.Numerical value of any physical quantity should be expressed in
scientific notation.
For an example, density of mercury is 1.36  10 4 kg m 3 1. and not as
13600kg m 3

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Unit 3: Cartesian Coordinates
There are various ways you can specify a point in space. In one of the ways
to specify a point in space, we need to know its coordinates along two or
three mutually intersecting straight lines fixed at some rigid point called the
origin. These intersecting straight lines are called the axes of reference. The
distances from the point in space to the axes are found by drawing parallel
lines from it to the axes.
When the axes of reference are mutually perpendicular to each other for
example, in a two dimensional plane, they are called rectangular axes.
When they are inclined to each other at an angle, other than a right
angle, they are called oblique axes. The rectangular axes are more
commonly used because they are more convenient to draw. The coordinates
referred to either rectangular or oblique axes are called Cartesian
coordinates.
The horizontal and vertical lines XX1 and YY1 in Figure below
represent the rectangular axes fixed at origin, 0. The coordinates of any
point in space for example P referred to the axes XX1 and YY1 are
respectively given by x and y. The former is called the abscissa and the
latter, the ordinate. The distance r = 0P of the point from the origin can
beevaluated in terms of the coordinates X and Y as follows.

= = +

Polar Coordinates
We see that just as the position of any point on a given plane can
be found when its coordinates with reference to two given axes in the plane
are given, the position can also be traced if the distance r from the point of
the origin and the angle θ by which the line joining the point with the origin
is inclined to either of the given axes of reference are known. In this case, r
and θ are known as polar coordinates.

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We can obtain the Cartesian coordinates by using the equations
= =
If we know the Cartesian coordinates, the definitions of trigonometry tell us
that

tan = = +

Example
The Cartesian coordinates of a point in the xy plane are (x, y) =(-3.50, -2.50)
m as shown in Figure. Find the polar coordinates of this point.

Solution

= (−3.5) + (−2.5) =4.3m

.
tan = =0.714 then = 216
.

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 Module 2
UNIT 1 VECTORS
A scalar quantity is completely specified by a single value with an
appropriate unit and has no direction.

A vector quantity is completely specified by a number with an appropriate

unit (the magnitude of the vector) plus a direction.

We use a boldface letter with an arrow over the letter, such as ⃗, to represent
a vector. Another common notation for vectors with which you should be
familiar is a simple boldface character: A. The magnitude of the vector ⃗is
written either A or| |. The magnitude of a vector has physical units, such as
meters for displacement or meters per second for velocity. The magnitude of
a vector is always a positive number.

Equality of Two Vectors

For many purposes, two vectors ⃗ ⃗may be defined to be equal if they

have the same magnitude and if they point in the same direction. That is,
⃗ = ⃗only if A = Band if ⃗ ⃗point in the same direction along parallel
lines. For example, all the vectors in Figure below are equal even though
they have different starting points. This property allows us to move a vector
to a position parallel to itself in a diagram without affecting the vector.

Addition of vectors graphically

To add two vectors you:
1. Place the tail of the second vector to the head of the first vector.

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 2. Draw a vector between the tail end of the first vector and the head of
the second vector. this vector represents the sum of two vectors,

The resultant vector ⃗ = ⃗ + ⃗ is the vector drawn from the tail of ⃗ to

the tip of ⃗

A geometric construction can also be used to add more than two vectors as
shown in Figure below for the case of four vectors.

The resultant vector ⃗ = ⃗ + ⃗ + ⃗ + ⃗ is the vector that completes the

polygon. In other words, ⃗is the vector drawn from the tail of the first vector
to the tip of the last vector. This technique for adding vectors is often called
the “head to tail method.”

Commutative law of addition:

When two vectors are added, the sum is independent of the order of the
addition.
⃗+ ⃗= ⃗+ ⃗

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Associative law of addition:
When three or more vectors are added, their sum is independent of the way
in which the individual vectors are grouped together. A geometric proof of
this rule for three vectors is given in Figure. This property is called the
associative law of addition:
⃗+ ⃗+ ⃗ = ⃗+ ⃗ + ⃗

Negative of a Vector

The negative of the vector ⃗is defined as the vector that when added to
⃗gives zero for the vector sum. That is, ⃗ + − ⃗ = . The
vectors ⃗ − ⃗have the same magnitude but point in opposite directions.
Subtracting Vectors
The operation of vector subtraction makes use of the definition of the
negative of a vector. We define the operation ⃗ − ⃗as vector − ⃗added to
vector ⃗.
⃗ − ⃗ = ⃗ + (− ⃗)

To subtract two vectors, take the opposite of the vector that is being
subtracted and then add. The geometric construction for subtracting two
vectors in this way is illustrated in Figure

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Multiplying a Vector by a Scalar

If vector ⃗is multiplied by a positive scalar quantity m, the product m ⃗is a

vector that has the same direction as ⃗and magnitude m ⃗.If vector ⃗is
multiplied by a negative scalar quantity -m, the product -m ⃗ is directed
opposite ⃗
Example A Vacation Trip
A car travels 20.0 km due north and then 35.0 km in a direction 60.0° west
of north as shown in Figure. Find the magnitude and direction of the car’s
resultant displacement.

Solution
The angle that the resultant vector makes with the is expected to be
less than 60°, the angle that vector makes with the .

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 =180° - 60° =120°

= √ + −2 cos
= (20 ) + (35 ) − 2(20)(35) cos 120 = 48.2km

To find the ⃗direction of measured from the northerly direction

sin = sin = sin 120 = 0.629 so =38.9°

.

The resultant displacement of the car is 48.2 km in a direction 38.9° west of

north.
Components of a Vector and Unit Vectors

Consider a vector ⃗lying in the plane and making an arbitrary angle

with the positive axis as shown in Figure. This vector can be expressed
as the sum of two other component vectors ⃗ , which is parallel to the
axis, and ⃗ ,which is parallel to the axis.

We see that the three vectors form a right triangle and that
⃗= ⃗ + ⃗

The component x represents the projection of ⃗along the xaxis, and the
component y represents the projection of ⃗along the yaxis. These
components can be positive or negative. The component xis positive if the
component vector ⃗ points in the positive direction and is negative if
⃗ points in the negative x direction.

From the figure we see that:

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cos = then =

sin = then =

The magnitudes of these components are the lengths of the two sides of a
right triangle with a hypotenuse of length A.

The magnitude and direction of ⃗are related to its components through the
expressions

tan = = +

Notice that the signs of the components Axand Aydepend on the angle u.
For example, if =120°, Axis negative and Ayis positive. If =225°, both
Axand Ayare negative.
Unit vector
Vector quantities often are expressed in terms of unit vectors. A unit vectoris
a dimensionless vector having a magnitude of exactly 1. Unit vectors are
used to specify a given direction and have no other physical significance.
We shall use the symbols ̂, ̂, to represent unit vectors pointing in the
positive x, y, and zdirections, respectively.The magnitude of each unit vector
equals 1, that is; | ̂|=| ̂| = =1

The unit-vector notation for the vector Ais ⃗= ⃗ ̂ + ⃗ ̂

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Suppose we wish to add vector ⃗to vector ⃗, where vector ⃗has
components Bx and By. Because of the bookkeeping convenience of the unit
vectors, all we do is add the xand ycomponents separately.

The resultant vector ⃗ = ⃗ + ⃗

⃗ = ( ⃗ ̂ + ⃗ ̂ ) + ( ⃗ ̂ + ⃗ )̂

or ⃗ = ( + )+
̂ ( + ) ̂
=( + ) =( + )

The magnitude of ⃗and the angle it makes with the x axis are obtained from
its components using the relationships

tan =

= + = ( + ) +( + )
Example The Sum of Two Vectors

Find the sum of two displacement vectors ⃗ and ⃗lying in the xyplane and
given by ⃗ == 2 ̂ + ̂ ) ⃗ == (2 ̂ − ̂ )
Solution

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Exercise
A hiker begins a trip by first walking 25.0 km southeast from her car. She
stops and sets up her tent for the night. On the second day, she walks 40.0
km in a direction 60.0° north of east, at which point she discovers a forest
ranger’s tower.
(A) Determine the components of the hiker’s
displacement for each day.
(B) Determine the components of the hiker’s
resultant displacement ⃗for the trip. Find an
expression for ⃗in terms of unit vectors.

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 Vector Product
Scalar (or Dot) Product
Multiplication of vectors is the same thing as saying product of vectors.
There are two kinds of products of vectors.
(1) The Scalar Product
(2) The Vector Product

The scalar product of any two vectors ⃗and ⃗(written as A.B)is defined as a
scalar quantity equal to the product of the magnitudes of the two vectors and
the cosine of the angle between them:
⃗. ⃗ =

Scalar products of unit vectors

The unit vectors ̂, ̂, lie in the positive , , directions, respectively,
of a right-handed coordinate system
̂. ̂ = ̂. ̂ = . =1
̂. ̂ = ̂. = ̂. =0

Two vectors ⃗and ⃗can be expressed in unitvector form as

⃗=( ⃗ ̂+ ⃗ ̂+ ⃗ )
⃗ =( ⃗ ̂+ ⃗ ̂+ ⃗ )

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The addition of these two vectors in terms of unit vector is
⃗=( ̂+ ̂+ )
⃗=( ̂+ ̂ + )
⃗ = ⃗ + ⃗=( + ) ̂+ ( + ) ̂+( + )

The scalar product of ⃗and ⃗reduces to :

⃗. ⃗= + +
Properties of dot Product

1. ⃗. ⃗ is a scalar
2. ⃗. ⃗ = ⃗ . ⃗ . i.e. the dot product is commutative
3. ⃗. ( ⃗. ⃗)= ⃗. ⃗ + ⃗. ⃗) i.e. the dot product is associative over addition
4. ⃗ . ⃗ = ( ⃗. ⃗)= ⃗.(m ⃗).
5. if ⃗. ⃗=0 and ⃗ ⃗ are non-zero vectors, the
⃗ ⃗.
6. the magnitude of . ⃗ =√ =√ .

Example

The vectors ⃗ and ⃗are given by ⃗ = 2 ̂ + ̂) ⃗ == − ̂ + ̂)

a. Determine the scalar product
b. Find the angle θ between the two vectors.
Solution
a.

.
b.

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The (Cross) Vector Product

The cross product, also known as the vector product and written ⃗x ⃗, of
vectors ⃗ and ⃗is a vector perpendicular to the plane containing ⃗and ⃗

Suppose that the angle between vectors ⃗and ⃗,as measured

counterclockwise (from your point of view) in the plane containing them
both, iscalled .Then ⃗x ⃗,points toward you, and its magnitude is given by
the formula:
⃗= ⃗x ⃗ =

The quantity equal to the area of the parallelogram formed by ⃗and

⃗ as in figure .The directionof vector Cis perpendicular
to the plane formed by ⃗and ⃗, and the best way to
determine this direction is to use the right-hand rule.
Right hand rule: The four fingers of the right hand are
pointed along vector Aand then “wrapped” in the
direction that would rotate ⃗ into ⃗through the angle .
The direction of the upright thumb is the direction
of ⃗x ⃗= ⃗

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Properties of the vector product
1. Unlike the scalar product, the vector product is notcommutative.
Instead, the order in which the two vectors are multiplied in a vector
product is important.
⃗x ⃗ = − ⃗x ⃗
Therefore, if you change the order of the vectors in a vector product,
you must change the sign.
2. If vector Ais parallel to vector B( =0 or 180), then ⃗x ⃗ =0;
therefore, it follows that ⃗x ⃗ =
3. If vector Ais perpendicular to vector B, then ⃗x ⃗ =AB
4. The vector product obeys the distributive law
⃗ ( ⃗ + ⃗)= ⃗ ⃗+ ⃗ ⃗)

The cross products of the unit vectors ̂, ̂, obey the following rules:

You should remember a cyclic pattern in the cross products. Going

clockwise direction round the circle all vector products are positive i.e.
̂ ̂ = and so on.

The cross product of any two vectors ⃗x ⃗can be expressed as determinant

form. The easiest way to write out the vector product of two vectors
Note:
(i) The top raw consists of the Unit vectors in order ̂, ̂,

(ii) The second row consists of the coefficients of ⃗

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(iii) The third row consist of the coefficients of ⃗

Expanding these determinants gives the result

EXERCISE

The vectors ⃗ and ⃗are given by ⃗ = 2 ̂ + ̂) ⃗ == − ̂ + ̂) .

Find ⃗x ⃗ and verify ⃗x ⃗ = − ⃗x ⃗

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UNIT 2: VECTORS IN THREE DIMENSIONS
A vector in three dimensions can be specified with Cartesian set of axes x, y
and z. The orientation of the axes is best described using the right -hand rule.
In the Figure visualize the z axes as pointing
out of the plane of the paper and perpendicular
to both the x and y axes.
The right-hand rule says that if you curt your
fingers from the x-axes to the y-axes, your
thumb will be pointing towards the positive z-axis.

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 Module 3
UNIT 1: LINEAR MOTION(motion in 1D)
The study of motion and of physical concepts such as force and mass is
called dynamics. The part of dynamics that describes motion without regard
to its causes is called kinematics.
Motion is defined as “Motion is change in position as time passes with
respect to a frame of reference.”
Types of motion
Based on variety of aspects motions can be categorized into a number
of different types.
 Rectilinear motion: Motion of a body along a straight line.
Example:
 A crawling kid on a straight line.
 Motion of a car in a straight line.
 Curvilinear motion: Motion of a body along a curved line.
Example:
 Motion of a satellite around a planet.
 Motion of planets around the sun.
 Rotary motion: Motion along circular path or motion of body about
some central point.
Example:
 The motion of a pointer of a watch.
 Motion of a fan rotating about its axis.
 Vibratory motion: A motion in foreword and backward or to–and–
fro movement of a body in a fixed position.
Examples:
 Motion of a simple pendulum.
 Motion of spring mass system.
Motion can also be divided into Three groups
 One Dimensional Motion (1-D): Another name for rectilinear motion.
 Two Dimensional Motion (2-D): includes both curvilinear and rotary
motion.
 Three Dimensional Motion (3-D): Another name for vibrational motion
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To describe the motion, there are parameters and they are displacement,
velocity and acceleration.
Displacement ∆ is the net change in positionin some time interval:
∆ = f− i

Where f and I are your starting and ending positions, respectively

Distance is the length of a path followed by a particle.
The average velocity ⃗ , is displacement divided by the time interval:
∆
, = (Average velocity)
∆

Where∆ = f− i is the interval between your ending and starting times.

The symbol ∆ (capital Greek delta)stands for “the change in.”
.The average speed of a particle, a scalar quantity, is defined as the total
distance dtraveled divided by the total time interval required to travel that
distance

30
Instantaneous velocity
The velocity of a particle at some one instant of time, or at some one point of
its path, is called its instantaneous velocity. We have seen that average
velocity is associated with the entiredisplacement and the entire time
interval.
The instantaneous velocity is the limit, as the time interval∆ becomes
arbitrarily close to zero, of the ratio of displacement ∆ to∆
∆
= lim
∆ → ∆
In calculus, the result of the limiting process described in Equation is called
the derivativeof xwith respect to tand is given the symbol
∆
=lim∆ → ∆

The quantities dxand dtare called infinitesimals; they represent vanishingly

small quantities that result from the limiting process. We can then write
Equation as:

= (Instantaneous velocity)

The instantaneous speed of a particle is defined as the magnitude of its

instantaneous velocity.
Particle Under Constant Velocity
If the velocity of a particle is constant, its instantaneous velocity at any
instant during a time interval is the same as the average velocity over the
interval.
∆
= , =
∆
By using ∆ = − we find that =
∆

= + (for constant )

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Example:
Kinesiology is the study of the movement of the human body. Notice the
connection to the word kinematics.) She determines the velocity of an
experimental subject while he runs along a straight line at a constant rate.
The kinesiologist starts the stopwatch at the moment the runner passes a
given point and stops it after the runner has passed another point 20 m away.
The time interval indicated on the stopwatch is 4.0 s.
(A) What is the runner’s velocity?
(B) If the runner continues his motion after the stopwatch is stopped,
what is his position after 10 s have passed?

Solution

= = 5m/s

= + =0 + (5 / )(10 ) = 50

Acceleration
When velocity of an object changes is said to undergo acceleration,
quantitatively, we define acceleration as the rate of change of velocity, just
as we defined velocityas the rate of change of position. The average
acceleration over a time interval is
∆
, = =( − )/
∆

Where ∆ is the change in velocity. Just as we defined instantaneous

velocity through a limiting procedure, we defineinstantaneous
accelerationas

∆
= lim∆ → =
∆

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In one-dimensional motion, acceleration is either in the direction of the
velocity or oppositeit. In the former case the accelerating object speeds up,
whereas in the latter it slows. Although slowing is sometimes called
deceleration.
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity, and velocity is the rate of
change ofposition. That makes acceleration the rate of change of the rate of
change of position.Mathematically, acceleration is the second derivativeof
position with respect totime

= = ( ) = /

EXERCISE
The velocity of a particle moving along the xaxis varies according to the
expression = 40 -5t2, where is in meters per second and tis in seconds.
(A) Find the average acceleration in the time interval t =0 to t =2.0 s.(-10
m/s2)
Solution
CONSTANT ACCELERATION
The description of motion has an especially simple form when acceleration
is constant.Suppose an object starts at time with some initial velocity and
constant acceleration . Later, at some time t, it has final velocity . Because
the acceleration doesn’t change, itsaverage and instantaneous values are
identical, so we can write
∆
= = =
∆

or, rearranging,
= + ………………………….(1)
Having determined velocity as a function of time, we now consider position.
With constant acceleration, velocity increases steadily—and thus the average
velocity over an interval is the average of the velocities at the beginning and
the end of that interval. So wecan write

̅= ( + )

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For the average velocity over the interval from = 0 to some later time
when the velocityis .We can also write the average velocity as the change
in position divided by the timeinterval. Suppose that at time 0 our object was
at position Then its average velocityover a time interval from 0 to time tis
∆
̅ = =( − )/t
∆

Where is the object’s position at time t. Equating this expression for with
the expression in the above Equation gives

= + ̅ = + ( + ) ………………………(2)

= + + ………………………..(3)

We understand from this equation; with no acceleration( = 0),position

would increase linearly with time, at a rate given by the initial velocity .
With constant acceleration, the additional term describes the effect of
the ever-changing velocity;time is squared because the longer the object
travels, the faster it moves, so the moredistance it covers in a given time. the
following figure shows the meaning of the terms in the Equation

Substituting = − )/ in to equation == + ( + ) and after

some arrangement we find

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 = +2 ( − )……………(4)
Equations 1, 2, 3, and 4 link all possible combinations of position, velocity,
and acceleration for motion with constant acceleration and called Equations
of Motion for Constant Acceleration
EXERCISE
1. Suppose the motion of the particle in Figure 3.2 is described as the
equation x = a + b , where a = 20cm and b = 4cm ,
(a) Find the displacement of the particle in the time interval between = 2s
and = 5s
(b) Find the average velocity in this time interval
(c) Find the instantaneous velocity at time = 2s.
2. A boy rolls a ball along a flat straight platform. The ball possesses an
initial velocity of 2m/s when the boy release it and it shown down with
constant negative acceleration of -0.2m/ . How far does the ball roll before
stopping, and how long does it take to stop?
Solution
The initial conditions
=0
=0

=
.
The acceleration is deceleration and it has a constant =−

Now, we know the initial and final velocities (zero) as well as the
acceleration.

= + =0+0 −( )/(2 (−0.2))=10m

Second part
=( − )/ =10s

35
UNIT 2: MOTION IN MORE THAN ONE DIMENSION
We begin by describing the position of the particle. In one dimension, a
single numerical value describes a particle’s position, but in two dimensions,
we indicate its position by its position vector ⃗,drawn from the origin of
some coordinate system to the location of the particle in the plane as in
Figure. At time , the particle is at pointA described by position vector ⃗ . At
some later time , it is at point B described by position vector ⃗ .
The displacement vector is:
∆ ⃗= ⃗ - ⃗ .

We define the average velocity ⃗of a particle

during the time interval ∆tas the displacement of the
particle divided by the time interval:
⃗ = ∆ ⃗/∆
The instantaneous velocity ⃗is defined as the limit
of the average velocity as ∆ approaches zero:
∆⃗ ⃗
⃗= ∆ → ∆ =

The magnitude of the instantaneous velocity vector = | ⃗|of a particle is

called the speedof the particle, which is a scalar quantity.
The average acceleration ⃗ avgof a particle is defined as the change in its
instantaneous velocity vector ∆ ⃗ divided by the time interval ∆ during
which that change occurs
⃗ ⃗
⃗ =
∆
When the average acceleration of a particle changes during different time
intervals, it is useful to define its instantaneous acceleration. The
instantaneous acceleration ⃗is defined as the limiting value of the ratio
∆ ⃗/∆ as ∆ approaches zero
∆⃗ ⃗
⃗= ∆ → ∆ =

The instantaneous acceleration equals the derivative of the velocity vector

with respect to time.
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The position vector for a particle moving in the plane can be written:
⃗= ̂+ ̂
Where x, y, and ⃗change with time as the particle moves while the unit
vectors ̂ and ̂remain constant. If the position vector is known, the velocity
of the particle can be obtained
⃗ ̂
⃗= = + ̂= ⃗ ̂+ ⃗ ̂

The equations of kinematics will be separately to the xand ycomponents of

the velocity vector
= + = +
To determine the final velocity at any time t we obtained :
⃗ = ⃗ ̂+ ⃗ ̂ (
= + ) ̂+( + ̂ (
)= ̂+ )̂ +( ̂+ )
The Velocity vector as a function of time for a particle under constant
acceleration in two dimensions is :
⃗ = ⃗ + ⃗ …………………………………………………∗

This result states that the velocity of a particle at some time tequals the
vector sum of its initial velocity ⃗ at time t =0 and the additional velocity
a ⃗ acquired at time tas a result of constant acceleration
Similarly, from Equation
1
= + +
2
We know that the xand ycoordinates of a particle under constant
acceleration are
1 1
= + + = + +
2 2

Substituting these expressions into Equation ⃗ = ̂+ ̂ gives:

⃗ = + + ……………………………………..∗∗

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Graphical representations of Equations ∗ and ∗∗ are shown in Figure
below.The components of the position and velocity vectors are also
illustrated in the figure

EXAMPLE
A particle moves in the xy plane, starting from the origin at t =0 with an
initial velocity having an xcomponent of 20 m/s and a y component of -15
m/s. The particle experiences acceleration in the x direction, given by
=4.0 m/s2. Determine the total velocity vector at any time.
Solution
⃗ = ⃗ +at= ( + ) ̂+( + )̂

=(20+4t)i+(-15+(0)t)
=(20+4t)i-15j
Exercise
by using the same example given above, Calculate the velocity and speed of
the particle at t =5.0 s and the angle the velocity vector makes with the
xaxis. and determine the xand ycoordinates of the particle at any time tand
its position vector at this time.

38
Unit 3:Projectile Motion (Motion in two Dimensions)
FREE FALL
An excellent example of motion in one dimension is free fall in vacuum.in
the absence of air resistance all objects dropped near the surface of the
planet fall with same constant acceleration, such motion (motion of an object
falling with constant acceleration) is called Free Fall. The constant
acceleration is a vector that always points downward and is referred to as the
acceleration of gravity.
A body thrown with some initial velocity and then allowed to moveunder the
action of gravity alone is known as a projectile.
If we observe the path of the projectile, we find that the projectilemoves in a
path, which can be considered as a part of parabola. Sucha motion is known
as projectile motion;a bomb thrown from anaeroplane is an example of
projectile.
A body can be projected in two ways:
(i) It can be projected horizontally from a certain height.
(ii) It can be thrown from the ground in a direction inclinedto it.
The projectiles undergo a vertical motion as well as horizontalmotion. The
two components of the projectile motion are:
(i) verticalcomponent and (ii) horizontal component. These two
perpendicularcomponents of motion are independent of each other.A body
projected with an initial velocity making an angle with thehorizontal
direction possess uniform horizontal velocity and variablevertical velocity,
due to force of gravity. The object therefore hashorizontal and vertical
motions simultaneously. The resultant motionwould be the vector sum of
these two motions and the path followingwould be curvilinear.

39
Projectile motionof an object is simple to analyze if we make two
assumptions: (1) the free-fall acceleration is constant over the range of
motion and is directed downward, and (2) the effect of air resistance is
negligible. With these assumptions, we find that the path of a projectile,
which we call its trajectory, is alwaysa parabola as shown in Figure below

The expression for the position vector of the projectile as a function of time
follows directly from
1
⃗ = + +
2
Where the initial xand ycomponents of the velocity of the projectile are
= cos = sin
When solving projectile motion problems, use two analysis models: (1) the
particle under constant velocity in the horizontal direction
= + t
(2) the particle under constant acceleration in the vertical directionwith
xchanged to y and = –g)

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The horizontal and vertical components of a projectile’s motion are
completely independent of each other and can be handled separately, with
time as the common variable for both components.
Special Cases
Case (i): For downward motion
For a particle moving downwards, a = g, since the particle movesin the
direction of gravity.
Case (ii): For a freely falling body
For a freely falling body, a = gand u= 0, since it starts fromrest.
Case (iii): For upward motion
For a particle moving upwards, a = −g, since the particle movesagainst the
gravity.
Horizontal Range and Maximum Height of a Projectile
The figure shows two points in the motion: The peak point A, which has
Cartesian coordinates (R/2, h),and the point B, which has coordinates (R, 0).
The distance Ris called the horizontal rangeof the projectile, and the distance
ℎis its maximum height.
To determine the time tAat which the projectile reaches the peak:
sin
=

To obtain ℎ we use the equation:

sin
ℎ=
2
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The range Ris the horizontal position of the projectile at a time that is twice
the time at which it reaches its peak, that is, at time tB =2tA

= =

Where sin 2 = 2 sin cos

Example: The Long Jump
A long jumper leaves the ground at an angle of 20.0° above the horizontal
and at a speed of 11.0 m/s.
(A) How far does he jump in the horizontal direction?
(B) What is the maximum height reached?
Solution
( . / ) ( )
(A)R= = =7.94m
. /

(B) ℎ = =0.722 m

EXERCISE
A stone is thrown from the top of a building upward at an angle of 30.0° to
the horizontal with an initial speed of 20.0 m/s. The height from which the
stone is thrown is 45.0 m above the ground.
(A) How long does it take the stone to reach the ground?( t=4.22 s)
(B) What is the speed of the stone just before it strikes the
ground?(35.8 m/s)

42
Unit 4: Uniform Circular Motion
The revolution of the Earth around the Sun, rotating fly wheel,electrons
revolving around the nucleus, spinning top, the motion of afan blade,
revolution of the moon around the Earth etc. are someexamples of circular
motion.When a particle moves on a circularpath with a constant speed, then
itsmotion is known as uniform circularmotion in a plane. The magnitude
ofvelocity in circular motion remainsconstant but the direction
changescontinuously.
Angular displacement
Let us consider a particle of mass mmoving along the circular path of radius
ras shown in Figure below. Let the initial position ofthe particle be A. P and
Q are the positions ofthe particle at any instants of time and +
respectively. Suppose the particle traverses adistance ds along the circular
path in timeinterval . During this interval, it moves throughan angle
= − . The angle swept by the radius vector at a given time is called
the angular displacement of the particle.
If rbe the radius of the circle, then the angular displacement isgiven by

= . The angular displacement is measured in terms ofradian.

Angular velocity
The rate of change of angular displacement is called the angularvelocity of
the particle.
Let be the angular displacement made by the particle intime , then the
angular velocity of the particle is = .Its unitis rad s– 1and dimensional
formula is T–1

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For one complete revolution, the angle swept by the radius vectoris 360oor
2πradians. If T is the time taken for one complete revolution,known as
period, then the angular velocity of the particle is
2π
= =

If the particle makes n revolutions per second, then

= 2π(1/ )= 2πn. Where n=1/T is called the frequency of revolution.

The centripetal acceleration is defined as:

The relationship between angular speed and the translational speed with
which the particle travels in the circular path:

w= =2π( )= or v = wr

This Equation demonstrates that, for a fixed angular speed, the translational
speed becomes larger as the radial position becomes larger. Therefore, for
example, if a merry-go-round rotates at a fixed angular speed , a rider at an
outer position at large rwill be traveling through space faster than a rider at
an inner position at smaller r.
Finally we can express the centripetal acceleration of a particle in uniform
circular motion in terms of angular speed:
We know that = and then

( )
= = =

44
Example:
What is the centripetal acceleration of the Earth as it moves in its orbit
around the Sun? And what is the angular speed of the Earth in its orbit
around the Sun?

Solution

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Module 4
Unit 1: FORCE AND DYNAMICS
In this unit we will discuss what causes the motion, which is called
dynamics. The simple definition of a force is:
“A force is a push or pull on an object. Forces are vectors.
When a coiled spring is pulled, as in Figure a, the spring stretches. When a
stationary cart is pulled, as in Figure b, the cart moves. When a football is
kicked, as in Figure c, it is both deformed and set in motion. These
situations are all examples of a class of forces called contact forces.That is,
they involve physical contact between two objects. Other examples of
contact forces are the force exerted by gas molecules on the walls of a
container and the force exerted by your feet on the floor.
Another class of forces, known as field forces,does not involve physical
contact between two objects. These forces act through empty space. The
gravitational force of attraction between two objects with mass, illustrated in
Figure d, is an example of this class of force. The gravitational force keeps
objects bound to the Earth and the planets in orbit around the Sun. Another
common field force is the electric force that one electric charge exerts on
another (Figure e), such as the attractive electric force between an electron
and a proton that form a hydrogen atom. A third example of a field force is
the force a bar magnet exerts on a piece of iron (Figure f).

Newton’s First Law of Motion (Law of Inertia)

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“In the absence of external forces and when viewed from an inertial
reference frame, an object at rest remains at rest and an object in motion
continues in motion with a constant velocity (that is, with a constant speed in
a straight line).”
In other words, when no force acts on an object, the acceleration of the
object is zero.From the first law, we conclude that any isolated object(one
that does not interact with its environment) is either at rest or moving with
constant velocity. The tendency of an object to resist any attempt to change
its velocity is called inertia.
The net force is the vector sum of all the forces acting on a body.

Fnet   Fi  F1  F2  F3  
i

Massis that property of an object that specifies how much resistance an

object exhibits to changes in its velocity
Difference between mass and weight
 Mass is a measure of inertia. Quantity of matter
 The weight of an object is equal to the magnitude of the gravitational
force exerted on the object and varies with location

NEWTON’S SECOND LAW

When viewed from an inertial reference frame, the acceleration of an object
is directly proportional to the net force acting on it and inversely
proportional to its mass

∑⃗
⃗

Example
A hockey puck having a mass of 0.30 kg slides on the frictionless, horizontal
surface of an ice rink. Two hockey sticks strike the puck simultaneously,
exerting the forces on the puck shown in Figure below. The force ⃗has a

47
magnitude of 5.0 N, and is directed at =20° below the x axis. The force ⃗
has a magnitude of 8.0 N and its direction is ∅ =60° above the xaxis.
Determine both the magnitude and the direction of the puck’s acceleration
Solution
The net force acting on the puck in the x direction

⃗ = 1 + 2 = 1 cos + 2 cos ∅

The net force acting on the puck in the ydirection

⃗ = 1 + 2 = 1 sin + 2 sin ∅

The xand ycomponents of the puck’s acceleration:

∑ ⃗ ∑ ⃗
= = 29 / = = 17 /

The magnitude of the acceleration:

= + =34 /
The direction of the acceleration relative to the positive xaxis

= = 31

The Gravitational Force and Weight

All objects are attracted to the Earth. The attractive force exerted by the
Earth on an object is called the gravitational force Fg. This force is directed
toward the center of the Earth,and its magnitude is called the weightof the
object.
⃗ = ⃗

Therefore, the weight of an object, being defined as the magnitude of ⃗ , is

given by

48
 = g
Where gdecreases with increasing distance from the center of the Earth,
objects weigh less at higher altitudes than at sea level.

NEWTON’S THIRD LAW

If you press against a corner of this textbook with your fingertip, the book
pushes back and makes a small dent in your skin. If you push harder, the
book does the same and the dent in your skin is a little larger. This simple
activity illustrates that forces are interactionsbetween two objects: when
your finger pushes on the book, the book pushes back on your finger. This
important principle is known as Newton’s third law:

If two objects interact, the force ⃗ exerted by object 1 on object 2 is equal

in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force ⃗ exerted by object 2
on object 1:
⃗ =−⃗
The effect of third law of motion can be observed in many activitiesin our
everyday life. The examples are
(i) When a bullet is fired from a gun with a certain force (action),there is an
equal and opposite force exerted on the gun in the backwarddirection
(reaction).
(ii) When a man jumps from a boat to the shore, the boat movesaway from
him. The force he exerts on the boat (action) is responsiblefor its motion and
his motion to the shore is due to the force of reactionexerted by the boat on
him.
(iii) The swimmer pushes the water in the backward directionwith a certain
force (action) and the water pushes the swimmer in theforward direction
with an equal and opposite force (reaction).
(iv) We will not be able to walk if therewere no reaction force. In order to
walk, wepush our foot against the ground. The Earthin turn exerts an equal
and opposite force. This force is inclined to the surface of theEarth. The
vertical component of this forcebalances our weight and the
horizontalcomponent enables us to walk forward

49
(v) A bird flies by with the help of itswings. The wings of a bird push air
downwards(action). In turn, the air reacts by pushing the bird upwards
(reaction).
(vi) When a force exerted directly on the wall by pushing the palmof our
hand against it (action), the palm is distorted a little because,the wall exerts
an equal force on the hand (reaction).
The Particle in Equilibrium
When a rope attached to an object is pulling on the object, the rope exerts a
force on the object in a direction away from the object, parallel to the rope.
The magnitude Tof that force is called the tension in the rope. Because it is
the magnitude of a vector quantity, tension is a scalar quantity.
If the acceleration of an object modeled as a particle is zero, the object is
treated with the particle in equilibriummodel. In this model, the net force on
the object is zero:

⃗=0

Consider a lamp suspended from a light chain fastened to the ceiling as in

Figure below. The force diagram for the lamp shows that the forces acting
on thelamp are the downward gravitational force ⃗and the upward force
⃗exerted by the chain. Because there are no forces in the xdirection,

∑ ⃗ = 0Provides no helpful information. The condition

∑ ⃗ = 0gives ⃗ = ⃗ − ⃗=0

The Particle Under a Net Force

If an object experiences an acceleration, its motion can be analyzed with the
particle under a net force model. The appropriate equation for this model
is Newton’s second law:

⃗= ⃗

50
Consider a crate being pulled to the right on a frictionless, horizontal floor as
in Figure (a). Of course, the floor directly under the boy must have friction;
otherwise, his feet would simply slip when he tries to pull on the crate!
Suppose you wish to find the acceleration of the crate and the force the floor
exerts on it. The forces acting on the crate are illustrated in the free-body
diagram in Figure (b)

= =

Let us use the particle in equilibrium model in the ydirection. Applying the y
component:

= − = =

EXAMPLE
A traffic light weighing 122 N hangs from a cable tied to two other cables
fastened to a support as in Figure. The upper cables make angles of
=37.0° and =53.0° with the horizontal. These upper cables are not as
strong as the vertical cable and will break if the tension in them exceeds 100
N. Does the traffic light remain hanging in this situation, or will one of the
cables break?
51
SOLUTION
If nothing is moving, no part of the system is accelerating. We can now
model the light as a particle in equilibrium on which the net force is zero,
The equation for the traffic light in the ydirection

= − =

Choose the coordinate axes and resolve the forces acting on the knot into
their components

Apply the particle in equilibrium model to the knot:

Solve Equation (1) for T2in terms of T1

Substitute this value for T2into Equation (2):

Solve for T1:

52
Both values are less than 100 N (just barely for T2), so the cables will not
break.

53
Unit 3: Forces of Friction
When an object is in motion either on a surface or in a viscous medium such
as air or water, there is resistance to the motion because the object interacts
with its surroundings. We call such resistance a force of friction.
Imagine that you are working in your garden and have filled a trash can with
yard clippings. You then try to drag the trash can across the surface of your
concrete patio as in Figure a. This surface is real,not an idealized,
frictionless surface. If we apply an external horizontal force Fto the trash
can, acting to the right, the trash can remains stationary when Fis small. The
force on the trash can that counteracts Fand keeps it from moving acts
toward the left and is called theforce of static friction . As long as the
trash can is not moving, =F.Therefore, if F is increased, also increases,
and vice versa.

When F exceeds the trash can moves and accelerates to the right. We
call the friction force for an object in motion the force of kinetic friction

54
  The magnitude of the force of static friction between any two surfaces
in contact can have the values
=
Where the dimensionless constant is called the coefficient of static
frictionand nis the magnitude of the normal force exerted by one surface on
the other.
 The magnitude of the force of kinetic friction acting between two
surfaces is
=
Where is the coefficient of kinetic friction. Although the coefficient of
kinetic friction can vary with speed

The table below shows some of Coefficients of Friction

55
Unit 3: Momentum of a body
It is observed experimentally that the force required to stop amoving object
depends on two factors: (i) mass of the body and(ii) its velocity
A body in motion has momentum.Momentum is the product of an object’s
mass and its velocity. The standardunit of mass is the kilogram (kg), and
the standard unit of speed is themeter per second (m/s). Momentum
magnitude is expressed in kilogram meters per second (kg m/s).
=
When a force acts on a body, its velocity changes, consequently,its
momentum also changes. The slowly moving bodies have
smallermomentum than fast moving bodies of same mass.
If two bodies of unequal masses and velocities have samemomentum, then,
=

= → =

Hence for bodies of same momenta, their velocities are

inverselyproportional to their masses
IMPULSE
The momentum of a moving object can change in any of three
differentways:
● A change in the mass of the object
● A change in the speed of the object
● A change in the direction of the object’s motion
The impulse is defined as the change in momentum
= ( − )= −
Example:
Suppose that an object of mass 2.0 kg moves at a constant speed of 50 m/sin
a northerly direction. An impulse, acting in a southerly direction, slows

56
thismass down to 25 m/s, but it still moves in a northerly direction. What is
theimpulse responsible for this change in momentum?
SOLUTION
The original momentum is the product of the mass and the initial velocity:
=2 50 / = 100 /
In a northerly direction. The final momentum is the product of the mass
andthe final velocity:
=2 25 / = 50kgm/s
Thus, the change in momentum is
− = 50 − 100 = −50 /

57
Unit 4: Linear Collisions
When two objects strike each other because they are in relative motion
andtheir paths cross at exactly the right time, a collisionis said to occur.
CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
According to the law of conservation of momentum,the total momentum
contained in two objects is the same after a collision as before. The
characteristicsof the collision do not matter as long as it is an ideal system.
In an idealsystem, there is no friction or other real-world imperfection,
and thetotal system momentum never changes unless a new mass or
force is introduced.
STICKY OBJECTS
Look at Figure below. The two objects have masses m1and m2, and they
aremoving at speeds v1and v2, respectively. The velocity vectors v1and
v2arenot specifically shown here, but they point in the directions shown by
thearrows. At Ain this illustration, the two objects are on a collision course.
The momentum of the object with mass m1is equal to = ;
themomentum of the object with mass m2is equal to =
At B,the objects have just hit each other and stuck together. After
thecollision, the composite object cruises along at a new velocity vthat is
different from either of the initial velocities. The new momentum, call it
p,isequal to the sum of the original momentums. Therefore:
= +
The final velocity vcan be determined by noting that the final mass is
1+ 2. Therefore:
= ( + ) = /( + )

58
BOUNCY OBJECTS
The figure below shows two objects have masses m1and m2, and theyare
moving at speeds v1and v2, respectively.

59
After the collision their masses have not changed, but their velocities have,
so their individualmomentums have changed. However, the total momentum
of the systemhas not changed, according to the law of conservation of
momentum.
Suppose that the new velocity of m1is v1aand that the new velocity of m2is
v2a. The new momentums of the objects are therefore
=
=
According to the law of conservation of momentum
+ = + and therefore:
+ = +
Applications of law of conservation of momentum
The following examples illustrate the law of conservation ofmomentum.
(i) Recoil of a gun
Consider a gun and bullet of mass mgand mbrespectively. Thegun and the
bullet form a single system. Before the gun is fired, boththe gun and the
bullet are at rest. Therefore the velocities of the gunand bullet are zero.
Hence total momentum of the system before firingis zero.
When the gun is fired, the bullet moves forward and the gunrecoils
backward. Let are their respective velocities, the totalmomentum
of the bullet – gun system, after firing is +
According to the law of conservation of momentum, totalmomentum before
firing is equal to total momentum after firing.

0= + =−

It is clear from this equation, that is directed opposite to Knowing the

values of , and , the recoil velocity of the gun can be calculated

60
(ii) Explosion of a bomb
Suppose a bomb is at rest before it explodes. Its momentum iszero. When it
explodes, it breaks up into many parts, each part havinga particular
momentum. A part flying in one direction with a certainmomentum, there is
another part moving in the opposite direction withthe same momentum. If
the bomb explodes into two equal parts, theywill fly off in exactly opposite
directions with the same speed, sinceeach part has the same mass

EXAMPLE
Suppose that you have two toy electric trains set up on a long, straight
trackrunning east and west. Train Ahas a mass 1.60 kg and travels east at
0.250 m/s.Train Bhas a mass of 2.50 kg and travels west at 0.500 m/s. The
trains havestick pads on the fronts of their engines so that if they crash, they
will notbounce off each other. The trains are set up so that they will crash.
Supposethat the friction in the wheel bearings is zero, and suppose that the
instant thetrains hit each other, you shut off the power to the engines. How
fast and inwhat direction will the composite train be moving after the crash?
Assume thatneither train derails
SOLUTION
Given:
=1.6kg
=0.25m/s (east)
=2.5kg
= −0.5m/s (west)
Their momentum will be:
0.25
= = (1.6 ) = 0.4 /

0.5
= = (2.5 ) − = −1.25 /

61
The sum total of their momentums is therefore
= + = −0.85 /
The mass mof the composite is simply the sum of the masses of trains
AandB,which remain the same throughout this violent process
= + = 4.10
Let the final velocity, for which we are trying to solve, be denoted v.We
knowthat momentum is conserved in this collision, as it is in all ideal
collisions.Therefore, the final velocity must be equal to the final momentum
p dividedby the final mass m

− .
= = =− . /
.
This means the composite “train,” after the crash, will move west at 0.207
m/s.
Exercise
Suppose that you have two toy electric trains set up as in example
above.Train Ahas a mass 2.00 kg and travels east at 0.250 m/s. Train Bhas
amass of 1.00 kg and travels west at 0.500 m/s. How fast and in what
directionwill the composite train be moving after the crash? Assume that
neithertrain derails( . / )

62
 Model 5
Unit 1 Work
In physics,workrefers to a specific force applied over a specific distance.The
most common examples are provided by lifting objects having significant
mass (“weights” or “masses”) directly against the force of gravity.
Theamount of work wdone by the application over a displacement qof a
forcewhose magnitude is Fis given by
=
The standard unit of work is the newton-meter (N m), equivalent to a
kilogram-meter squared per second squared (kg / ).
LIFTING AN OBJECT
Imagine a 1.0-kg object lifted upward against the Earth’s gravity. Theeasiest
way to picture this is with a rope-and-pulley system. (Supposethat the pulley
is frictionless and that the rope doesn’t stretch.) You standon the floor,
holding the rope, and pull downward. You must exert a certain force over a
certain distance. The force and displacement vectorsthrough which your
hands move point in the same direction. You canwag your arms back
and forth while you pull, but in practice this won’tmake any difference in the
amount of work required to lift the object acertain distance, so let’s keep
things simple and suppose that you pull ina straight line.
The force of your pulling downward is translated to an equal force
vectorFupward on the object (Figure below). The object moves upward as
faras you pull the rope, that is, by a distance q. What is the force with
whichyou pull? It is the force required to exactly counteract the force of
gravitation on the mass. The force of gravity on the object is the product
of theobject’s mass mand the acceleration vector of gravity. The value of
is approximately 9.8 m/s2directly downward. To lift the object, you must
exert a force F=m =9.8 m/s2) (1.0 kg) =9.8 kg m/s2=9.8 N
directlyupward

63
64
Unit 2: Energy
Energy can be defined as the capacity to do work. Energy canmanifest itself
in many forms like mechanical energy, thermal energy,electric energy,
chemical energy, light energy, nuclear energy, etc.The energy possessed by
a body due to its position or due to itsmotion is called mechanical energy.
The mechanical energy of a body consists of potential energy andkinetic
energy.
Potential energy
The potential energy of a body is the energy stored in the body byvirtue of
its position or the state of strain.Hence water stored in areservoir, a wound
spring, compressed air, stretched rubber chord, etc,possess potential
energy.Potential energy is given by the amount of work done by the
forceacting on the body, when the body moves from its given position
tosome other position.
Expression for the potential energy
Let us consider a body of mass m, which is atrest at a height habove the
ground as shown in Figure. The work done in raising the body from
theground to the height h is stored in the body as itspotential energy and
when the body falls to the ground,the same amount of work can be got back
from it.
Now, in order to lift the body vertically up, a force mgequal to the weight of
the body should be applied.

When the body is taken vertically up through a height h, thenwork done, W=

Force ×displacement
∴ W= mg ×h
This work done is stored as potential energy in the body

65
∴EP= ℎ
Kinetic energy
The kinetic energy of a body is the energy possessed by the bodyby virtue of
its motion. It is measured by the amount of work that thebody can perform
against the impressed forces before it comes to rest.
A falling body, a bullet fired from a rifle, a swinging pendulum, etc.possess
kinetic energy.
A body is capable of doing work if it moves, but in the processof doing work
its velocity gradually decreases. The amount of work thatcan be done
depends both on the magnitude of the velocity and themass of the body. A
heavy bullet will penetrate a wooden plank deeperthan a light bullet of equal
size moving with equal velocity.

Expression for Kinetic energy

Let us consider a body of mass m moving with a velocity vin astraightline as
shown in Figure below. Suppose that it is acted upon by aconstant force
Fresisting its motion, which produces retardation a(decrease in acceleration
is known as retardation). Then

F = mass ×retardation = – … … … … … … … … … … . (1)

Let be the displacement of thebody before it comes to rest.

But the retardation is = = = ………………..(2)

substitute (2) into (1) then

=–

Hence the work done in bringing the body to rest is given by

66
 1
= =− =− =
2
This work done is equal to kinetic energy of the body.

∴Kinetic energy =

Example
A body of mass 2 kg initially at rest is moved by a horizontalforce of 0.5N
on a smooth frictionless table. Obtain the workdone by the force in 8 s and
show that this is equal to changein kinetic energy of the body.

Solution

. .
Acceleration produced (a) = = =
.
The velocity of the body after 8 = × = 8 =

The distance covered by the body in 8 = = +

1
= 0 8 + (0.25)(8 ) = 8
2
∴Work done by the force in 8 s =0.5 8 = 4
Initial kinetic energy= 0

Final kinetic energy= = (2 )(2 ) = 4

∴Change in kinetic energy = . .– . =4−0=4

The work done is equal to the change in kinetic energy of thebody
Example

67
A body is thrown vertically up from the ground with a velocityof 39.2 m s–1.
At what height will its kinetic energy be reducedto one – fourth of its
original kinetic energy?
Solution
When the body is thrown up, its velocity decreases and hence potential
energy increases. Let h be the height at which the potential energy is reduced
.to one – fourth of its initial value

(i.e) loss in kinetic energy = gain in potential energy

68
Unit 3: Conservative forces and non-conservative forces
Conservative forces
If the work done by a force in moving a body between two positionsis
independent of the path followed by the body, then such a force iscalled as a
conservative force.
Examples: force due to gravity, spring force and elastic force.The work done
by the conservative forces depends onlyupon the initial and final position of
the body.
Non conservative forces
Non-conservative force is the force, which can perform someresultant work
along an arbitrary closed path of its point of application.
The work done by the non-conservative force depends upon thepath of the
displacement of the body
Law of conservation of energy
The law states that, if a body or system of bodies is in motion under
aconservative system of forces, the sum of its kinetic energy and
potentialPower
It is defined as the rate at which work is done.

Power =

Its unit is watt. Power is said to be one watt, when one joule of work is said
to bedone in one second.
If is the work done during an interval of time then, energy is constant

P= but = ( cos )

Where θis the angle between the direction of the force and displacement, F
is component of the force in the direction of the smalldisplacement ds.
( )
P= = = cos

If and are in the same direction, = 0 then

=
69
Example
A motor boat moves at a steady speed of 8 m s– 1 , If the waterresistance to
the motion of the boat is 2000 N, calculate thepower of the engine
Solution
m
= = 2000 8 = 16000Watt = 16Kw
s

Exercise
1. A man weighing 60 kg runs up a flight of stairs 3m high in 4 s.Calculate
the power developed by him.

70
Static Electricity

The electricity is caused by the movement of the electrons. There are two types of
electricity which are: Static Electricity and Current Electricity.
1. The static Electricity: is the stationary electricity in the form of charges.
Types of Charges
There are two types of charges:
i. Positive charges (+)
ii. Negative Charges (-)
The law of electrostatics states that like charges repel and unlike charges attract.
Conductors and Non-conductors
The substances through which electricity flows is called Conductor. The metals
and conductors are good examples because they have free electrons.
The substances through which the electricity does not flow is called non-conductor
or Insulator. Wood, paper, clothes and all non-metals are good examples because
they have not free electrons.
Electrification
The process by which an electric charge is given to a neutral substance is called
electrification.
Methods of Electrification
A substance can be electrified by rubbing, conduction and induction.
1. Electrification by Rubbing:
When two substances are rubbed with each other, one
substance loses electrons and the other substance gains
the electrons. The substance that lost the electrons is
positively charged and the substance which gained the
electrons is negatively charged.

71
 1. Electrification by conduction:
When a charged conductor is in contact with uncharged
conductor, the charge is distributed to the uncharged conductor
until they have the same charge.
2. Electrification by Induction:
When a charged body is put near a neutral body a different
charge is established to the uncharged body.

3. Electroscopes
The device that shows whether a body is charged is called the
electroscope. It shows also the type of the charge. There are two
types of electroscopes that are: The pith ball electroscope and the
gold leaf electroscope.
The pith-ball Electroscope
This electroscope is a small ball that made up of the pith of a
wood and is suspended by a silk thread. The pith ball
electroscopes are more sensitive when it is coated with
aluminum or graphite.

The Gold leaf electroscope

This electroscope consists of a copper or brass

disc and a metal rod which is attached to two
aluminum leaves. This structure is inside a metal
case with two glass windows. When the
electroscope is charged the leaves fly apart.

The Quantity of charge

72
The quantity of charge (Q) is the number of the electrons that are lost or gained
and its unit is Coulomb (C).
1C=6.25×1018e
There are smaller units than the coulomb.
Mill coulomb (mc) = 10-3C
Micro coulomb (Mc) = 10-6C
Nan coulomb (nc) = 10-9C
Pico coulomb (pc) = 10-12C

Coulomb’s Law
The force between two charged bodies is directly proportional to the quantity of
the charges and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them.

Q1  Q2
FK
S2
K  9  109 Nm2 / C 2

Example: Two spheres each 0.1g suspended from threads are 10cm apart. If they
are charged to 10-8C, what is the angle which they deflect from the normal?
Given Solution
M1=m2=0.1g a) W=mg=0.1×10-3kg × 9.8m/s2 = 9.8 ×
10-4N

73
 Q1  Q 1
S=10cm=0.1m b) F=K 2
= 9×109 ×
S
Nm 2 (10 8 C ) 2

C2 (0.1m) 2

Nm 2 10 16 C 2
Q1=Q2=10-8C = 9×109 2
 2
= 9×10-5N
C 10m
F 9  10 5 N
? c) Tan  = =  0.09
W 9.8  10  4 N
 = tan-1 (0.09) = 5
Electric Field
The Space around a charged body in which the electric force is found is called the
electric field. This field contains the electric lines of force that begin from the
positive charge and end at the negative charge.

The force per unit positive charge (1C) at a point in the electric field is called the
Electric field intensity (ξ).

F
ξ=F/q
q

The unit of the electric field intensity is N/C.

qξ=F

74
 Qq
qξ = K
S2
Ex-1: A force of 0.08N acts on a charge of 2MC. Find the electric field intensity.
Given Solution
-2 F 8  10 2 N
F=0.08N=8×10 N ξ=  6
 4  10  4 N / C
q 2  10 C
q=2µ C = 2×10-6C
ξ =?
Ex. 2: What is the electric field intensity of a point which is 30cm from a charge
of 3.5µ?

Given Solution

S=30cm=0.3m ξ=
KQ
 9 10 9 Nm 2 / c 2  3.5 10 6 c
S2 (0.3m) 2
Q=3.5Mc
ξ =? 9109 Nm 2 / c 2 3.510  6 c = 3.5x105 N/c
2
910  m 2

75
Revision Questions
1. What are the two types of electricity?
2. What are the two types of charges?
3. State the law of electrostatics
4. Differentiate between conductor and non-conductor
5. Define electrification
6. State Coulomb’s Law
7. Two spheres each 0.05g are suspended from the same points by two
threads each 20cm long.
When they are given the same charge they repel forming a distance of
24cm between
them. Find the quantity of charge of each sphere.
8. Two bodies each 0.1gr are suspended by equal threads from the same
point. When they are given the same charge, they repel forming an angle
of 10o between the threads. Find the electric force between them.
9. Find the electric force between two charges 40µC and 50µC that are 30cm
apart.
10. A charge of 5.2µC is at a point with intensity of 2.5×104 N/C. What is the
electric force at that point?

76
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
The concept of potential
difference is very important in
the understanding of electric
phenomena. It is analogous to
gravitational potential in
mechanical energy transformation. The potential difference (v), between two
points in an electric field is the work done per unit change as a charge is moved
between these points.

V= W
Q

The unit of potential difference in the MKS system is the Volt (V). One volt is the
potential difference between two points in an electric field such that 1 joule of
J
work moves a charge of 1 coulomb between these points. V= .C
W
V
q
qV  W
qV  FS
Qq
qV  K S
S2
Q
V K
S
Small differences of potential are commonly expressed millivolts (mv) or
microvolts (µv), large differences of potential in Kilovolts (kv) and megavolts
(Mv).
1 v  106 V

1mv  10 3 V
1Kv  10 3 V

77
1Mv  10 6 V
Ex-1: The potential difference between two points in an electric field is 6v. Find
the work required to move a charge of 3 10 4 C , between these points.

78
Given Solution
V=6v W
V
Q= 3  10 1 C , Q

W=? W  VQ  6V  3 104 C  1.8 103 J

Ex-2: A force of 0.05N moves a charge of 3µc a distance of 24cm. Find the
potential difference of the points.
Given Solution
a. W  FS  0.05N  0.24m  0.012J  1.2 10-2 J
F=0.05N
2

Q= 3 c  3 10 c 6 b. V  W  1.2 10  0.4  10 4V  4  10 1  10 4 V  4  10 3 V

Q 3 10 6 C
S= 24cm=0.24m
V=?
Ex-3: What is the electric potential of a point which is 60cm from a charge of
10µc?
Given Solution
S  60cm  0.6m 2
Q 9 Nm 10c
Q  10c V  K  9 10 2
  1.5 105 V
S C 0.6m
V ?
Review Questions
1. What is the unit of P.d in the MKS system?
2. Define potential difference
3. A force of 0.032N is required to move a charge of 42µc in an electric
field between two points 25cm apart. What potential difference exists
between the two points?
4. A force of 0.05N moves a charge of 25µc a distance of 42cm. Find the
P.d of he two points?
5. Find the p.d of two points that are 30cm and 40cm from a charge of
10Mc?
Similarities between Electric and Gravitational Field

79
 1. Electric and gravitational forces are inversely proportional to the square
of the distance
m1  m 2 Q Q
FG 2
, FK 1 2 2
S S
2. The work done in the electric current is Zero and the work done in a
gravitational orbit is also zero.

80
 Differences between electric and gravitational Fields
1. There are positive and negative charges in the electric field but there are
positive masses only in the gravitational field.
2. A body can be changeless but it can’t be mass less.

Capacitors
Two parallel conductors that are oppositely charged and are separated by an
insulator is called a Capacitor. It is used to store the charges and can be used as a
source of electricity.
e
+ -
+ -
+ -
+ -

Charging a Capacitor
Let’s examine the way that a capacitor is charged. Suppose that we have a source
of potential difference. If the plates of the capacitor are connected to this source,
electrons are driven on to one plate and removed from the other.

The plate to which the electron is driven becomes NEGATIVELY PLATE and the
plate from which an electron is removed becomes POSITIVELY CHARGED

81
PLATE. The buildup of charges on the plates continues until the voltage across the
capacitor plates is the same as the voltage across the source. In this condition the
amount of positive charge, Q on the upper plate is exactly equal to the amount of
negative charge on the lower plate.

Capacitance

Since the function of the capacitor is to store a

large charge for a given potential difference, or to
store a given charge at a low potential difference,
the relation of charge and potential difference in a
capacitor is used to define CAPACITANCE.

The capacitance (c) of a capacitor is the ratio of the amount of electric charge (Q)
carried in one of the plates, to the potential difference between the plates. That is,

Q
C=
V

The unit of the capacitance in MKS system is Coulumb per Volt (c/v) and is called
the Farad (F), it is named in honor of Micheal Faraday. A Farad is the capacitance
of a capacitor which acquires a potential difference of one volt when it receives a
charge of one coulomb.
Example: The capacitance of a capacitor is 0.001Mf and its p.d is 1000v. Find the
quantity of charge on the capacitor.
Given Solution
Q
C  0.001 f C
V
V  1000V Q  CV  0.001Mf  1000 v  1MC

82
Q?

Factors that affect capacitance

The capacitance of a capacitor changes with the common area of plates, the
distance between them and the type of the insulator between them.
1. The capacitance of a capacitor is directly proportional to the common area of
the plates. C  A
2. The capacitance of a capacitor is inversely proportional to the distance between
1
the plates C 
S
3. The capacitance of a capacitor change with the insulator between the plates.

83
Dielectric Constant ( )
The ratio of the capacitance of the insulator Capacitor
(C) to the capacitance of the airated Capacitor (Co) is a
constant which is called dielectric Constant (s). C
 =
C0
A
From 1 and 2, we get Cα S

A
C α ξ
S
The constant (ξ0) is called the permittivity of the free space. Where
ξo = 8.85×10-12 C2 / N.m2.
Or ξo = 8.85×10-12 f/m
Table 2.1 Shows dielectric constant of few substances
Substance Dielectric Constance
Vacuum 1
Dry air 1.0006 = 1
Water 80
Benzene 2.28
Methyl alcohol 33.1
Glass 4.7
Wax 2.25
Mica 2.5 – 2.7

Example: The area of a capacitor is 100cm2 and the distance between the plates is
 the capacitance of
5mm. If the space between the plates is an insulator ( =4), find
the capacitor.
Given Solution
A
A=100cm2 = 10-4m2 C= ξ0  S
S=5mm=5×10-3m 4  8.85  10 12 f / m  100  10 4 m 2
 84 5  10 3 m
 =4
C=? =7.08×10-13F

85
Review Questions
1. Define Capacitor
2. What is the function of the capacitor?
3. Describe the capacitance of a capacitor
4. What is Farad?
5. What is the MKS system of capacitance?
6. Define Dielectric Constant
7. Write the dielectric constant of water and benzene
8. A capacitor with a dielectric constant of 2.5 has an area of 120cm2 and the
distance between the plates is 10mm. Find the capacitance of the capacitor.
9. A capacitor having a capacitance of 6µf is connected to a 100v battery.
What charge will be stored in the capacitor?
10. What amount of charge accumulates on the
t plates of a 30µf capacitor when
it is connected to a 300V power supply?
11. What is the capacitance of a capacitor which acquires a charge of 600µc
when connected to a 1200V power supply?
12. Two parallel plates are arranged as a capacitor having an air as th
the
dielectric and being 1cm apart. If the area of each plate is 200cm2. what is
the capacitance of the capacitor?
Combination of capacitors
The capacitors are combined in series and in parallel.

Combination of capacitor in series

The following figure shows
ows three capacitors of different capacitance, c1, c2 and c3,
connected in parallel and joined to a battery to give them a potential difference, v

Q for constant, V for P.d, C for capacitance.

86
Vt  V1  V2  V3
Q Q Q Q 1 1 1 3
     
Ceq C1 C2 C3 Ceq C1 C 2 C3

Ex-1: Three capacitors 2µf, 3 µf and 4 µf in series have a charge of 60 µC.

a. Find the potential difference of each capacitor
b. Find the total p.d of the capacitors
c. Find the equivalent capacitance
Given Solution
Q 60C
C1=2 µf a) V1    30V
C1 2f
C2=3 µf Q 60 C
V2    20V
C3=4 µf C2 3f

Q=60 µC Q 60 C
V3    15 V
V1=? C3 4 f

V2=? (b) Vt= V1+V2+V4 = 30v+20v+15v = 65v

1 1 1 3 1 1 1
V3=? (c)      
C eq C1 C2 C3 2 f 3f 4 f
6  4  3 13
Vt=? = 
12f 12f
12f
Ceq=? Ceq   0.95f
13

Combination of Capacitor in Parallel

Qt=Q1+Q2+Q3 Ct V=
C1V+C2V+C3V
Ct= C1+C2+V3
Ex-2: Three parallel capacitors 4µf, 5 µf and 6 µf have a potential difference of
20V.
a) Find the charge on each capacitor?
b) Find the total change of the capacitors?
c) Find the total capacitance?

87
 Given Solution
C1=4 µf (a) Q1=C1V=4 µf ×20V=80 µC
C2=5 µf Q2=C2V=5 µf ×20V=100µC
C3=6 µf Q3=C3V=6 µf ×20V=120µC
V=20V (b) Qt=Q1+Q2+Q3 = 80µC + 100µC + 120µC
Q1=? =300µC
Q2=? (c) Ct=C1+C2+C3 = 4 µf + 5 µf + 6 µf
Q3=? = 15 µf
Qt=?
Ct=?

88
Review Questions

1) The capacitor 3MF is in series with the parallel combination of the

capacitor 4 µf and 5 µf.

Find the equivalent capacitances

2) The capacitors 2 µf, 4 µf and 6 µf connected in series have a charge of 24

µC.

a) Find the equivalent capacitance

b) Find the potential difference of each capacitor

c) Find the total p.d of the capacitor

3) The parallel capacitor 10 µf, 20 µf and 30 µf have a p.d of 120V

a) Find the total capacitance

b) Find the charge of each capacitor

c) Find the total charge of the capacitors

4) The capacitor 3 µf parallel with the series combination of the capacitors 4

µf and 5 µf find the equivalent capacitance.

89
 SOURCES OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

The electric charge in motion is called current electricity. There are two
types of current electricity:

i) Direct current (D.C) which flows in one direction

ii) Alternate current (A.C) which has two directions

There batteries produce D.C and the generator produce A.C the batteries change
chemical light and heat energies to electric energy but the generator change
mechanical energy to electric energy.

The Volt cell:-

The volt cell contains dil H2SO4 . The cathode is made of Zn and the anode is
made of cu. The reaction that takes place inside the cell is the following.

Zn + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2

The Deniel Cell

The deniel cell changes chemical energy to electric energy. A cupper can which is
the anode contains CuSO4 solution. The cathode is Zn and there is a porous pot
inside the can. The reaction that takes place inside the cell is the following
following:

Zn + CuSO4 ZnSO4 + Cu

90
The Leclanche Cell (Dry Cell)

The dry cell changes chemical energy to electric energy. The cathode is a Zn can
that contains Mn O2 and NH4 CL. The anode is a carbon inside the can.

The reaction inside the cell is the following:-

Zn+2NH4 . CL + 2 CL + 2MNO2 Zn cl2+2NH3+MnO3+H2

The Lead Acid Battery

The lead acid battery changes chemical energy to electric energy. Its is used by the
cars to start the engines it contain dil H2SO4 with a density of 1.3 g/cm3.

The cathodes is Pb and the anode is PbO2. The reaction inside the battery is:-

Pb + H2SO4 + PbO2 PbSO4 +PbO + H2O

The Nickel – Cadmium Cell:-

The ni-cd cell is similar to lead acid battery and changes chemical energy to
electric energy the cathode is cd, the anode is Ni(OH)3 and the electrolyte is KOH
solution. The reaction inside the cell is:-

2 Ni(OH)3 + cd cd (OH)2 + 2 Ni (OH)2

The Ni(OH) cell is used in the hospitals when emergency light is needed

91
The photo electric cell:-

This cell changes light energy to electric energy. It is a glass bulb which has a
potassium coating in the inner surface the bulb has an opening for the light and a
metal ring at its centre. When the light is incident on the potassium surface
electrons are emilted and are attracted by a ring. The galvanometer detects the
flow of the electrons.

OR

Review Questions

1) Define current electricity

2) What ‘are the two types of current electricity

3) Differentiate between A.C and D.C

4) Write the reaction that takes place inside the Daniel cell.

5) Write the reaction that takes place inside the lead Acid Battery.

92
DIRECT CURRENT (D.C)

The directed flow of the electrons from the positive pole of a battery through a
wire and then to the negative pole of the battery is called the direct current (D.C).

The quantity of charge (Q) that passes through a conductor in unit of time (t) is
called the electric current intensity (I)
Q
I= t

The unit of the current intensity is C/S and is called ampere (A)

There are two devices that measure the quantity of electricity.

i) The Voltmeter: which measures the p.d and is connected in parallel with
the circuit.

ii) The ammeter: which measures the current intensity and is connected in
series with the circuit.

For example: A current of 5A passes through a conductor in 3minutes. Find

the quantity of change

Give Solution
Q
I = 5A I=
T
t = 3min = 180S Q = It = 5A x 180s

Q=? = 5 c s x 180s = 900C

Ohm’s law

Ohm’s law states that the current intensity (I) that passes through a conductor
is directly proportional to the p.d of the conductor.

vαI
V
R= I
93
v = IR

IR = V

94
The constant R is the resistance of the conductor and its unit is which
V
A
is
called ohm (Ω).

Example: The p.d of a conductor is 36v and its resistance is 12Ω. Find the current
intensity that passes through the conductor.

Given Solution
V V 36 V 36 V
V = 36 R= ; I=    3A
I R 12  12 V / A
R = 12Ω

I=?

Factor That Affect Resistance

There are two factor that affect resistance

1) The resistance of a conductor is directly preoperational to its lengths. R α L.
2) The resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to its cross-section area
1
Rα A
Rα L
A
L fl fl
R=  A  r 2  d 2
( )
2
l l 4 4l
 2
 2
  l . 2

d r d d d 2

4 4

R=
4l
 d2
The constant is
 called the resistivity of the conductor and its units is Ωm or
Ωcm.

The resistively of a conductor is the resistance of the conductor 1 miter long and
has a cross sectional area of miter square.

95
For example: The resistance of a conductor is 5Ω
5Ω when it is 400cm long and has
a diameter of 0.72mm. find the resistively of the conductor

Given Solution

R=5Ω R= 4l
 d2
L = 4000m 4 l  R d 2

d= 0.72mm = 0.072cm

 =?
Rd 2 3.14 x5x(0.072cm) 2
 
4L 4(400cm)
3.14 x5x(0.05184cm) 2

1,600cm
0.0813888cm) 2

1600cm
 0.0813888cm 2
 5.087 x10 5 cm

Combination Of Resistors

The resistor are connected in series and in parallel

1) Resistors in series

I= constant

Vt= V1+V2+V3 ; IRt = IR1+IR2+IR3

 Rt  R1  R2  R 3

96
2) Resistor in Parallel:-

V= Constant
V V V V
It = I1+ I2 + I3 ;   
Req R1 R2 R3

1 1 1 1
  
Req R1 R 2 R3

Ex-1: Three resistors 4Ω,

Ω, 5Ω and 6 Ω are connected in series and a current of 3A
passes through them find:

a) The p.d of each resistor

b) The total p.d of the resistor

c) The total resistor

Given Solution

R1 = 4 Ω a) V1 = I R1 = 3A X 4 Ω=12V

R2= 5 Ω V2 = I R2 = 3A X 5 Ω=15V

R3 = 6 Ω V3 = I R3 = 3A X 6 Ω=18V

I = 3A b) Vt = V1 + V2 + V3 = 12V + 15V + 18V =

45V

V1 , V2, V3 = ? c) Rt = R1 + R2 + R3 = 4 Ω+5 Ω+6 Ω=15 Ω

Vt = ?
97
Rt = ?

98
Ex-2: Three Parallel l resistors 2Ω, 3 Ω and 4 Ω have a p.d of 12v, find

a) The current through each resistor

b) The current through the circuit


c) The equivalent resistivity

Given Solution

R1  2

R2  3 V 12V
I 1   6A
R1 2
R3  4 (a)

V  12v
I 1, I 2, I 3 ?
V 12V
It  ? I 2   4A
R 2 3
Req  ?

V 12V
I 3   3A
R 2 4

(b) I t  I 1 I 2 I 3 6 A  4 A  3 A  13 A

1 1 1 1
(C)   
Req R1 R 2 R 3

1 1 1 1
  
Req 2 3 4

1 643 1 1 13
 ;  
Req 12 Req Req 12

12
Req   0.92
99 13
The Determination of Resistance

The resistance of a resistor is determined by the following processes:-

1) The voltmeter – Ammeter Process: The p.d of the resistor is measured by

Voltmeter and the Current intensity (I) through the resistor is measured by
the Ammeter then the resistance is found by: V
R
I
2) The Wheat Stone Bridge Process: This process four resistors are used r1r 2 and r
are given but Rx is unknown, then the Unknown resistor is found by: R1 R 3
Rx
R2
Electromotive force (Emf)

The work done by a source of electricity to move the electrons through a wire is
called the electromotive force. Its Unit is V

Ohm’s law for the whole circuit

The current intensity through a circuit is directly proportional to the emf and is
inversely proportional to the total resistance

R= External resistance of the circuit of the circuit

r= Internal Resistance of the Source

E
I
Rr

For Example: The External resistance of a battery is . Two

1.5.resistors 3 3.5
and 9v.is What the
in series are in the circuit, if the P.d of the first resistor
emf of the battery?

Given Solution
r  1.5
R 1 3 (a)  R  R1  R 2  3  3.5  6.5
R 2  3.5
V 1 9v I
V i 9v
 3A
E ? R1 3
100
(b) 

(c)  E  I ( R  r )  3 A(6.5  1.5

 3 A(8)
 24v

101
Kirchoff’s law of network circuits

Kirchoff found two laws about the net work circuits:-

1) The current intensity that enters a junction of a circuit is equal to the current
intensity that leaves the junction

I2

I
I2

I I 112

3) The sum of the emf of the batteries is equal to the sum of the f.d of the
resistors
V1 V2 V3

E1 E2

E1 E 2  V 1V 2V 3

 E  V

102
103
Review Questions

1) Define direct current

2) Define electric current intensity
3) What is the MKS system of the current
4) What are the two devices that measure the quantity of electricity
5) What is the MKS system of the resistively?
6) Describe an electromotive force
7) What is the MKS system of the EMP?
8) What is the Current intensity that passes through a resistor of That has
18a
P.d4of
.5v ?
9) A current contains the series combination of the resistors 15  ,52 , 21 and 24  .
The current that passes through them is 1 . 2 A
 Find the p.d of each resistor
 Find the total resistors
 Find the total resistance
10) Circuit contains the parallel combination of the resistors 8, 10 and 12
They have a P.d of 150v.

 Find the current through each resistor

 Find the total current through the circuit
 Find the equivalent resistance

104
 Heat Effect on Electric Current

The electric current that passes through conductor produces heat which is
directly propositional to the resistance of the conductor and the time which the
H  Rflows
current and H  t

Electric Energy

The electric energy (E) which is consumed by appliance is equal to the product of
its patens difference and the quantity of charge that passes through it,
2
V t
E  vG  VIt  I 2
Rt 
R

For Example: A current of 5A is passed throng a 12v lamp for 2 minutes. Find
the eclectic energy used by the lamp

Given Solution

I  5A E  VIt  12V  5
A  120 s  7200 J  7.2kj

V  12v
t  2 m  120 s
E ?
Joule’s law

The quantity of heat gained by a conductor is directly proportional to the electric

energy consumed
E Q
E  JQ

The constant J=4.186 J/cal and is called joule’s equivalent.

For Example: The heading element of a percolator has a resistance of 22 and is
designed for
117the
V use of . How long will it heat 1kg of water from 20c0 to
100c0?

Given Solution
R  22 E  JQ
V  117v
V 105
2
t
M  1kg  1000 g  JmCT
R
o
T 2  100c V 2t  JMC TR
 4.186 J / Cal  100 g  1cal 0  80 0 c  22
JMCTR g c  538 Sec
T 
V2 (117V ) 2

Electric Power

The electric power (p) is the rate of consuming the

electric energy (E) and its unit is watt (10)

E VQ vIt 2 V2
P     VI  I R 
t t t R

The unit of the electric energy for purchasing is kilowatt hour (KWh)

1k Wh = 1000 W× 3600S = 3.6x106 J

For Example: A current of 10A is passed through a 20v lamp for 1day and the
cost rate is $0.16/kwh. Find the cost of the eclectic Energy consumed by the lamp

Given Solution
a) P = VI = 20VX10A = 200w = 0.2k w
I = 10A
E
V= 20V b) P = ; E = Pt = 0.2w x 2 whrs = 4.8kwh
t
t= 1day = 24 hrs 0.16
c) Cost = Er = 4.8k wh X = $0.77
r= $0.6/kwh kwh

cost?

Review Question

1. What is the electric energy given to a 25v lamp by a charge of 100c?

106
2. What is the electric energy given to lamp with a resistance of 3Ω when a
current of 0.25A is passed through it for 10second?
3. What is the electric energy given to a 20v lamp with a resistance of 1.5 Ω for
12 seconds?
4. What is the electric power of a lamp with a potential difference of 240V, if it
takes a current of 1.2A?
5. A current of 5A is passed through a lamp whose resistance is 40Ω for 1 week
and the cost rate is $0.25kwh. Find the cost of the electric energy consumed by
the lamp
END

107