Journal of Archaeological Science 98 (2018) 137–148

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Journal of Archaeological Science

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jas

Diet and foodways across five millennia in the Cusco region of Peru T
a,∗ b c d e
Bethany L. Turner , Véronique Bélisle , Allison R. Davis , Maeve Skidmore , Sara L. Juengst ,
Benjamin J. Schaefera, R. Alan Coveyf, Brian S. Bauerg
a
Department of Anthropology, Georgia State University, PO Box 3998, Atlanta, GA, 30302, USA
b
Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Millsaps College, Jackson, MS, USA
c
U.S. Department of State, Washington, DC, USA
d
Dedman College, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX, USA
e
Department of Anthropology, University of North Carolina Charlotte, USA
f
Department of Anthropology, University of Texas, Austin, TX, USA
g
Department of Anthropology, University of Illinois at Chicago, USA

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The Central Andes of South America boasts a rich history of complex societies and sophisticated economic
Bioarchaeology networks. Reconstructing patterns of diet across time is important to understanding the relationships between
Cusco subsistence and food preparation and their roles in mediating consumption and hegemony through time. The
Wari region surrounding the city of Cusco in the southern Peruvian highlands is best known as the heartland of the
Formative
Inca Empire (520-418 BP); however, it has a long history of social complexity and regional exchange, including
Archaic
Paleodiet
colonization by the highland Wari Empire (1350-950 BP) and in situ development in earlier periods. Elucidating
Isotopes subsistence and mobility over time in the Cusco region is therefore essential for reconstructing the evolution of
complex Andean polities and their effects on local communities.
This study presents carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen isotopic data from human bone and tooth enamel at four
Cusco-region sites: the hunter-gatherer site of Kasapata (6350- 4150 BP, N = 8); the village site of Yuthu (2350-
2050 BP, N = 22); the Wari colony of Hatun Cotuyoc (1350-950 BP, N = 9) and the contemporaneous village
site of Ak'awillay (N = 22). Key aims are to estimate diachronic shifts in foodways and nutrition, and those
related to Wari control. Results indicate nearly-identical isotope values at Kasapata and Yuthu trending toward
lower-trophic level C3 proteins and C3 energy sources, while values indicate mixed C3/C4 diets at Ak'awillay and
diets dominated by terrestrial meat and C4 foods at Hatun Cotuyoc. Interestingly, oxygen isotope values suggest
water source variation consistent with minimal mobility at Kasapata and regional mobility at Yuthu, but possibly
with overlapping but divergent foodways at Ak'awillay and Hatun Cotuyoc resulting in differential evaporative
pressures on consumed water rather than increased mobility.

1. Introduction
The Cusco region of the southern Peruvian Andes is best known as
being the heartland of the Inca Empire of the 15th and 16th centuries.
However, archaeological research indicates a long history of social
complexity and regional exchange in the region; this includes coloni-
zation by the highland Wari Empire to the north and influence from the
southern Tiwanaku polity during the Middle Horizon (1350-950 BP),
and local complex societies in earlier periods. These cultural transfor-
mations occurred against a backdrop of vertically-integrated econo-
mies, and both long- and short-distance migration. Elucidating popu-
lation movements, subsistence practices and exchange over time in the
Cusco region is therefore a critical component of understanding the
ways in which the evolution of Andean complex states affected local
populations.
This study presents carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen isotopic data from
the remains of individuals interred at four sites in the Cusco region of
southern central Peru (Fig. 1). The site of Kasapata dates to the Late
Archaic Period (6350- 4150 BP), a time known for nomadic hunter-
gatherers, while the site of Yuthu dates to the Formative Period (2350-
2050 BP), characterized by population increase and the increased
commitment to the production of domesticated plants and animals. The
remains from the other two sites—Hatun Cotuyoc and Ak'awillay—date
to the Middle Horizon (1350-950 BP), a period characterized by Wari,
and to a much lesser extent, Tiwanaku, influence in Cusco. Together
these four sites represent three important cultural periods (Archaic,

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: bturnerlivermore@gsu.edu (B.L. Turner).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2018.07.013
Received 1 February 2018; Received in revised form 13 July 2018; Accepted 29 July 2018
0305-4403/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
B.L. Turner et al.
Fig. 1. Map of the Central Andes (inset) and the Cusco region. The four sites of interest to this study are in small-caps, while rivers and lakes are labeled in italics.
Modern towns and cities are in regular text.
Formative, and Middle Horizon) in what would later become the center
of the hemisphere's largest indigenous empire, the Inca. Carbon and
nitrogen isotope ratios were characterized in bone collagen, while
carbon and oxygen isotope ratios were characterized in bone and en-
amel carbonate to (1) assess the role of maize in local Archaic and
Formative versus Wari and local Middle Horizon economies, and (2)
identify temporal shifts in overall subsistence.
Moreover, characterizing isotopic values in multiple tissues from
each individual—where available—permits the creation of multi-iso-
topic profiles and interpretation using a life-course perspective. Tooth
enamel crowns form and mature at generally predictable rates during
infancy and childhood and do not remodel once crown formation is
complete (Hillson, 1996); cortical or compact bone remodels rapidly
during infancy and childhood, then slows dramatically during and
following adolescence. In adults, isotope values in cortical bone re-
present averages over as much as three decades (Goldman et al., 2003;
Hedges and Reynard, 2007; Manolagas, 2000; Sealy et al., 1995). Iso-
topic values from bone collagen and carbonate therefore represent
averaged dietary composition during the life course, while those from
enamel carbonate represent the first few years of life. Consequently,
this study provides a nuanced diachronic reconstruction of diet, and the
first in what became the center of South America's greatest indigenous
empire.
2. Background
2.1. Culture and subsistence in the Cusco region, [6350-950 BP]
The Cusco region extends from the Urubamba through Lucre Valleys
and includes the modern city of Cusco; most of the region ranges in
altitude between 3000 and 4000 m above sea level (masl) and contains
significant agricultural and pastoral land spanning several ecozones.
Humans have inhabited the region for at least six thousand years, and
pollen records indicate significant human activity throughout. Wetter
conditions in the Cusco region beginning 3000 BP likely prompted a
shift from cultivation of Amaranthacae species, primarily quinoa, to
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Journal of Archaeological Science 98 (2018) 137–148
that of maize, corresponding with an increase in regional population
and village sizes (Bauer, 2004). A systematic paleoclimate survey
(Chepstow-Lusty et al., 1996) suggests climatic changes approximately
1450 BP and again 900 BP, potentially corresponding to regional cul-
tural shifts (Chepstow-Lusty, 2011; Chepstow-Lusty et al., 1998). In-
deed, Sublette Mosblech et al. (2012) suggest that a wetter climate in
the early Middle Horizon aided in active expansion and management of
Alnus spp. forests in the highland Cusco region by the burgeoning Wari
state. In the highland sierra, the altitudinal gradients of the Andean
cordillera result in horizontally-stratified ecological zones, each of
which permits the cultivation of different resources. Fruits are culti-
vated along lower altitudes, while grains and legumes flourish in the
temperate quechua zone (2700–3500 masl). Some grains, including
maize, and tubers are cultivable in the suni zone (3500–3850 masl),
though maize is less commonly found above 3500 masl (National
Research Council, 1989). The high elevation of the puna (3850–4700
masl) and cordillera (> 4700 masl) are too marginal for most food
crops, but the abundant scrub grasses are used to pasture camelids.
Andean groups have for millennia circumvented the limited horizontal
space for agricultural fields by digging agricultural terraces into the
slopes of mountains, opening up a substantial amount of arable land for
agriculture and cultivating crops in multiple ecological zones, aided by
intensive irrigation of highland rivers in later periods.
Bioarchaeologists and archaeologists have long been interested in
the intersections of diet and cultural complexity in the Andes (Bray,
2003; Burger et al., 2003; Goldstein, 2003; Hastorf, 1990; Kellner and
Schoeninger, 2008). The focus of this research has broadened con-
siderably in recent years, shifting away from a primary emphasis on the
political and economic significance of maize consumption (Iriarte,
2009) and a more or less linear conception of increasing social com-
plexity and increasing disparity in foodways (Cuéllar, 2013). Instead,
recent research increasingly recognizes the marked variation in Andean
foodways (Dillehay, 2011), and the nuanced interplay of consumption,
hegemony, and foodways (Smith and Schreiber, 2006). Seminal work in
the Upper Mantaro Valley (Earle et al., 1987; Hastorf, 1990) under-
scored the significance of changes in foodways, some that would be
B.L. Turner et al.
isotopically invisible—such as shifts from roasting maize to brewing
it—and others isotopically clear, such as increases in proportions of
meat in individual diets. Importantly, archaeological evidence (e.g.,
ceramic vessels, botanical remains, and storage facilities) indicates the
presence of resources or implies how they were prepared and dis-
tributed, but only isotopic evidence can directly estimate individual
diet composition and therefore patterns of resource consumption.
Moreover, research increasingly indicates that the relationship between
food, status, and hegemony that characterized Inca statecraft (D'Altroy,
1992) was rooted in earlier forms of feasting and patronage associated
with the expansion of complex and hierarchical societies and in-
tensification of agropastoral subsistence regimes. This includes but is
not limited to the Tiwanaku expansion (Goldstein, 2003), as well as
earlier distinctions between ceremonial and household practices in the
Cusco region (Davis, 2011). This underscores the importance of directly
estimating and comparing diet composition both across time periods
and between contemporaneous contexts, within and among different
Andean regions.
The samples used in this study are from four sites in the Cusco re-
gion (Fig. 1): Kasapata, Yuthu, Ak'awillay, and Hatun Cotuyoc. Kasa-
pata is the most intensively studied Archaic site in the region, with two
occupations dating to approximately 6350 and 5050 BP and is located
in the Oropesa Basin at an elevation of 3400 masl. Material culture from
the two occupation phases at the site includes constructed dwellings,
ground stone tools, and cinnabar for mortuary treatments, all of which
indicate base camps and/or seasonal settlements (Bauer, 2007). Yuthu
is a village site located near Lake Huaypo at 3600 masl, dating to the
latter centuries of the Formative Period (2350-2050 BP). Excavations at
the site (Davis, 2011) reveal both domestic and ceremonial contexts
and indicate a community of agropastoralists who traveled to different
elevations within the Urubamba region to exploit a diverse resource
base, a strategy broadly similar to the vertical archipelagos of Inca
commoners (Murra, 1980). During its earlier village occupation, re-
sidents cultivated quinoa and herded llamas and alpacas on the high
plain surrounding the village, and may have cultivated maize farther
from the village. Davis (2011:152-4) identifies a shift in mortuary
treatment at Yuthu that might reflect a shift from group identity to
family-group identity, possibly in response to drought and political
changes, resulting in a shift in ritual behavior and possibly the forma-
tion of a multi-village polity. The burials are thus distinguished as being
from either the village occupation phase or the phase following the
abandonment of the site and its use as a cemetery only, with interments
presumably brought from nearby villages.
The Middle Horizon phase at the village site of Ak'awillay (3480
masl) appeared largely unaffected by the Wari colonial administrative
centers of Huaro and Pikillacta roughly 50 km away; instead, ceramic
and lithic analyses suggest that changes in settlement patterns and
household subsistence occurred during the Early Intermediate Period,
prior to Wari ascendancy (Bélisle, 2015). During the Early Intermediate
Period, a large number of higher-elevation villages in Cusco were
abandoned in favor of maize-growing areas, a pattern that continued
unchanged during the Middle Horizon. At Ak'awillay, the Early Inter-
mediate Period is characterized by the emergence of new pottery styles
focusing on small individual bowls, unlike the large open plates and
shallow bowls of the Formative. This change suggests changes in the
preparation and serving of food, from shared solid foods or thick stews
in the Formative to more individualized servings of liquid foods and
beverages in the Early Intermediate Period. This pattern continued in
the Middle Horizon once the Wari established administrative centers at
Huaro and Pikillacta (Glowacki, 2002, McEwan, 2005). In contrast, the
Middle Horizon site of Hatun Cotuyoc (3150 masl) is a sector of a co-
lonial Wari settlement near the modern town of Huaro. Based on cali-
brated 14C dates, the site was occupied between 1250 and 950 BP and
exhibits material culture incorporating both Wari and localized styles,
consistent with that which was utilized in the Wari heartland (Juengst
and Skidmore, 2016). The copious floral and faunal remains from the
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Journal of Archaeological Science 98 (2018) 137–148
site are dominated by maize, beans, quinoa, cuy (guinea pig), and ca-
melids such as llama and alpaca. While mortuary styles among the
tombs at Hatun Cotuyoc exhibit some variation, suggesting status dis-
tinctions among the occupants, the majority are modest and indicate
that the site centered on agricultural and craft production (Juengst and
Skidmore, 2016).
2.2. Southern highland subsistence resources
Reconstructions of Archaic-Period subsistence in the Andean high-
lands are based on excavations at sites in the Ayacucho and Lake
Titicaca regions, and at Kasapata in Cusco (Jones and Bauer, 2007).
Faunal analyses at Kasapata indicate consumption of wild camelids
(such as guanaco, or Lama guanicoe), deer, tinamou birds, and wild cuy
(guinea pig, or Cavia porcellus), while stone bowls and grinding stones
indicate processing of plant materials (Jones and Bauer, 2007). There is
a possibility that the faunal remains at Kasapata may have included
early domesticates, particularly as lithic analyses suggest increased
sedentism during later occupation phases (Bruford et al., 2003; Stahl
and Norton, 1987; Klink, 2007). During the Formative Period, perma-
nent villages and increased reliance on domesticated crops and live-
stock are visible in the archaeological record (Chávez, 1980; Davis,
2011). At Yuthu and other Formative sites, plant domesticates included
quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa), various beans (Phaseoleum spp.), potatoes
(Solanum spp.) and oca (Oxalis tuberosa), as well as kiwicha (amaranth,
or Amaranthus caudatus) and maize (Zea mays) from lower elevations,
while domesticated livestock primarily included llamas, alpacas, and
cuy (Davis, 2011; Kent, 1982). Based on later Colonial-period accounts,
staple grains in the southern highlands of Peru included maize, quinoa,
kañiwa (C. pallidicaule) and kiwicha; tubers included numerous varieties
of potatoes, maca (Lepidium meyenii), oca, and ulluco (Ullucus tuberosus);
other vegetables included squashes (Curcurbita spp.), chilies such as ají
(Capsicum baccatum) and rocoto (C. pubescens), molle berries (Schinus
molle) and various beans (Cobo, 1890–1895 [1653]: 194; see also
Rowe, 1946) (Cobo, 1964 [1653]: Bks. 4, 11, 14). Communities in
proximity to rivers and lakes consumed freshwater fish (see Miller et al.,
2010 for taxonomic detail).
2.3. Stable isotopes and dietary reconstruction
Isotopic reconstructions of diet in archaeological populations con-
stitute an important and common area of bioarchaeological research,
utilizing biochemical measures of the relative importance of constituent
food types to individual diets. Isotopic ratios of carbon in bone and
enamel carbonate (CaCO3) represent carbon drawn from blood bi-
carbonates (HCO3-), which are in equilibrium with the carbon dioxide
produced during cellular respiration (Krueger and Sullivan, 1984;
Tieszen and Chapman, 1993). Carbonate δ13C values therefore re-
present those from the carbon in all sources in the diet that are meta-
bolized for energy, including products from terrestrial or marine ani-
mals, and plants with C3 versus C4 photosynthetic pathways. Less
commonly consumed by humans are plants with crassulacean-acid
metabolism (CAM) photosynthetic pathways such as succulents; these
plants are adaptable to arid environments, fixing CO2 molecules with
less discrimination of 13C when water stressed, and more discrimination
of 13C when not. CAM plants therefore exhibit varied δ13C values that
vary between C3 or C4 ranges, depending on local conditions. As such,
carbonate isotopic values (δ13Ccarbonate) represent a composite dietary
signal representing carbohydrates, fats, and protein. In the protein
fraction of bone, the majority of which is collagen, the same ratios
(δ13Ccollagen) appear to disproportionately represent the contribution of
carbon found in dietary protein (Ambrose and Norr, 1993), both plant-
and animal-based. The fact that very different forms of protein can
produce similar δ13C values underscores the importance of combining
carbon and nitrogen isotope values in reconstructing diet. Isotopic ni-
trogen ratios (δ15N) found in bone and dentin collagen reflect the types
B.L. Turner et al.
of protein (animal, vegetable, leguminous, terrestrial versus marine)
incorporated into the diet (DeNiro and Schoeninger, 1983), re-
presenting trophic-level effects in protein intake associated with or-
ganisms' positions in food webs (Ambrose et al., 1997; Lee-Thorp et al.,
1989). Tissue δ15N values are also influenced by the concentration of
nitrogen in the diet (O'Connell and Hedges, 1999); they can also in-
crease due to a number of factors including physiological mechanisms
for water conservation in arid contexts (Ambrose, 1991) and lean tissue
catabolism as a response to starvation (Fuller et al., 2005).
Stable oxygen isotopes in the carbonate portion of hydroxyapatite
(Ca10(CO4)6(OH)2) in bone and tooth enamel reflect the isotopic com-
position of body water (δ18O) at 37 °C. Body water δ18O of obligate
drinkers is influenced by the oxygen isotopic composition of imbibed
meteoric water (δ18Owater) with predictable fractionation (Longinelli,
1984; Luz et al., 1984). The isotopic composition of meteoric water is in
turn linked to latitude, altitude, aridity, seasonal temperature change
and fluctuating rainfall in a given region, through the variable loss of
16
O during evaporation and the progressive loss of 18O during pre-
cipitation as air masses move inland and up elevation (Dansgaard,
1964; Gat, 1996; White et al., 1998). These ecological processes make
δ18O a potential measure of regional climate and thereby individual
mobility between isotopically-distinct regions (White et al. 2000,
2002). However, intraregional isotopic variability in the Central Andes
(Knudson, 2009) and elsewhere (Scherer et al., 2015) may preclude
using δ18O as a measure of paleomobility; instead, recent studies have
used δ18O to reconstruct variation in water source consumption related
to brewing (Gagnon et al., 2015) and other cultural practices.
Isotopic studies of Andean populations have provided critical in-
sights into change or consistency in subsistence related to aspects of
cultural complexity, state formation, and imperial influence. These in-
clude increased maize production and consumption (Finucane et al.,
2006; Sandness, 1992), animal husbandry (Szpak et al., 2016), diet
disparities (Hastorf, 1996; Torres-Rouf et al., 2015; Ubelaker et al.,
1995), resource utilization in the face of environmental (Knudson et al.,
2015; Tung et al., 2015) and cultural change (Pestle et al., 2016), and
varying relationships between imperial cores and subject polities
(Knudson et al., 2012; Slovak, 2007; Somerville et al., 2015; Toyne
et al., 2017). However, while extensive and intensive archaeological
excavations (Bauer, 2004; Bélisle, 2011; Covey et al., 2013; Kosiba,
2010; McEwan, 2005) and osteological analyses (Andrushko, 2007)
have been conducted in the Cusco region, there have been no isotopic
investigations of diet and subsistence. This study therefore presents a
unique opportunity to examine continuity and change in diet related to
sedentism, regional exchange, in situ cultural evolution, and foreign
imperial influence in Cusco.
3. Study objectives
This study centers on testing several hypotheses. First, archae-
ological evidence indicates an increase in agricultural intensification
during the Formative Period and intensification of maize agriculture in
particular during the Middle Horizon. If so, then carbonate and collagen
δ13C values among the individuals from Yuthu will be higher than those
from Kasapata, and δ13C values among the individuals from Ak'awillay
and Hatun Cotuyoc will be higher than both. However, kiwicha
(amaranth) is also a C4 crop and therefore identical in its carbon iso-
topic values to maize (Turner et al., 2010), making it a potential con-
founder to examining changes in diet associated with increasing va-
luation and use of maize as a ceremonial and politically-significant
food. However, kiwicha exhibits atypically high δ15N values for a plant,
just over 13‰ (Turner et al., 2010), higher even than terrestrial meat
and certainly higher than those in maize. Therefore, a related hypoth-
esis is that collagen δ15N values will be lower among the individuals at
Yuthu than those at Kasapata, and δ15N values among the individuals at
Ak'awillay and Hatun Cotuyoc will be lower than both, reflecting an
increased inclusion of maize into the diet over other C4 sources.
140
Journal of Archaeological Science 98 (2018) 137–148
An additional hypothesis relates to oxygen isotopic data. As men-
tioned earlier, ceramic assemblages at Ak'awillay indicate a shift from
communal flared bowls of thick stews or roasts to single-portion bowls
and cups with narrow openings, likely for consumption of soups and/or
beverages such as chicha (maize beer). This shift toward increased
consumption of water that was boiled and brewed, and therefore sub-
jected to increased evaporative pressures, means that carbonate δ18O
values will be higher in individuals from Ak'awillay and Hatun Cotuyoc
than among those from Yuthu and Kasapata.
Samples of enamel carbonate, bone carbonate, and bone collagen
are analyzed from each individual, creating multi-isotopic profiles and
employing a life-course perspective. Tooth enamel crowns form and
mature at generally predictable rates during infancy and childhood and
do not remodel once crown formation is complete (Hillson, 1996),
while cortical or compact bone remodels gradually during life and re-
presents averaged isotopic values during the decade or more leading up
to death (Goldman et al., 2003; Manolagas, 2000). Isotopic values from
bone collagen and carbonate therefore represent averaged dietary
composition towards the end of life, while those from enamel carbonate
represent the first few years of life. Consequently, this study provides a
fuller dataset that includes nitrogen and both inorganic and organic
carbon isotopic values, from specific in vivo periods.
4. Methods
4.1. Materials
Carbon and nitrogen isotopic values are characterized in individuals
from Kasapata (N = 8), Yuthu (N = 22), Ak'awillay (N = 22), and
Hatun Cotuyoc (N = 9). Burials from Yuthu are designated as asso-
ciated with the village occupation phase (N = 6, burial numbers in
italics) and the later cemetery phase (N = 16). Table 1 summarizes
descriptive data for the sample cohorts from each site.
Approximately 30 mg of enamel was sampled from a permanent first
molar crown, which mineralizes between 0 and 3.5 years of age
(Hillson, 1996), from each individual who had viable teeth to sample.
Depending on the initial bone sample, 80–400 mg cortical bone powder
was sampled from ribs per individual, cleaned ultrasonically in ddH2O,
and then divided for separate carbonate and collagen preparation
procedures.
4.2. Isotopic analysis
Bone and enamel samples were prepared for isotopic analyses using
established methodologies (see description in Turner et al., 2013). For
collagen preparation, bone samples were crushed in an agate mortar and
soaked for 4 h with a 10:5:1 solution of methanol, chloroform and
double-distilled water in 15 ml borosilicate tubes with PTFE-lined caps to
remove lipids, after which the solution was pipetted out and the frag-
ments air-dried for 48 h at room temperature. Samples were then de-
mineralized in 0.5 M HCl at 4 °C until translucent, with periodic re-
placement of HCl. Samples were then treated with a 0.2% KOH solution
for 48–72 h, depending on sample integrity, to remove humic con-
taminants, soaked in 0.5 M HCl for 48 h at 4 °C, and then gelatinized in a
0.05 M HCl solution at 95 °C for approximately 8 h. Gelatinized samples
were filtered through 0.045 μm millipore syringe tips to remove un-
dissolved, residual contaminants from burial soils into 5 ml borosilicate
tubes and freeze dried under vacuum for 36 h. Carbon and nitrogen
stable isotope compositions of isolated bone collagen were characterized
on a Thermo Electron DeltaV Advantage isotope ratio mass spectrometer
coupled with a ConFlo II interface linked to a Carlo Erba NA 1500 CNHS
Elemental Analyzer at the Department of Geological Sciences at the
University of Florida, Gainesville. The analytical precision of the mass
spectrometer was ± 0.22‰ for δ15N and ± 0.14‰ for δ13Ccollagen.
For carbonate preparation, bone and enamel samples were crushed
to a fine powder using an agate mortar and pestle, then were soaked for
B.L. Turner et al. Journal of Archaeological Science 98 (2018) 137–148

24–72 h in a 2% NaOCl (bleach)/ddH2O solution until degassing in the exogenous carbonates and other diagenetic contaminants (Garvie-Lok
solution ceased, signifying that most organic material was removed. et al., 2004). Isolated carbonate samples were then centrifuged and
The samples were then centrifuged, rinsed to neutral with ddH2O and rinsed to neutral pH with ddH2O, freeze-dried and analyzed in a Fin-
soaked for 2–4 h in a 0.2% acetic acid solution at 4 °C to remove any nigan-MAT 252 isotope ratio mass spectrometer coupled with a Kiel III

Table 1
Summary descriptive and isotopic data from the Cusco region sample cohorts. Yuthu burial numbers in italics represent those interred during the village occupation
phase, while those not in italics represent those interred following the abandonment of the site and likely from neighboring villages.
Sample Burial Age-at-Deathc Sexc Enamel Carbonate Bone Carbonate Bone Collagen Wt Wt C/N % collagen

δ C
13 d
δ O
18 e
δ C
13 d
δ O
18 e
δ N
15 f
δ C
13 d
%N %C yieldb

Kasapata (Archaic Period)

ACGSU 24 1 −11.5 21.1 8.8 −19.1 11.2 32.2 3.4
ACGSU 25 3 −11.4 21.1 7.3 −19.6 9.7 26.5 3.2 13.1
ACGSU 25* 3 −11.7 21.4 9.1 −21.2 1.4 4.6 3.9 7.9
ACGSU 26 4 −13.2 21.1 9.5 −19.7 8.0 22.1 3.2 30.6
ACGSU 27 6 8.4 −19.6 14.1 39.9 3.3 14.7
ACGSU 28 7 −11.6 21.2 9.7 −18.6 14.9 41.9 3.3 11.9
ACGSU 29 9 10.3 −18.8 15.0 41.9 3.3 15.6
ACGSU 30 8 −12.6 21.3 −11.4 21.0 11.1 −15.4 1.4 7.9 6.5 1.2
ACGSU 31 5 −12.4 21.1
Yuthu (Formative Period)
ACGSU 01 18 Adult F 10.0 −19.0 15.8 45.4 3.4
ACGSU 02 2 26–35yrs. M 9.5 −14.0 14.6 39.5 3.1
ACGSU 03 17 16–17yrs. F 10.5 −18.0 15.3 41.6 3.2
ACGSU 04 23 0–1yr. 10.6 −17.6 13.3 36.9 3.2
ACGSU 05 9 1–2yrs. 10.4 −14.4 15.2 40.9 3.1
ACGSU 06 7 1–2yrs. 11.0 −19.5 12.9 35.5 3.2
ACGSU 07 19 11–12yrs. 9.4 −19.3 14.8 40.0 3.2
ACGSU 08 20-A 26–35yrs. F −7.9 20.4 −8.4 20.7 9.8 −18.2 14.4 41.4 3.3 6.6
ACGSU 09 10 18–25yrs. F 9.5 −19.8 3.3 9.4 3.3 6.8
ACGSU 10 4 18–25yrs. M −10.6 20.5 9.8 −18.6 5.7 16.4 3.3 14.4
ACGSU 11 16 26–35yrs. M 8.8 −16.4 4.6 13.3 3.3 4.9
ACGSU 12 5 46+ F −13.5 20.6 9.5 −19.1 15.0 41.1 3.2 6.2
ACGSU 13 8 36–45yrs. F 7.8 −18.9 15.2 40.9 3.1 26.9
ACGSU 14 1 12–13yrs. −9.9 20.6 8.9 −17.3 7.8 19.1 2.9 8.1
ACGSU 14* 1 12–13yrs. −9.8 20.7 8.8 −17.6 13.8 37.1 3.1
ACGSU 15 11 2–3yrs. 10.4 −17.7 12.1 33.6 3.2
ACGSU 16 22 0–1yr.
ACGSU 17 15 36–45yrs. F −10.1 22.5 9.0 −17.0 10.2 28.7 3.3
ACGSU 18 6 11–12yrs. −9.8 21.9 8.2 −18.9 14.1 38.2 3.2
ACGSU 19 13 26–45yrs. F −9.7 21.5 10.7 −19.0 14.0 38.4 3.2
ACGSU 20 12 36–45yrs. M −12.0 20.0 9.0 −18.3 12.9 35.2 3.2
ACGSU 20* 12 36–45yrs. M −12.0 20.0 8.5 −18.3 13.5 37.1 3.2
ACGSU 22 3 7–8yrs. −9.0 20.6 10.2 −19.4 13.1 36.6 3.3
ACGSU 23 14 26–45yrs. F
Ak'awillay (Middle Horizon Period)
ACGSU 32 1-A 1–2yrs. 11.7 −15.4 11.9 33.7 3.3 11.7
ACGSU 33 1-B < 1yrs. −9.4 17.0 10.6 −15.2 13.7 39.7 3.4 6.4
ACGSU 34 2006–1 36–45 yrs M −9.2 20.8 −9.9 20.0 9.6 −16.3 1.5 4.7 3.7 6.2
ACGSU 35 2 2–3yrs. −10.1 21.4 −8.9 18.9 10.4 −14.7 8.6 24.0 3.2 19.3
ACGSU 36 2012–1 6–12yrs. −8.0 21.0 12.2 −13.3 10.1 27.8 3.2 7.7
ACGSU 37 2012–3 18–25yrs. −8.9 19.8 9.0 −16.4 14.3 41.0 3.4 5.4
ACGSU 38 2012–4 5–6yrs. −10.1 19.8 11.1 −14.4 13.8 38.1 3.2 12.9
ACGSU 39 5 46 + yrs. F −9.0 19.9 9.6 −14.8 10.3 29.2 3.3 40.4
ACGSU 39* 5 46 + yrs. F −8.9 19.9 10.1 −13.9 3.3 9.5 3.3
ACGSU 40 7 17–18 −9.6 20.8 8.0 −17.4 8.9 24.9 3.3 14.7
ACGSU 41 8 18–25yrs. F −6.5 20.5 9.4 −12.3 2.5 7.4 3.5 28.1
ACGSU 42 9 1–2yrs. −10.0 22.2 −9.7 21.9
ACGSU 43 10 26–35yrs. M −10.5 20.0 13.2 −18.4 13.8 40.0 3.4 8.0
ACGSU 43 a
10 26–35yrs. M −10.5 20.0 9.9 −17.6 13.9 39.8 3.3
ACGSU 44 11 8–9yrs. −8.9 19.9 9.2 −15.7 3.1 9.4 3.6 5.6
ACGSU 45 14 < 1yr. −9.6 19.7 10.9 −17.0 14.3 39.7 3.2 9.1
ACGSU 47 13 26–35yrs. F −11.5 19.6
ACGSU 49 2006–2 < 1yr. −7.8 21.1
ACGSU 50 6 3–4yrs. −9.3 22.8 −9.5 20.3 8.9 −17.0 8.3 24.4 3.4
ACGSU 51 2006–3 26–35yrs. F −6.1 20.5 −7.7 20.3 9.9 −14.8 11.9 33.8 3.3
ACGSU 52 4 18–25yrs. M −9.2 20.3 −8.7 19.2 8.7 −15.2 11.4 34.1 3.5 7.0
ACGSU 53 12 1–2yrs. −9.5 22.2 13.9 −15.9 7.4 21.5 3.4
ACGSU 54 3 36–45yrs. M −4.2 19.6 −6.1 21.4 10.2 −10.7 9.7 27.3 3.3 18.8
ACGSU 55 2012–2 7–9yrs. −4.8 19.5 −7.4 20.8 8.7 −12.9 19.0 50.9 3.1
Hatun Cotuyoc (Middle Horizon Period)
ACGSU 57 2-D Infant 12.3 −10.3 12.2 34.0 3.3 17.5
ACGSU 58 2-D Infant 11.4 −11.0 10.0 28.0 3.3 16.9
ACGSU 59 2-E Adult F
(continued on next page)

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Table 1 (continued)

Sample Burial Age-at-Deathc Sexc Enamel Carbonate Bone Carbonate Bone Collagen Wt Wt C/N % collagen

δ13Cd δ18Oe δ13Cd δ18Oe δ15Nf δ13Cd %N %C yieldb

ACGSU 60 11-E Infant 14.5 −9.4 12.1 33.7 3.3 9.0

ACGSU 61 1-G Adult F −7.2 19.7 8.9 −14.4 13.6 38.1 3.3 13.2
ACGSU 62 1-F Adult M −8.5 20.5 −4.6 18.9
ACGSU 63 4-D −5.6 22.1 10.1 −11.9 11.8 33.5 3.3
ACGSU 64 1-D
ACGSU 65 1-E Adult M −4.5 18.9 −4.6 18.9

a
Duplicate value.
b
Missing values resulted from an instrument calibration error that was not caught until after sample preparation was underway.
c
Estimates by Valerie Andrushko (unpublished reports) using criteria from Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994).
d
Values are expressed permil (‰), relative to PeeDee Belemite (vPDB).
e
Values are expressed permil (‰), relative to Standard Mean Ocean Water (vSMOW).
f
Values are expressed permil (‰), relative to atmospheric nitrogen (vAIR).

carbonate preparation device at the Department of Geological Sciences
at the University of Florida, Gainesville. Isotopic values are expressed as
per mil (‰) relative to standard mean ocean water (SMOW). The
analytical precision of the mass spectrometer was ± 0.07‰ for δ18O
and ± 0.02‰ for δ13Ccarbonate. Statistical analyses were performed
using SPSS 23 (English) and MS Excel for Microsoft Office 2013.
5. Results
The isotopic results for the study samples are detailed in Table 1, with
summary results presented in Table 2; bone isotopic values are plotted by
site in Figs. 2 and 3. The enamel-to-bone changes in carbon and oxygen
isotope values for individual carbonate dyads (Δcarbonate) are plotted in
Fig. 4. Weighted proportions of percent carbon vs. percent nitrogen (C/N
ratios) in archaeological collagen are commonly compared to those found
in living bone to estimate the likelihood that biogenic isotopic values are
sufficiently preserved. There is some debate as to the range of C/N values
representing unaltered bone; Schoeninger et al. (1989) suggest a range of
2.6–3.4, while Ambrose and Norr (1993) and van Klinken (1999) suggest
2.9 to 3.6. One individual in the study sample (Kasapata Burial 3) ex-
hibited an abnormal C/N value in a duplicate sample, though not in both
samples; one individual (Ak'awillay Burial, 2006-1) exhibits a C/N value
of 3.7, but an acceptable collagen yield; another (Kasapata Burial 8)
exhibited a C/N values above the acceptable range of 2.6–3.6, as well as
very low percentages of nitrogen and carbon overall, and this individual's
collagen isotope values are considered unreliable. Percent collagen yields
are available for most individuals in Table 1; in addition to Kasapata
Burial 8, Ak'awillay Burial 5 exhibits a collagen yield outside the ac-
ceptable range, and this individual's values are considered unreliable.
At Kasapata, bone carbonate δ13C ranges from −13.2‰ to
−11.4‰ with a mean and standard deviation of −11.9 ± 0.7‰,
while bone carbonate δ18O values range from 21.0‰ to 21.4‰ with a
mean of 21.2 ± 0.1‰. Bone collagen δ13C values range from −21.2‰
to −15.4‰ with a mean of −19.0 ± 1.7‰, while bone collagen δ15N
values range from 7.3‰ to 11.1‰ with a mean of 9.3 ± 1.2‰.
At Yuthu, bone carbonate δ13C ranges from −13.5‰ to −8.4‰
with a mean of −10.4 ± 1.5‰, while bone carbonate δ18O values
range from 20.0‰ to 22.5‰ with a mean of 20.9 ± 0.8‰. Bone
collagen δ13C values range from −19.8‰ to −14.0‰ with a mean of
−18.0 ± 1.5‰, while bone collagen δ15N values range from 7.8‰ to
11.0‰ with a mean of 9.6 ± 0.9‰. Means and standards of deviation
for individuals from the village-occupation versus cemetery phases at
Yuthu are nearly identical; as such, these data are pooled for sub-
sequent interpretation.
At Ak'awillay, enamel δ13Ccarbonate ranges from −10.1‰ to −4.2‰
with a mean of −8.1 ± 2.5‰, while bone carbonate δ13C ranges from
−11.5‰ to −6.1‰ with a mean of −8.9 ± 1.4‰. Enamel δ18O va-
lues range from 19.5‰ to 22.8‰ with a mean of 21.0 ± 1.3‰, while
bone carbonate δ18O values range from 17.0‰ to 22.2‰ with a mean
of 20.2 ± 1.1‰. Bone collagen δ13C values range from −18.4‰ to
−10.7‰ with a mean of −15.3 ± 1.9‰, while bone collagen δ15N
values range from 8.0‰ to 13.9‰ with a mean of 10.3 ± 1.5‰.
Finally, at Hatun Cotuyoc, enamel δ13Ccarbonate ranges from −8.5‰
to −4.5‰ with a mean of −6.5 ± 2.8‰, while bone δ13Ccarbonate
ranges from −7.2‰ to −4.6‰ with a mean of −5.5 ± 1.2‰. Enamel
δ18O values range from 18.9‰ to 20.5‰ with a mean of
19.7 ± 1.1‰, while bone δ18O values range from 18.9‰ to 22.1‰
with a mean of 19.9 ± 1.5‰. Bone δ13Ccollagen values range from
−14.4‰ to −9.4‰ with a mean of −11.4 ± 1.9‰, while bone δ15N
values range from 8.9‰ to 14.5‰ with a mean of 11.4 ± 2.2‰.

Table 2
Descriptive Isotopic Results for the Cusco-Region sites of Interest.
Site Time Period Enamel Carbonate Bone Carbonate Bone collagen

δ C (vPDB)
13
δ O (vSMW)
18
δ C (vPDB)
13
δ O (vSMW)
18
δ15N (vAIR) δ13C (vPDB)

Kasapata Archaic
Mean −11.9 21.2 9.3 −19.0
1 SD 0.7 0.1 1.2 1.7
Yuthu Formative
Mean −10.4 20.9 9.6 −18.0
1 SD 1.5 0.8 0.8 1.5
Ak'awillay Middle Horizon
Mean −8.1 21.0 −8.9 20.2 10.3 −15.3
1 SD 2.5 1.3 1.4 1.1 1.5 1.9
Hatun Cotuyoc Middle Horizon
Mean −6.5 19.7 −5.5 19.9 11.4 −11.4
1 SD 2.8 1.1 1.2 1.5 2.2 1.9

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Fig. 2. Scatterplot of bone carbonate carbon isotope values from the Cusco region study sample.

The carbon and oxygen isotope values for enamel-bone dyads presented
in Fig. 4 are from Kasapata (N = 1), Yuthu (N = 1), Ak'awillay (N = 7) and
Hatun Cotuyoc (N = 2). Among those individuals (N = 11) with carbonate
isotope values from both enamel and bone, the Δcarbonate values for δ13C
ranged from −2.9‰ to 3.9‰ with a mean of 0.0 ± 1.8‰, while those for
δ18O ranged from −2.5‰ to 1.8‰ with a mean of −0.6 ± 1.4‰.
6. Discussion
6.1. Early-vs. Late-life
The isotopic Δcarbonate values for enamel-bone dyads presented in
Fig. 4 indicate that differences in isotopic values between enamel (early
life) and bone (late life) were minimal, even zero, in the majority of
individuals, with several showing more moderate variation. There is al-
most certainly some enrichment in δ18O in enamel due to consumption of
breastmilk, and some depletion in δ13C values due to the lipid content of
breastmilk. Taking this into account, the differences in isotopic values
from early life to late-life remain modest, and do not appear to vary
according to site. Those individuals with more moderate differences in
isotopic values across the lifespan, however, are all from Ak'awillay and
Hatun Cotuyoc, suggesting that there may have been greater within-life
variation in diet and water source consumption during the Middle Hor-
izon compared to earlier periods. The small sample size for these enamel-
bone dyads precludes any firm interpretation, but echoes the finding of
greater isotopic variation overall at the two Middle Horizon sites.

Fig. 3. Scatterplot of bone collagen carbon and nitrogen isotope values from the Cusco region study sample.

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Fig. 4. Scatterplot of carbon and oxygen isotope values from individual enamel-bone dyads from the Cusco region.

6.2. Diet and water-source estimation
In order to identify those foods and water sources that were likely
consumed within the four Cusco-region sites from among the available
resources in the region, diet was estimated by subtracting 5‰ from
δ13Ccollagen and 3.5‰ from δ15Ncollagen; the mean and 1SD for each site
are plotted in relation to values for common foodstuffs in the Cusco
region and elsewhere in the Central Andes (Turner et al., 2010), shown
in Fig. 5. Carbonate carbon isotope values from individuals with both
were plotted along three regression lines proposed by Kellner and
Schoeninger (2007: 1110). Carbonate-versus-collagen δ13C data are
plotted in Fig. 6 for each individual with both data points available, and
whose C/N values fall within expected ranges. To refine these bivariate
estimates further, values were plotted in a three-dimensional graph
along with five centroids, each representing a diet profile, produced by
Froehle et al. (2012) from their multivariate regression model for es-
timating diet from δ13Ccarbonate, δ13Ccollagen and δ15N, shown in Fig. 7.
When the individual data points for all three bone isotopic values

Fig. 5. Scatterplot of mean isotope values ± 1SD of estimated diet for each site sample, along with common and/or available indigenous food resources in the Cusco
region, reported by Turner et al. (2010). *Data from Miller et al. (2010) **Data from Tieszen and Chapman (1993).

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Fig. 6. Bivariate plot of carbon isotope values from bone collagen and carbonate for the Cusco-region sites, compared to regression lines for dietary estimation from
Kellner and Schoeninger (2007:1122).

Fig. 7. Multivariate isotopic plot of carbon and nitrogen isotope values from bone collagen and carbonate from the Cusco-region sites; mean values from each site are
compared to K-means cluster centroids for dietary estimation developed by Froehle et al. (2012).

are plotted in comparison to the K-means cluster centroids developed
by Froehle et al. (2012) and the regression lines developed by Kellner
and Schoeninger (2007), several interesting trends emerge. The first is
chronological: mean isotope values for Kasapata and Yuthu are nearly
identical, and cluster near the range of diets weighted toward lower-
trophic level C3 protein and mostly C3 energy sources, though with
some inclusion of C4 energy sources among the Yuthu sample. In con-
trast, the individuals from Ak'awillay and Hatun Cotuyoc trend toward
mixed C3/C4 protein sources and mixed C3/C4 energy sources. As
shown in Fig. 5, these results suggest diets at the two earlier sites
dominated by C3 plants such as tubers, nitrogen-fixing legumes, and
meat from terrestrial animals consuming C3 forage. At the two Middle
Horizon sites, diets were more likely a mix of C3 plants such as tubers
and legumes, C4 plants such as maize, and as meat from llamas and
lower-trophic level animals consuming a mix of C3 and C4 forage.
The second trend may relate more to state control: of the two
Middle Horizon samples, the individuals from the Wari colony site of
Hatun Cotuyoc appear to incorporate a greater proportion of C4

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resources such as maize and protein either from higher trophic levels,
such as terrestrial meat, or from kiwicha (amaranth), compared to those
from Ak'awillay. However, kiwicha's δ15N values are remarkably
high—upwards of 13‰ (Turner et al., 2010), higher than all but two
individuals from the indigenous village site of Ak'awillay and one from
Hatun Cotuyoc (Fig. 3). Taking into account a roughly +3.5‰ frac-
tionation between diet and bone collagen (O'Connell et al., 2001), this
suggests that if kiwicha was incorporated into the diet during the Middle
Horizon, it still played a minor role compared to other dietary resources
and that terrestrial meat is a likelier source of dietary protein. It is also
possible that differences in subsistence regimes track to differences in
elevation between Ak'awillay (3480 masl), which is situated between
well-watered valley-bottom quechua lands (3350 masl) and rolling suni
plains (≥3600 masl), and Hatun Cotuyoc (3150 masl), which is located
on the valley floor but has accessible hillslopes extending to 4000 masl.
However, given that both are at the upper end of the quechua ecozone,
and given the long history of vertical economies in the Peruvian high-
lands (Murra, 1980), it is unlikely that localized microclimate differ-
ences between the two sites would result in significant differences in
subsistence.
Oxygen isotope values in bone and enamel carbonate vary some-
what, though all fall within a 4‰ range, and one that suggests only
moderate evaporative pressures acting on consumed water sources. The
following modified formula from Iacumin et al. (1996; see also Dupras
and Schwarcz, 2001) was used to convert enamel and bone δ18Ocarbonate
to the estimated δ18O of imbibed water:
(δ18OCarbonate – 31.2)/0.78 = δ18OWater
Based on this estimate, estimated δ18OWater values range from
−15.7 to −11.1‰, well within the range of values for the Cusco region
reported by Bershaw et al. (2016: Supplementary Data) in a systematic
isotopic survey of rivers and streams throughout the central Andean
Plateau. Interestingly, δ18O values at the hunter and gatherer site of
Kasapata cluster tightly together with almost no variation, while those
at the three village sites show greater variation. These run counter to
common expectations that hunters and gatherers would yield great
variation due to assumed mobility. The villagers of the other three sites
were expected to provide less variation, given the more sedentary
nature of village life. Values of δ18O in skeletal tissues reflect the δ18O
of consumed water, which in turn is affected by climatic influences on
evaporative pressure such as aridity, temperature and altitude. The
tight clustering of δ18O values from individuals at Kasapata may reflect
incorrect assumptions concerning the mobility of Archaic-period peo-
ples in the Cusco region.
The variation in δ18O among the individuals at Yuthu may support
Davis (2011) suggestion that individuals moved about the overall re-
gion as part of a regional exchange network connecting Yuthu and the
earlier phases of Ak'awillay an axis of settlements running north-south
between the quechua lands of the Xaquixaguana and Sacred Valleys.
Yuthu's position in what Davis (2011) argues is a linear trade route
likely resulted in greater regional movement among members of the
Yuthu sample, consistent with the wider range of variation in oxygen
isotopic values compared to the Kasapata sample.
The variation in δ18O at Ak'awillay and Hatun Cotuyoc could si-
milarly reflect some mobility within the region related to economic
exchange, intermarriage, or tributary labor for Wari projects (McEwan,
2005). Recent work by Knudson (2009) demonstrates substantial δ18O
variation within populations with estimated “local” strontium isotope
values, although similar work by Buzon et al. (2011) in the Nasca re-
gion suggests that this variation is not uniformly extreme. Together,
these studies underscore the need to more fully elucidate the various
environmental and metabolic factors influencing δ18O in humans. In
particular, they highlight the potential variability in water sources
consumed by people living in the same ecological zones. Given the
increased importance of liquid sustenance in the form of soups and
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Journal of Archaeological Science 98 (2018) 137–148
brews such as chicha hypothesized at Ak'awillay (Bélisle, 2015) and the
increased likelihood of feasting and chicha consumption at Hatun Co-
tuyoc (Glowacki, 2002), it is possible that during the Middle Horizon,
variation in δ18O indicates not increased mobility but increased varia-
tion in the isotopic composition of consumed water.
7. Conclusion
This study represents the first systematic isotopic exploration of diet
and subsistence in the Cusco region, spanning more than six millennia
from the earliest known hunter-gatherer settlement of the region,
dating to the Archaic Period, through the agricultural based villages of
the Middle Horizon. The multi-isotopic results presented here support
several noteworthy interpretations. First, while relying on hunter-
gatherer subsistence, uniform oxygen isotope values suggest that the
individuals at Kasapata were either relatively sedentary, and/or that
there was little migration of individuals into the group from elsewhere.
These results suggest that the transition to agriculture was not as clear-
cut in Cuzco as might be assumed, as late hunter-gatherers settled into
local landscapes more permanently. There is also reason to believe that
early agropastoralists continued to exploit wild food sources in a cen-
turies-long transition toward the commitment to agriculture (Chepstow-
Lusty, 2011), which might gotten most firmly fixed as population
growth and the introduction of more reliable strains of maize en-
trenched specific agrarian strategies and new forms of social hierarchy.
Second, despite a shift in subsistence regimes between the Archaic
and Formative periods, carbon and nitrogen isotopic data are nearly
identical among the individuals from Yuthu and Kasapata and suggest
uniform diets based on terrestrial C3 resources. During the Middle
Horizon period, C4 resources including maize and terrestrial meat play
a greater role in the diet. Wari's influence at the Hatun Cotuyoc colony
is evident in a greater inclusion of C4 resources, likely from high-value
foods such as maize and terrestrial meat, than at the largely autono-
mous village of Ak'awillay. This discrepancy between Hatun Cotuyoc
and Ak'awillay is more likely due to a difference in cultural practice,
and not in environment, since both settlements are located in or around
prime maize lands. Ak'awillay sits on a low hill near the upper eleva-
tional limit of maize cultivation; however, the area immediately sur-
rounding the site, where the lack of Middle Horizon occupation sug-
gests that it could have been used for cultivation, is well within the
altitudinal range for maize agriculture. Elsewhere in the Andes, Wari
settlements have been associated with large-scale feasting events and
consumption of chicha brewed from maize and from molle (Schinus
molle) berries (e.g., Finucane, 2007, Sayre et al., 2012; see also Moseley
et al., 2005), which are argued to have been used by Wari state re-
presentatives as diplomacy and reciprocity for labor extraction. The
differing diet at Ak'awillay might be significant and suggests that the
village and its occupants were not integrated in Wari political economy.
This supports previous research conducted at the site, where Wari
material culture was very rare (Bélisle, 2015).
This difference in oxygen isotope values between the two Middle
Horizon sites tentatively supports archaeological evidence of over-
lapping but divergent foodways; that is, more soups and stews at
Ak'awillay and greater consumption of chicha de maíz and/or chicha de
molle at Hatun Cotuyoc. The results from these four sites also under-
score the importance of considering foodways as well as mobility in
interpreting oxygen isotope data; while δ18O variation at Yuthu could
indicate mobility from participation in interconnected regional econo-
mies, variation of comparable magnitude at Ak'awillay and Hatun
Cotuyoc might be more strongly influenced by subsistence practices and
differences in food preparation than by regional mobility. Differences in
food preparation between the latter two sites would reflect the different
position of each during the dynamic period of Wari colonization and
empire-building, further elucidating the role of food and foodways in
the social and cultural complexity in this important Andean region.
B.L. Turner et al.
Acknowledgments
Excavations were supported by grants from the National Geographic
Society (Kasapata); the Fulbright IIE Program and National Science
Foundation (DDIG-0832325), and the University of Michigan (Yuthu);
Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (756-2011-
0405 & 752-2003-1515), National Science Foundation (BCS-0726568),
Wenner-Gren Foundation, University of Michigan, Trent University and
Millsaps College (Ak'awillay); the National Science Foundation (BCS-
127310), University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Dedman College,
and Southern Methodist University (Hatun Cotuyoc). Isotopic analysis
was supported by funding from Dartmouth College and the University
of Texas at Austin. Many thanks also to Miriam Aráoz Silva for assis-
tance with sample collection and export to the United States, and to
Jason Curtis in the Department of Geological Sciences at the University
of Florida Gainesville for mass spectrometry analysis.
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