Module Contents Hours

Introduction: Need and comparison between traditional, non-traditional

1
and micro & nano machining process.
Powder Metallurgy: Need of P/M - Powder Production methods:-
Atomization, electrolysıs, Reduction of oxides, Carbonyls (Process 1
parameters, characteristics of powder produced in each method).
Powder characteristics: properties of fine powder, size, size distribution,
1
shape, compressibility, purity etc.
Mixing – Compaction:- techniques, pressure distribution, HIP & CIP. 1
I
Mechanism of sintering, driving force for pore shirking, solid and liquid
phase sintering - Impregnation and Infiltration Advantages, 1
disadvantages and specific applications of P/M.
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC): need – relays - logic ladder
1
program –timers, simple problems only.
Point to point, straight cut and contouring positioning - incremental and
absolute systems – open loop and closed loop systems - control loops in 1
contouring systems: principle of operation.

1
Page

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

Module I

POWDER METALLURGY
Powder metallurgy (PM) is a metal working process for forming precision metal components
from metal powders. The metal powder is first pressed into product shape at room
temperature. This is followed by heating (sintering) that causes the powder particles to fuse
together without melting. Strength and other properties are imparted to the components by
sintering operations.
The most commonly used metals in P/M are iron, copper, aluminium, tin, nickel, titanium and
refractory metals.
Metal powder production techniques are used to manufacture a wide spectrum of metal
powders designed to meet the requirements of a large variety of applications. Powders of
almost all metals can be produced. Various powder production processes allow precise control
of the chemical and physical characteristics of powders and permit the development of
specific attributes for the desired applications. Powder production processes are constantly
being improved to meet the quality, cost and performance requirements of all types of
applications. Metal powders are produced by mechanical or chemical methods. The most
commonly used methods include water and gas atomization, milling, mechanical alloying,
electrolysis, and chemical reduction of oxides.
The parts produced by PM have adequate physical and mechanical properties while
completely meeting the functional performance characteristics. The cost of producing a
component of given shape and the required dimensional tolerances by PM is generally lower
than the cost of casting or making it as a wrought product, because of extremely low scrap and
the fewer processing steps. The cost advantage is the main reason for selecting PM as a
process of production for high – volume component which needs to be produced exactly to, or
close to, final dimensions. The rate of production of parts is quite high, a few hundred to
several thousand per hour. Parts can be produced which are impregnated with oil or plastic, or
infiltrated with lower melting point metal. They can be electroplated, heat treated, and
machined if necessary.
Industrial applications of PM parts are several. These include self – lubricating bearings,
porous metal filters and a wide range of engineered shapes, such as gears, cams, brackets,
sprockets, etc.
Basic steps of the Powder Metallurgy Process
The manufacturing of parts by powder metallurgy process involves the following steps:
(a) Manufacturing of metal powders
(b) Blending and mixing of powders
(c) Compacting
(d) Sintering
(e) Secondary and Finishing operations
2
Page

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

Preparation of metal powders
Powders of almost all metals can be produced. Powder production processes are constantly
being improved to meet the quality, cost and performance requirements of all types of
applications. Which powder production process is used depends on the required production
rate, the desired powder properties and the properties desired in the final part. There are
various methods available to produce powders, depending upon the type and nature of metal.

Some of the important processes are:

 Atomization
 Reduction methods (Chemical)
 Electrolytic Deposition
 Carbonyls (Thermal decomposition)
 Crushing and Milling (also called comminution)

Chemical and electrolytic methods are used to produce high purity powders. Mechanical
milling is widely used to produce hard metals and oxides.
3
Page

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

Atomization
It is a process molten metal is disintegrated into fine metal particles. In this method the molten
metal stream is subjecting to the impact of high energy jets of gas or liquid which break up
metal stream into small droplets and rapidly frozen before the drops come into contact with
each other. Air, nitrogen and argon are commonly used gases, and water is the liquid most
widely used. It is the dominant method for producing metal powders from aluminium, brass,
iron, alloy steel, super-alloy, titanium alloy and other alloys etc.
Methods of metal-powder production by atomization:
o gas atomization;
o water atomization;
o vacuum atomization
o centrifugal atomization (spinning disk or cup, rotating electrode methods)
Water atomization: High pressure water jets are used to bring about the disintegration of
molten metal stream. Water has got quenching ability. But water should not chemically react
with metals or alloys used.

Gas atomization: Here instead of water, high velocity argon, nitrogen and helium gas jets are
used.
Vacuum atomization: In this method,
when a molten metal supersaturated with a
gas under pressure is suddenly exposed into
vacuum, the gas coming from metal
solution expands, causing atomization of
the metal stream. This process gives very
high purity powder. Usually hydrogen is
used as gas.
Centrifugal atomization (disk or cup)
Centrifugal force can be used to break up the liquid as it is removed from the periphery of
spinning disk/cup. The molten metal is disintegrated into fine droplets as it falls on the
rotating disc.
Rotating consumable electrode method
Another method is that an electric arc is struck between non-rotating, non-consumable
tungsten electrode and rotating consumable electrode (metal from which power is to be
4

produced).The metal droplets from the rotating consumable electrode are thrown off, are
Page

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

collected and are finally crushed to the required powder size. The process is carried out in a
chamber filled with inert gas.

Process controlling parameters determining size and shape of particles in atomization

process
1. Metal flow rate
2. Pressure of the stream of air or gas.
3. Temperature of the stream.
Reduction method (Chemical methods)
Pure metal is obtained by reducing its oxide with a suitable reducing gas at an elevated
temperature below the melting point. Selected ore is crushed, mixed with reducing gas or
solid (carbon monoxide, hydrogen etc) and passed through a continuous furnace where
reaction takes place leaving a cake of sponge iron which is then further treated by crushing.
Fe3O4 + 4CO +(heat) → 3Fe + 4CO2
2CuO2 + 4H2(heat) → 2Cu + 4H2O
The resulting particles are of irregular shape and are quite porous and spongy. Readily
compressible and have good green strength. Furnace temperature, amount of gas and its
purity are the controlling factors. This process is cheap and a large amount of powder is made
by this method. It is used in the manufacture of Fe, Cu, Ni, Mo and Co.
Electrolysis method (Electrolytic Deposition)
To produce iron, impure steel acts as anodes in tanks containing electrolyte. Sheets of
stainless steel are placed in the tank acted as cathode. When DC current is passed through an
electrolyte, pure iron gets deposited on cathode. The cathode plates are then removed and the
electrolytic iron is stripped from them. Additional crushing and milling is necessary. This
method is used for making copper, iron, silver and tantalum powders. Electrolytic powders are
of high purity, soft spongy dendrite structure.
5
Page

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

Processes parameters of electrolyte method of powder preparation
1. Electrolyte composition and strength
2. Current density
3. Temperature of electrolyte
Advantages of electrolysis
1. High degree of purity
2. Uniformity in characteristics
3. Excellent compacting and sintering property (high quality product)
Disadvantages
1. Low production rate
Carbonyls method (decomposition method)
Carbonyl process is used to produce powders of high purity from nickel and iron etc. Nickel
and iron can be made to combine with CO to form volatile carbonyls. The carbonyl vapor is
then decomposed in a cooled chamber so that almost spherical particles of very pure metals
are deposited.
 The impure nickel reacts with carbon monoxide at 50–200 bar pressure to form the nickel
carbonyl gas, leaving the impurities as solids at temperature 150-200 0C. The resulting
carbonyl is then decomposed by heating it to a temperature of 200 – 300 0C at atmospheric
pressure yielding powder of high purity, however, at higher cost.

 Iron
F e (impure iron ore)+5 CO→F e (CO )5 ↑ (gas)
F e (CO )5 → Fe +5 CO (Fine iron powder + carbon monoxide)
Carbonyls powder is spherical, fine and porous with an onion skin structure. Carbonyl powder
has high purity (99.5%) and excellent sintering properties and flow ability.
Comminution method (Mechanical pulverization by crushing and milling)
It is mechanical method of powder preparation involving breaking solid particles in
pulverizing mills (ball, vibratory, hummer). This method is generally applied for the
preparation of powders of brittle materials. Metal particles is mixed with ball mills and rotated
6
Page

or send through the rolling mill to pulverize the metal to form powder.

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

Metal powder characteristics or Properties of fine powder
Characteristics/properties of metal powder
1. Size and shape of powder (Fineness)
2. Powder distribution (homogeneous)
3. Purity of powder
4. Flowablity
5. Apparent Density
6. Chemical property (Composition of powder)
7. Compressibility
8. Surface area or aspect ratio
Flow rate: It is the ability of powder to flow readily to fill the mould cavity. It is a very
important property, since the minimum time of filling improves the production rates and
economy. Very fine particles will flow just like a liquid. When such powder is pressed in a
die, it will flow into complex die cavities. Flow rate or flow ability depends on the:
 Shape of the powder particle
 Size of the powder particle
 Size distribution of the powder particle
Green strength: Green strength is used to describe the strength of the pressed powder after
compacting, but before sintering. The green strength increases with the increase of
compaction pressure and apparent density.
1. It helps to retain the sharp edges from damage during ejection and handling time
2. To handle the part for quality measurements,
3. To handle for sintering operations.
Apparent Density: Density of loose powder after filling the volume. It depends upon the
particle shape, size and size distribution. The apparent density of irregularly shaped particles
will be lower than that of spherical particles and fine particles. And Green density is the
density of powder after the compacting process.
Compressibility and compression ratio: It is the measure of the powder’s ability to deform
under applied pressure. It is also defined as the ratio of the volume of the powder poured into
the die to the volume of the pressed compact.
density after sin tering process
7

compressibility=
Page

density before compacting

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

Particle shape: The particle shape depends on the method of powder manufacture. The
various shapes are spherical, rounded, angular, dendrite, porous and irregular etc. The particle
shape influences the flow characteristics of powders.
The particle shape has an effect on packing of a powder and has an influence on its
compacting and sintering properties and the mechanical strength of the sintered product. The
irregularly shaped particles have reduced apparent density and flow rate, but good pressing
and sintering properties. Whereas the spherical particles have maximum apparent density and
flow rate, but reduced pressing properties and good sintering properties. Dendrite powders too
have reduced apparent density and poor flow rates.

Particle size: It is determined by passing the powder through standard sieves or by

microscopic measurement. The particle size influences the control of porosity, compressibility
and amount of shrinkage.
Particle size distribution: Powders containing variable particle size will result in greater
density because of finer particles filling up the voids between large particles. But normally
during mixing, the finer particles have the tendency to separate and segregate. Thus, it is
efficient to use uniform size particles and rely on the compacting pressure to get the required
final density. Particle size distribution is important because it affects the on the quality of
finished product easiness to fill the die.
Surface Area/ aspect ratio: The specific surface of a powder is defined as the total surface
area per unit weight. It indicates the area available for bonding. It depends on size, shape,
density and surface conditions of the particle. High specific surface results in high sintering
rate.
Purity: Metal powders should be free from impurities as the impurities reduce the life of dies
and effect sintering process. The oxides and the gaseous impurities can be removed from the
part during sintering by use of reducing atmosphere.
Mixing and Blending
A single powder may not fulfill all the requisite properties and hence, powders of different
materials with wide range of mechanical properties are blended to form a final part.
In this step, more than one powder is mixed thoroughly with lubricants, adhesives and binders
and blended to ensure their even distribution.
1. Blending imparts uniformity in the shapes of the powder particles,
2. Mixing facilitates mixing of different powder particles to impart wide ranging
physical and mechanical properties,
3. Lubricants can be added during the blending process to improve the flow
characteristics of the powder particles reducing friction between particles and dies,
8

4. Binders can be added to the mixture of the powder particles to enhance the green
Page

strength during the powder compaction process

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

Blending: It is the process of mixing powder of the same chemical composition but different
sizes. Different particle sizes are often blended to reduce porosity.
Mixing: Process of combining powders of different chemistries (nickel and iron, zirconium
alumina, wax, tungsten carbide) to improve the properties is called mixing. Mixing depends
on the powder material, particle size, particle shape, surface conditions and environment
conditions such as temperature and pressure.

9
Page

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

Compacting
Blended powders are pressed in dies under high pressure to form them into the required shape.
The work part after compaction is called a green compact or simply a green, the word green
meaning not yet fully processed. The compaction is done to bring the finely divided particles
of powder into close proximity while imparting the desired part configuration. The following
methods are adopted for compacting:
1. Die Pressing
2. Centrifugal compacting
3. Injection moulding
4. Extrusion
5. Rolling
6. Slip casting
7. Iso-static moulding
Die Pressing: The metal powders are placed in a die cavity and compressed to form a
component shaped to the contour of the die. The pressure used for producing green compact
of the component varies from 80 MPa to 1400 MPa, depending upon the material and the
characteristics of the powder used.

Single Action Die Compaction: Used to manufacture flat, thin parts such as washers, discs,
thin rings etc. The lower punch is stationery during the application of pressure by the motion
of the upper punch acting from the direction only on the powder placed in the cavity.
Double Action Die Compaction: The powder is compacted simultaneously from opposite
directions by both the top and bottom punches. Equal or different amounts of pressure may be
employed from each direction.

Cold Iso-Static pressing :( CIP)

In this method, the powdered material is contained in a tightly sealed flexible mould subjected
to uniform pressure (65-650 MPa) is applied simultaneously from all sides thereby achieving
10

uniform density and strength. After pressing, the compact is removed from chamber. The
pressure-transmitting medium used is liquid such as water, oil mixture.
Page

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

 The powder is loaded in a shaped flexible
envelope to produce desired shape of the
pressed part and tightly sealed against
leakage. The flexible envelope is usually
made from natural rubber, synthetic rubber,
plastics, thin metal foils. Isostatic pressing
is generally used to produce large PM parts
to near-net shapes.

The flexible envelope should possess the following characteristics:

1. Flexible mould
2. It must be completely impervious to the pressurizing fluid.
3. It must be easily sealed.
4. It must be rigid enough to withstand the internal pressure
Advantages of cold Iso-Static Pressing (comparing die compacting)
1. Uniform and high density compact
2. Higher dimensional accuracy- near net shaped product
3. Better mechanical properties like ductility, strength, hardness etc
4. More complex geometrical shapes can be made
5. Higher green strength
6. Absence of lubricant
7. Reduced friction
Disadvantages
1. Higher equipment cost
2. Low productivity
3. Dimensional control is less
4. Flexible mould life is less
Application of Isostatic Pressing: Wide use in aviation defence, medical equipment to produce
cutting tools, automotive cylinder liners, corrosion resistant components etc.
11
Page

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

Hot Isostatic pressing (HIP)
Hot Iso-static pressing is a compacting process where high temperature and pressure is
applied simultaneously (3-dimensions) to produce a dense component. The pressure is
uniform in all directions (isostatic). At high temperatures, the hermetic container deforms
plastically and the powder is compacted within it under pressure. No further sintering process
is needed here as the combination of heat and pressure during the process is done. Metal or
glass is used for making the hermetic container. The pressurizing medium is a gas (inert
argon/helium) with a pressure 100 to 200 MPa and temperatures to 2200°C.

Hot iso-static pressing (CIP) is combining the compaction and sintering processes in PM
production process. So it eliminates separate sintering.
Advantages
1. Little or no porosity
2. Better surface finish
3. Neat net shape product
4. Improvements in mechanical and physical properties, fatigue, surface finish, reliability
5. Fast delivery
6. More uniform strength
7. Less pressure requirement
Disadvantages
1. Very expensive
2. Protective environment is needed
12
Page

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

Sintering process
Sintering is a heat treatment process applied to a green compact (product after the
compacting) to impart strength in a controlled atmosphere (reducing atmosphere which
protects oxidation of metal powders). Sintering increases, the bond between the particles and
therefore strengthens the powder metal compact. The temperature used for sintering is below
the (0.6 to 0.8 times) melting point of powder material. The atoms in the materials diffuse
across the boundaries of the particles, fusing the particles together and creating one solid
piece. Sintering reduces the porosity and enhances properties such as strength, electrical
conductivity, translucency and thermal conductivity

Mechanism of sintering
Sintering occurs by diffusion of atoms through the microstructure at high temperature. The
atoms in the materials diffuse across the boundaries of the particles, fusing the particles together
and creating one solid piece. The main driving force during the sintering process is the
reduction of energy due to the reduced surface area. Powders with a greater surface area will
have a higher driving force towards bonding. The porosity of the material decreases due to the
bridge formation among particles given by the minimization of the internal energy of the system.
Stages of Sintering
This process is carried out a constant temperature and time is varied to obtain the desirable
results. The four phases of sintering are:
1. Initial stage: Local bonding: Particles stick together and neck formation
2. Second stage: Neck growth
3. Final stage: Pores are round up then finally closed

The time, temperature and the furnace atmosphere are the three critical factors that control the
sintering process. Sintering process enhances the density of the final part by filling up the
incipient holes and increasing the area of contact among the powder particles in the compact
perform

.
13
Page

Microscopic scale the changes that occur during sintering of metallic powders.

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

Types of sintering
Basically, sintering processes can be divided into two types: solid state sintering and liquid
phase sintering.
Solid state sintering occurs when the powder compact is densified wholly in a solid state at
the sintering temperature. No liquid is present and atomic diffusion in the solid state produces
joining of the particles and reduction of porosity. All densification is achieved through
changes in particle shape, without particle rearrangement.
Liquid phase sintering Liquid phase sintering is the process of adding an additive to the
powder which will melt before the matrix phase. This also occurs when the powder contains a
component, having the melting point lower, than the melting point of the base metal. For
materials which are hard to sinter, liquid phase sintering is commonly used. Materials for
which liquid phase sintering is common are Si 3N4, WC, SiC, and more. Some liquid phase
present in the powder compact will enhance sintering process.

The process of liquid phase sintering has three stages:

1. Rearrangement – As the liquid melts capillary action will pull the liquid into pores
and also cause grains to rearrange into a more favorable packing arrangement.
2. Solution-Precipitation –atoms will preferentially go into solution and then precipitate
in areas of lower chemical potential where particles are non close or in contact.
3. Final Densification – liquid movement from efficiently packed regions into pores.

The changes occur in sintering

1. Strength, hardness and fracture toughness
2. Electrical and thermal conductivity
3. Permeability to gases and liquids
4. Average grain number, size, shape and distribution
5. Average pore size and shape
6. Distribution of pore size and shape
7. Chemical composition and crystal structure

Driving energy for sintering

The driving force for densification is the change in free energy from the decrease in surface
area and lowering of the surface free energy. On a microscopic scale, material transfer is
affected by the change in pressure and differences in free energy across the curved surface. If
14

the size of the particle is small (and its curvature is high), these effects become very large in
magnitude.
Page

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

Pre-Sintering
Sometimes product after the sintering process is rather difficult for secondary operation as
product is hard and strong. And cost of operation also will be high as tool life is less.
So the green compact is heated to a temperature well below the final sintering temperature and
it will gain enough strength to be handled and machined without any difficulty. This process
is necessary when holes are to be drilled in the end product. Pre-sintering in addition removes
lubricants and binders added to the powder during blending operation. Pre-sintering can be
avoided if no machining of the final product is desired.
Sintering Atmosphere
The choice of furnace temperature depends on the characteristics of the material and the
properties desired from the sintered product.
Functions of the sintering atmosphere
1. It must prevent oxidation on the metal surface at the sintering temperature
2. It must not contaminate the metal powder compact at the sintering temperature.
The atmosphere prevailing in various types of sintering furnaces are considered to be:
1. Reducing atmosphere like dry H2and CO
2. Neutral atmosphere
3. Oxidizing atmosphere like O2 and air
Vacuum sintering is costly and therefore employed on a small scale in very special cases like
research work.

Continuous sintering furnace

15
Page

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

Some secondary and finishing operations
Sometimes additional operations are carried out on sintered PM parts in order to further
improve their properties or to impart special characteristics.
1. Impregnation. The inherent porosity of PM parts is utilized by impregnating them with a
fluid like oil or grease. A typical application of this operation is for sintered bearings and
bushings that are internally lubricated with upto 30% oil by volume by simply immersing
them in heated oil. Such components have a continuous supply of lubricant by capillary
action, during their use. Universal joint is typical grease – impregnated PM part.
2. Infiltration. The pores of sintered part are filled with some low melting point metal with
the result that part's hardness and tensile strength are improved. A slug of metal to be
impregnated is kept in close contact with the sintered component and together they are
heated to the melting point of the slug. The molten metal infiltrates the pores by capillary
action. When the process is complete, the component has greater density, hardness, and
strength. Copper is often used for the infiltration of iron – base PM components. Lead has
also been used for infiltration of components like bushes for which lower frictional
characteristics are needed.
3. Forging. The sintered PM parts may be hot or cold forged to obtain exact shape, good
surface finish, good dimensional tolerances, and a uniform and fine grain size. Forged PM
parts are being increasingly used for such applications as highly stressed automotive, jet –
engine and turbine components.
4. Heat Treatment. Sintered PM components may be heat treated for obtaining greater
hardness or strength in them.
5. Machining. The sintered component may be machined by turning, milling, drilling,
threading, grinding, etc. to obtain various geometric features.
6. Joining. PM parts can be welded by several conventional methods. Electric resistance
welding is better suited than oxy- acetylene welding and arc welding because of oxidation
of the interior porosity. Argon arc welding is suitable for stainless steel PM parts
Advantages of powder metallurgy
The main advantages of P/M process over the conventional material processing methods such
as casting, forging and rolling are the following
1. PM parts can be mass produced to net shape or near net shape, eliminating or reducing
the need for subsequent machining which saves time and cost. It also reduces wastes
by material about 97% of the starting powders are converted to product
2. Special alloys can be synthesized. Wide variety of materials (metals and non-metals)
and composition can be made possible to impart required properties like magnetic, and
mechanical properties
3. PM parts can be made with a specified level of porosity, to produce porous metal parts.
Examples: filters, oil impregnated bearings and gears
4. Parts can be produced from high melting point refractory metals with respectively less
difficulty and at less cost.
16

5. Difficult to machine materials like carbide and tungsten can be made by this method
6. Wide property control is possible with the product with variation in composition and
Page

further heat treatment

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

 7. Certain metals that are difficult to fabricate by other methods can be shaped by powder
metallurgy. Example: Tungsten filaments for incandescent lamp bulbs are made by PM
8. Certain alloy combinations made by PM cannot be produced in other ways
9. Close dimensional control is possible when comparing with other process
10. PM production methods can be automated for economical production for large
production volume.
11. More eco-friendly process

Limitations and Disadvantages with PM Processing

1. High tooling and equipment costs
2. Metallic powders are expensive
3. Problems in storing and handling metal powders (Degradation over time, fire hazards)
4. Limitations on part geometry because metal powders do not readily flow laterally in the
die during pressing
5. Variations in density throughout part may be a problem, especially for complex
geometries
6. Some powders (such as aluminum, magnesium, titanium and zirconium) in a finally
divided state present fire hazard and risk of explosion.
7. Low melting point metal powders (such as of zinc, tin, cadmium) give thermal
difficulties during sintering operation, as most oxides of these metals cannot be reduced
at temperatures below the melting point.
8. Powder metallurgy is not economical for small scale production.
9. Articles produced by powder metallurgy process possess poor ductility

Application of powder metallurgy

There is a great variety of machine components that are produced from metal powders, many
of these are put to use without any machining operation carried out on them. Following are
some of the prominent PM Products.
Self-Lubricating Bearing and Filters:
These are used where lubricating is not possible. Porous filters can be manufactured and are
used to remove, undesirable materials from liquids and gases.

Cutting Tools and Dies: Cemented carbide cutting tool inserts find extensive applications in
machine shops. These are produced by PM from tungsten carbide powder mixed with cobalt
binder.
Machinery Parts: Several machinery parts including gears, bushes and bearings, sprockets,
rotors are made from metal powders mixed with sufficient graphite to give to produce the
desired carbon content.
Friction Materials: These are made by powder metallurgy. Clutch liners and Brake bands are
the example of friction materials.
Gears and Pump Rotors: Gears and pump rotor for automobile oil pumps are manufactured
17

by powder metallurgy.
Page

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

Refractory Materials: These basically include four metals tungsten, molybdenum, tantalum
and niobium. Refractory metals as well as their alloys are manufactured by powder
metallurgy.
Magnets: Small magnets produced from different compositions of powders of iron,
aluminium, nickel and cobalt has shown excellent performance, far superior to that cast.
Electrical Parts: Several combinations such as copper – tungsten, cobalt – tungsten, silver –
tungsten, copper-nickel, and silver – molybdenum have been used for production of these
parts. These parts are required to have excellent electrical conductively, be wear resistant, and
somewhat refractory.
Major characteristics of conventional machining

Traditional machining is mostly based on removal of materials using tools that are harder than
the materials themselves. Traditional machining methods are often ineffective in machining
hard materials like ceramics and composites or machining under very tight tolerances as in
micro machined components. Nano level surface finish on complex geometries which are
impossible to achieve by any traditional methods
Need for Non-Traditional Machining

Some of the major requirements of developing non-tradition machining processes are as

follow.
1. Machining too hard material.
2. Forming complex parts.
3. Required better surface finish and negligible tolerance.
4. Temperature can change internal properties of work piece.
5. Work piece is too slender and flexible to clamp.

18
Page

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

A manufacturing system consists of machine and control system. In the past humans were the
main methods for controlling a system. More recently electricity has been used for control and
early electrical control was based on relays. These relays allow power to be switched on and
off without a mechanical switch. Depending on the type of technology used, controllers can
be divided into pneumatic, hydraulic, electrical and electronic controllers. Frequently, a
combination of different technologies is used. Microprocessors are now rapidly replacing the
mechanical cam-operated controllers and being used in general to carry out control functions.
Introduction to control devices relay- timers and counter

Relay
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Relays are switches that open and close circuits
electromechanically or electronically. Relays control one electrical circuit by opening and
closing contacts in another circuit. Relays are the primary protection as well as switching
devices in most of the control processes or equipment’s. Early electrical control systems were
composed of mainly relays and switches.
Relays are either electromechanical relays or solid-state relays. In electromechanical
relays (EMR), contacts are opened or closed by a magnetic force. With solid-state
relays (SSR), there are no contacts and switching is totally electronic.

Working of an electromagnetic relay

Apply a voltage to the coil and a magnetic field is generated. This magnetic field sucks the
contacts of the relay in, causing them to make a connection. These contacts can be considered
to be a switch. Relays are ideally suited for controlling everything from lights and motors to
telecommunication, audio, and video signals. Relays come in many sizes and ratings. 
Basic parts and functions of electromechanical relays include coil, armature and contacts
19
Page

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

The Solid State Relay (Static Relay):
The term static‟ implies that the relay has no moving mechanical parts in it. Compared to the
Electromechanical Relay, the Solid Static relay has longer life-span, decreased noise when
operates and faster respond speed. However, it is not as robust as the Electromechanical
Relay. Static relays were manufactured as semiconductor devices which incorporate
transistors, ICs, capacitors, small microprocessors etc. The static relays have been designed to
replace almost all the functions which were being achieved earlier by electromechanical
relays.
In an SSR a small input voltage, typically 3 to 32VDC, is used to illuminate an LED. When
the LED is turned on, an output photo-sensitive device, such as a TRIAC, turns on and
conducts current.

Relays typically have two or three connections: Common, Normally Open, and Normally
Closed. Relays often have two ratings: AC and DC.  These rating indicate how much power
can be switched through the relays.
The NO Normally relay has an opened circuit state when no current is applied to its coil so
basically it disconnects the power to the load in the inactive state.  When current is applied to
its coil the generated magnetic field switches the armature and closes the contact so you can
say that it turned ON the load (fan, light bulb, etc). Normal Closed contact allows the current
to flow when the contact is still or de-energised state
20
Page

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

Timers
In many control tasks there is a need to control time. As the name implies is used for timing
purpose. It consists of internal clock, a count-value register and a accumulator. A timer starts
timing after receiving a start signal. When a pre-assigned timing value is reached, it outputs a
signal
For example, a motor or a pump might need to be controlled to operate for a particular
interval of time, or perhaps be switched on after some time interval. PLCs thus have timers as
built-in devices. A common approach is to consider timers to behave like relays with coils
which when energised result in the closure or opening of contacts after some preset time.
Their purpose is to control an event based on time. 

Clock

Accumulator
reset

Register

contact
Contact

output

Types of timer
It is possible to construct a relay with a built-in time delay device that causes the relay to
either switch on after a time delay, or to switch off after a time delay. These types of relays
are called time delay relays, or TDR’s. There are two basic types of time delay relay. They
are the delay-on timer, sometimes called a TON (pronounced Tee-On), and the delay off
21

timer, sometimes called a TOF (pronounced Tee-Off).

ON-Delay relay timer (TON)
Page

ON delay timer - after the input is turned on there is a delay before the output is turned on.

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

When voltage is applied to the coil, the relay contacts remain in the off state and closed after
the set time. The contacts remain in the on state until the voltage remains on. The timer is
reset by removing the coil voltage. When the coil is energized, the internal timer in the relay
begins running (this can be either a motor driven mechanical timer or an electronic timer).

EN-Enable Bit: - The enable bit indicates the TOF instruction is enabled.

DN- Done Bit: - The done bit changes state whenever the accumulated value reaches the
preset value.

Off-Delay timers

After the input is turned off there will be a delay before the output is turned off.
In this case, at the instant power is applied to the relay coil, the contacts activate - that is, the
N/O contacts close, and the N/C contacts open. The time delay occurs when the relay is
switched off. After power is removed from the relay coil, the contacts stay activated until the
relay times-out.

Counters

Counters are provided as built-in elements in PLCs and allow the number of occurrences of
input signals to be counted. This might be where items have to be counted as they pass along a
conveyor belt, or the number of revolutions of a shaft, or perhaps the number of people
passing through a door. A counter is set to some pre-set number value and, when this value of
input pulses has been received, it will operate its contacts. Digital counters output in the form
of a relay contact when a pre-assigned count value is reached. A counter is a register capable
of incrementing and/or decrementing its contents
22
Page

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

 input
Register

Accumulator
reset

contact

output

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is a digital computer used for the automation of

various electro-mechanical processes in industries.

A programmable logic controller is a specialized computer used to control machines and

processes.  It therefore shares common terms with typical PCs like central processing unit,
memory, software and communications.  Unlike a personal computer though the PLC is
designed to survive in a rugged industrial atmosphere and to be very flexible in how it
interfaces with inputs and outputs to the real world.
The components that make a PLC work can be divided into three core areas.
 The power supply and rack
 The central processing unit (CPU)
 The input/output (I/O) section
PLCs come in many shapes and sizes.  They can be so small as to fit in your shirt pocket
while more involved controls systems require large PLC racks.  Smaller PLCs (a.k.a.
“bricks”) are typically designed with fixed I/O points. 
The word “Programmable” means it can be easily programmed or changed as per the
23

application’s requirement. It is basically a microprocessor based control system.

Microprocessor does its basic functions of taking decisions according to the instructions
Page

written in the programs which are stored in the memory. Then it evaluates their logic

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

relationships to defined outputs according to a logic program. At last it sets the outputs
according to the programmed logic

The program is written on a computer and is downloaded to the PLC via cable. It can be used
for different applications via means of changing the program. The original task of a PLC
involved the interconnection of input signals according to a specified program and, if "true",
to switch the corresponding output.

“The programmable logic controller is defined as a digital electronic device

(microprocessor- based controller) that uses a programmable memory to store instructions
and to implement functions such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic
words to control machines and processes.”

A programmable logic controller is a specialized computer used to control machines and

processes.  PLCs come in many shapes and sizes.  PLCs can range from small devices with
tens of inputs and outputs (I/O) to thousands of I/O devices.

1. Variety of programs can process the multiple inputs to give multiple outputs.
2. The programs can be altered/ reprogrammed to change the output specifications.
3. There is programmable memory to store instructions and carry out control function

Components of a PLC system:

 CPU –They perform functions including logic operations, arithmetic operations,

computer interface and many more. Keeps checking the PLC controller to avoid errors.
 Memory – Fixed data is used by the CPU. System (ROM) stores the data permanently
for the operating system. RAM stores the information of the status of input and output
devices, and the values of timers, counters and other internal devices. 
 I/O section – Input keeps a track on field devices which includes sensors, switches. 
 O/P Section - Output has a control over the other devices which includes motors,
pumps, lights and solenoids. The I/O ports are based on Reduced Instruction Set
Computer (RISC). 
 Power supply –. Most of the PLCs work at 220VAC or 24VDC.
 Programming device – This device is used to feed the program into the memory of the
processor. The program is first fed to the programming device and later it is transmitted
to the PLC’s memory. 
24
Page

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

PLC stands for Programmable Logic Controllers. They are basically used to control
automated systems in industries. They are one of the most advanced and simplest forms of
control systems which are now replacing hard wired logic relays at a large scale.

Due to its robust construction, exceptional functional features like sequential control, counters
and timers, ease of programming, reliable controlling capabilities and ease of hardware usage
– this PLC is used as more than a special-purpose digital computer in industries as well as in
other control-system areas.

25
Page

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

Need/Advantages/ Importance of PLC

1. They are user friendly and easy to operate

2. Easy to change the logic
3. They are very fast
4. High reliability and performance
5. Convenient and versatile device
6. Best Suited to withstand the industrial environment (heat, noise, vibrations etc.)
7. Error detection is easier and reduce downtime
8. Reduced space requirement
9. Reliable components of PLC to operate for years before failure
10. Cost effective for controlling complex systems.
11. Has simplicity of operation and maintenance by plant technicians
12. It is suitable for automation in industries.
Before the advent of industrial revolution, relays were used to automate machines and were
interconnected using wires inside the control panel. The control panels are very huge and
sometimes covered the entire wall. The system was very complex, and error detection was
very difficult. The control panel is not flexible, it has to be changed to bring about any
changes in the manufacturing process, and it was very difficult. The bigger and complex the
process, the more is need for a PLC.

The basic idea behind these programmable controllers was to provide means to eliminate high
cost associated with inflexible, conventional relay controlled systems. Programmable
controllers offer a system with computer flexibility.

Some Areas of applications

1. The manufacturing industries make the product out of raw materials using
robotics/machines.
2. Process Plant Automation (examples: chemical, cement plant, food, paper plants)
3. Automated Boiler System for thermal power plant
4. Induction Steel Heating Furnaces
5. Automobile industry
6. Glass industry- to control the material ratio
7. Washing machine, elevators working and traffic signals control
8. Assembly industries
9. Robotic arm in car manufacturing

10. Airport runway lighting control

11. Traffic signal control

26
Page

12. Smoke alarm control

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

 13. Process valve control

14. Textile equipment’s etc

PLC Programming

There are six programming language available for any PLC, But the most common between
them is Ladder Programming.
Ladder programming (ladder diagram)

A very commonly used method of programming PLCs is ladder diagrams. Writing a program
is equivalent to drawing as witching circuit. Ladder logic uses symbols, instead of words, to
emulate the real world relay logic control. The left and right rails indicate the positive and
ground of a power supply. Circuits are connected as horizontal lines, i.e. the rungs of the
ladder, between these two verticals. The completed program looks like a ladder but in
actuality it represents an electrical circuit.
Components of ladder diagram and instruction
1. Two vertical line called power rails –input and output power rails
2. Horizontal lines called rungs (rung1, rung2 etc) can be any number depending upon
the complexity of problem- number of rungs, but limed by PLC capacity
3. Each rung can have more than one input, but not more than one output devices.
4. All the input devices are graphically represented in left hand side of rungs
5. All the input devises are represented as switches (temperature sensor, flow sensor etc)
6. Input region is full of combinations of NC and NO switches
7. All outputs in laden diagram is represented by circle sign (motor, lamp, solenoids etc.)
8. Run the program from left to right and down ward till ends and repeats the same cycle

Ladder diagram symbols

There are three main symbols we will use to begin with.  
27

 Normally open contact —| |—

Page

Open contact at rest- closed when it is energized.

 Normally closed Contact —|/|—

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

 Closed contact at rest – open whenever it is energized
 Normally Open Coil — ( )—
Open coil at rest – closed when energized
 Timer and counter

28
Page

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

Simple examples of ladder programming
Example 1
Ladder diagram that will cause output lamp or motor to go true when switch A and switch B
are closed
Draw a ladder diagram that will cause output lamp or motor to be on when push button A is B
on, or either

Example 2
Motor should remain in ON state after Start pushbutton is pressed and should Off When Stop
pushbutton is pressed. Checking if the motor is running normally by pressing test pushbutton.

X0 – START push button to Start Motor

X1 – STOP pushbutton to Stop Motor
X2 – Test button
X3- Error switch
M0.1 phase Motor

1. Press START button lightly and X0 = ON. The Motor will keep running if no error
occurred (X3 = OFF). The action can be practiced by a latching circuit which takes
output Y0 as one of the input condition to keep the motor running even if the START
button is not pressed (See normally open contact M0.1 below X0).
2. When STOP button is pressed, X1 = ON and M0.1 = OFF. The motor will stop
running.
3. If error occur (X3 = ON), M0.1 will be OFF and the motor will stop running.
When TEST is pressed (X2 = ON), M0.1 = ON. The motor will start running if no error
29

occurred (X3 = OFF). On the contrary, when TEST is released, the motor will stop running.
The testing function is performed by this process. 
Page

Example 3

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

Switching on the Lamp whether they are at the bottom or the top of the staircase
X0 – Switch at the bottom of Staircase
X1 – Switch at the top of Staircase
Y0 – Lamp

Example 4
When is switch is ON, motor and green light is ON and if motor is OFF red light will glow

Example 5
Consider the design of a Burglar Alarm for a house. This alarm will be activated if an
unauthorized person is detected by a Window Sensor or a Motion Detector. Implement
this Alarm System in PLC using Ladder Diagram programming language.

Example 6
Ladder program for automatic water filling tank
30
Page

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

Example 7
PLC Program for Automatic Bottle Rejection System.

There are two sensors are used, for standing and fallen bottles detection, one pneumatic
cylinder for pushing the fallen bottle from the conveyor.

31
Page

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

Problem 8
Ladder logic control for a simple starter system of a 3 phase AC motor with starter and stop
switch. And also run light should be ON while motor is running and stop light should ON
when motor id OFF condition

Example 9
Ladder logic diagram for starting the oil pump motor immediately when START is pressed.
The main motor will be started after a 10 sec delay and then the auxiliary motor after a 5 sec
delay and also stopping all motors immediately when STOP is pressed.

X1 – Start Switch. Y2 – Auxiliary Motor

X2 – Stop Switch. T1 – 10 second Timer,
Y0 – OIL Motor T2 – 5 second Timer,
Y1 – Main Motor
 When START is pressed, the NO contact X0 will be activated, which makes Y0 to be
ON. The oil pump motor will start the lube system. At the same time, timer T1
instruction will be executed. When T1 reaches its set value of 10 sec, the NO contact
T1 will be ON.   
 When the NO contact T1 is ON, Y1 will be ON, which starts the main motor and stops
timer T1. At the same time, timer T2 is executed, and the NO contact T1 will be ON
when timer T1 reaches its set value. 
 When the NO contact T2 is ON, Y2 will be ON, which starts the auxiliary motor and
32

stops T2.   
 When STOP is pressed, the NC contact X1 will be activated, which makes Y0, Y1 and
Page

Y2 OFF. The oil pump motor, main motor and auxiliary motor will stop working. 

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

Example 10
A light to be ON after 5 seconds of switching

Example 11
Enabling the indicator to be ON immediately when switch pressed and OFF after a 5 sec delay
by the switch.
X1 – Start Switch.
Y1 – Output Indicator
T1 – 5 second Timer,

 When X1 = ON, Timer T1 will be ON and start counting for 5 sec and indicator will be ON
 When T1 reaches its set value, closed contact T1 becomes open and indicator will be
OFF

Problem 12
Once the photoelectric sensor detects 10 products, the robotic arm will begin to pack up.
When the action is completed, the robotic arm and the counter will be reset.

X1 - Photoelectric sensor for counting products. X0 = ON when products are detected.

X2 - Robotic arm action completed sensor. X1 = ON when packing is completed.
C - Counter:
Y1 - Robotic arm for packing
33
Page

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

Example 13
 Fill the tank with fluid A until reaches low level
 Then close the fluid A and fill the tank with fluid B till high level
 Close the valve B and stir for 60 seconds
 OFF the stir and open valve Y2 outlet for 120 seconds
 Also emergency switch for stop

X0 – Start Switch.
X1 – Low level float sensor. X1 = ON when
the liquid level reaches X1.
X2 – High level float sensor. X2 = ON when
the liquid level reaches X2.
X3 – Stop Switch.
X10 - EMERGENCY STOP button. X10 =
ON when the button is pressed.
Y0 – Liquid A Inlet
Y1 – Liquid B Inlet
Y2 – Mixture Outlet
Y3 – Agitator /Stirrer
T0 – 60 second Timer, 100 ms Time Base.
(See K60 Preset Value for Timer)
T1 – 120 second Timer, 100 ms Time Base.

 X0 = ON when START is pressed. Y0 will be ON and the valve will be opened for
infusing liquid A until the level reaches the low-level float sensor.
 X1 = ON when the level reaches the low-level float sensor. Y1 will be ON and
latched, and the valve will be opened for infusing liquid B until the level reaches the
high-level float sensor.
 X2 = ON when the level reaches the high-level float sensor. Y3 will be ON and
activates the agitator. Also, timer T0 will start to count for 60 sec. After 60 sec, T0
will be ON, and the agitator motor Y3 will stop working. Y2 will be ON and latched,
and the mixture will drain out of the container.
 When Y2 = ON, timer T1 will start to count for 120 sec. After 120 sec, T1 will be ON
34

and Y2 will be OFF. The draining process will be stopped.

 When an error occurs, press EMERGENCY STOP button X10. The NC contact X10
Page

will be ON to disable all the outputs. The system will then stop running.

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

NC systems
Numerical control (NC) refers to control of a machine or a process using symbolic codes
consisting of letters and numbers. In NC, the programme of instructions comprising letters
and numbers designed for a particular work part or job. As the job type changes, the program
of instruction also changes. This capability to change a program for each new job gives NC its
flexibility. Motion is controlled along multiple axes, normally at least two (X and Y), and a
tool spindle that moves in the Z (depth). The position of the tool is driven by direct-
drive stepper motor or servo motors in order to provide highly accurate movements
Classification of NC system
According to the type of power to the drives
 Electrical
 Hydraulic
 Pneumatic
According to motion type
 Point- to – point system
 Contour (or) continuous path system
According to the feedback system
 Open loop system
 Closed loop system
According to positioning program system
 Incremental positioning system
 Absolute positioning system
Coordinate Systems
In order for the part programmer to plan the sequence of position and movements of the
cutting tool relative to the work piece, it is necessary to establish a standard axis system by
which relative position can be specified. The main three axes of motion are referred to as the
X, Y. and Z axes. The coordinate system is laid out by identifying the Z axis first. The Z axis
is always in line with the main rotating spindle.

For a lathe, the infeed/radial axis is the x-axis, the carriage/length axis is the z-axis. There is
no need for a y-axis because the tool moves in a plane through the rotational center of the
work. In drilling and milling machines the X and Y axes are horizontal. For example, a
positive motion command in the drill moves the X axis from left to right, the Y axis from
front to back, and the Z axis toward the top. In the lathe only two axes are required to
35

command the motions of the tool.

Page

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

NC system based on motion control system of slides/tool
In order to accomplish the machining process, the cutting tool and work piece must be moved
relative to each other. In NC, there are three basic types of motion control system (Point-to-
point, straight cut and Contouring). Point-to-point systems represent the lowest level of
motion control between the tool and work piece. Contouring represents the highest level of
control.
Point-to-point Positioning Control:
Point to point system (PTP) is also called positioning system which represents the lowest level
of motion control between the tool and the work-piece. The motion between beginning point
and end point is at maximum velocity. Machining operations are performed only at specific
points. The main advantage is that it has a simple control system. But this is the slowest
system. It is usually used for drilling, boring, reaming, sheet metal punching, spot welding etc.
 Sequential: - the stool will move in one axis at a time. (X or Y axis one at a time)
 Simultaneous: - both axes start at the same time, the tool path will be approximately.

NC drill presses are a good example of PTP systems. The spindle must first be positioned at a
particular location on the work piece. This is done under PTP control. Then the drilling of the
hole is performed at the location, and so forth. Since no cutting is performed between holes,
there is no need for controlling the relative motion of the tool and work piece between hole
locations. Example figure above illustrate path of three drilled holes.
Straight-cut Positioning Control:
Straight-cut control systems are capable of moving the cutting tool parallel to one of the major
axes at a controlled rate suitable for machining. It is therefore appropriate for performing
milling operations to fabricate work pieces of rectangular configurations. An example of a
straight cut operation is shown in Figure. An NC machine capable of straight cut movements
is also capable of PTP movements.
36
Page

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

Contouring (continuous) Path CNC System
The path of the cutter is continuously controlled to generate the desired geometry of the work
piece. For this reason, contouring systems are also called continuous-path NC systems.
Milling and turning operations are common examples of the use of contouring control.

To achieve contoured motion, a series of points is provided during programming, and the
motion controller extrapolates a smooth line or curve from these points. In contouring motion
guarantees that the tool system passes through each point, using either linear or circular
interpolation.
Difference between contouring and point-to-point motion
With point-to-point systems, control is achieved over the x and y coordinates. With straight-
cut systems, control is provided for either dx/dt or dy/dt, but only one at a time. With
contouring systems, both of the rates dx/dt and dy/dt can be controlled simultaneously. This is
accomplished by breaking the curved path into very short straight-line segments that
approximate the curve.  
Contouring is the most complex, the most flexible, and the most expensive type of machine
tool control. It is capable of performing both PTP and straight-cut operations. In addition, the
distinguishing feature of contouring NC systems is their capacity for simultaneous control of
more than one axis movement of the machine tool.
The choice between point-to-point or contoured motion depends on the application and
process. The smooth shapes generated by contouring are important for CNC applications such
as cutting, welding, and routing, as well as for dispensing applications where a specific path
must be followed. In point-to-point motion, the end position is designated, but the path used to
reach the end position is irrelevant.
37

Linear interpolation is used when the desired move is a straight line involving two axes of
motion. The controller synchronizes the motion of both axes. Circular interpolation works
Page

much the same way as linear interpolation, but also requires the specification of a center point,

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

radius, and direction (clockwise or counter clockwise) so that the motion created is circular
rather than linear.
NC system based on positioning system
The purpose of the coordinate system is to provide a means of locating the tool in relation to
the work piece. Depending on the type of NC machine, the part programmer may have several
options for specifying the location.
Option available to the part programmer is to use either an absolute system of tool positioning
or an incremental system.
Incremental Systems
It is also called relative positioning system. In this system, the coordinate of a point is defined
with respect to the previous point. Each subsequent position is based on the previous position.
After each programmed movement, the current position becomes the starting position for the
next programmed movement.

Advantages
 For complicated components, this dimensioning is more advantageous.
Disadvantages
 Positioning errors add up in incremental positioning. If error occurs at any line in the
program, all the subsequent lines will add up to the error.
 It is difficult to check a program written in incremental system

Absolute System
With absolute coordinates, the origin is always in a fixed position. Each new location is
calculated from this fixed origin instead of the previous location. Even if there is an error
while reaching the current location, that error is corrected once the tool or work piece moves
to the next location
Advantages
 Very easy to correct and check a program when written
38

 If there is any mistake in any block, only that block will be affected. The remaining of
Page

program will remain intact

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

Most modem CNC systems permit application of both incremental and absolute programming
methods. Even within a specific part program the method can be changed These CNC systems
provide the user with the combined advantages of both methods
Control system of NC machine
When a number of elements are combined together to form a system to produce desired output
then the system is referred as control system. Each element connected to the system has its
own effect on the output. Control systems are used to arrange and manage components in a
way that the required condition or output is obtained. A control system can be functioned
electrically, mechanically or it can be combination of these ways.
The main feature of control system is, there should be a clear mathematical relation between
input and output of the system. When the relation between input and output of the system can
be represented by a linear proportionality, the system is called linear control system. Again
when the relation between input and output cannot be represented by single linear
proportionality, rather the input and output are related by some non-linear relation, the system
is referred as non-linear control system. The system used for controlling the position, velocity,
acceleration, temperature, pressure, voltage and current etc. are examples of control systems.
Types of control system
1. Open loop control system
2. Closed loop control system
Open loop control system
An open loop control system is the system, in which the desired output is only depends on the
input signal. If there are disturbances in between, the output does not give any changes with
respect to these disturbances. An open loop control system is generally known as system
without feedback. The primary drawback of the open-loop system is that there is no feedback
system to check whether the program position and velocity has been achieved. If the system
performance is affected by load, temperature, humidity, or lubrication then the actual output
could deviate from the desired output. For these reasons the open -loop system is generally
used in point-to-point systems where the accuracy requirements are not critical.
Programmed instructions are fed into the controller through an input device. These
instructions are then converted to electrical pulses (signals) by the controller and sent to the
servo amplifier to energize the servo motors.

Advantages of Open Loop Control System

1. Simple in construction and design.
39

2. Economical.
Page

3. Easy to maintain.
4. Generally stable.

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

 5. Convenient to use as output is difficult to measure.

Disadvantages of Open Loop Control System

1. They are inaccurate.
2. They are unreliable.
3. Any change in output cannot be corrected automatically.
Practical Examples of Open Loop Control System
1. Electric Hand Drier - Hot air (output) comes out as long as you keep your hand under
the machine, irrespective of how much your hand is dried.
2. Bread Toaster - This machine runs as per adjusted time irrespective of toasting is
completed or not.
Closed Loop systems
The closed-loop system has a feedback subsystem to monitor the actual output and correct any
discrepancy from the programmed input. These systems use position and velocity feedback.
Closed-loop systems are very powerful and accurate because they are capable of monitoring
operating conditions through feedback subsystems and automatically compensating for any
variations in real-time.
The difference between the actual value of the variable and its set point is the error. The
control law takes the error as the input and drives the actuator, in this case the servo motor and
its drive system, to achieve motion variables that are close to the set points.

Advantages of Closed Loop Control System

1. Closed loop control systems are more accurate even in the presence of non-linearity.
2. Highly accurate as any error arising is corrected due to presence of feedback signal.
3. Bandwidth range is large.
4. Facilitates automation.
5. The sensitivity of system may be made small to make system more stable.
6. This system is less affected by noise.
40

Disadvantages of Closed Loop Control System

Page

1. They are costlier.

2. They are complicated to design.

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

 3. Required more maintenance.
4. Overall gain is reduced due to presence of feedback.
5. More care is needed to design a stable closed loop system
The feedback system could be either analog or digital. The analog systems measure the
variation of physical variables such as position and velocity in terms of voltage levels. Digital
systems monitor output variations by means of electrical pulses. If a discrepancy is revealed
between where the machine element should be and where it actually is, the sensing device
signals the driving unit to make an adjustment, bringing the movable component to the
required location.
Practical Examples of Closed Loop Control System
1. Automatic Electric Iron - Heating elements are controlled by output temperature of the
iron.
2. Water Level Controller - Input water is controlled by water level of the reservoir.
3. Missile Launched and Auto Tracked by Radar - The direction of missile is controlled by
comparing the target and position of the missile.
4. Air Conditioner - Air conditioner functions depending upon the temperature of the room.
Control of Contouring Systems
In contouring systems, the tool is cutting while the machine axes are moving. The contour of
the part is determined by the ratio between the velocities, along the two axes. The control in
contouring systems operates in closed loop. Therefore, a contouring system uses a cascade
control structure involving an inner velocity loop and an outer position loop for each feed axis
improved dynamic response. In such systems the interpolator generates reference signals (in
form of a sequence pulses or position words) for each axis of motion, in a coordinated manner
so that a desired contour is generated.
It uses an inner velocity feedback loops incorporating a tachometer usually mounted directly
on the motor shaft and an outer position feedback loop which is capable of measuring
incremental (such as from an incremental encoder) or absolute angular position of the lead-
screw shaft. Typical cascade control structure of contouring systems is shown in Fig.

In encoder-based systems each pulse indicates a motion of 1 BLU (basic length unit) of axis
travel. Therefore, the number of pulses over a period represents incremental change in
41

position over the period and the encoder pulse frequency is proportional to the axis velocity.
Page

In such a system, fed from a reference pulse interpolator the comparison is done by an up-
down counter which is fed by two sequences of pulses: reference pulses from the interpolator

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

and feedback pulses generated by the encoder. The counter produces a number representing
the instantaneous position error in pulse units. This number can be converted by the DAC and
fed to an analog position control system.
Module I –Questions from powder metallurgy
1. Explain the procedure of manufacturing parts by powder metallurgy.
2. Explain the manufacturing of powder metallurgy components with suitable flowchart.
3. Describe, the steps involved in the production of powder metallurgy parts.****
4. Discuss secondary operations in Powder Metallurgy.
**************************************
5. What are the advantages of powder metallurgy offers?****
6. What are advantages and limitations of powder metallurgy?***
7. Discuss/Explain the applications of Powder Metallurgy. ****
8. What are the main industrial uses of powder metallurgy?
9. Explain the process capabilities of powder metallurgy
10. Explain why powder metallurgy has become highly competitive with casting, forging and
machining processes. **
11. What are the design considerations for the powder metallurgy parts?***
12. Describe the design considerations making powder metallurgy parts. How different are
these compared to casting and forging of metals.
*******************************************
13. Describe briefly the methods by which powders suitable for powder metallurgy can he
produced.******
14. Explain how metal powders are produced by atomization. ***
15. Explain the various methods of powder production. Give the characteristics required for
metal powders
16. Explain three methods of powder production with neat sketches and discuss their
influences on the properties of the final product.
17. Explain the characteristics of metal powders required?****
18. What are the desirable properties of metal powder?
19. What are the important physical characteristics of powder-metals
20. Explain the effects of using fine powders and coarse powders respectively in making P/M
parts
***************************************
21. What are some of the objectives of powder mixing or blending**
22. Briefly explain blending of powders in powder metallurgy
23. List and discuss the material properties affecting blending in Powder metallurgy process.
*************************
24. Explain the various compaction techniques used in Powder metallurgy. ****
25. What are some of the objectives of the compacting operation?
26. Why might double-action pressing be more attractive than compaction with a single
moving punch?
42

27. In what ways might the final density of a P/M product be reported?
Page

28. What are some of the other methods that can produce high-density PIM products?
29. Why is there a density variation in compacting powders?

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

30. With suitable sketches explain double compaction of parts out of powders.
31. Discuss cold and hot isostatic pressing process.
32. What is meant by Isostatic pressing?
33. What is isostatic compaction? For what product shapes might it be preferred?
34. What are the disadvantages of hot pressing? How can you overcome them
35. Describe the relative advantages and limitations of cold and hot isostatic pressing.**
36. Describe, with suitable sketches, hot isostatic pressing of metal powders.***
37. What are some of the attractive properties of HlP products?
38. What are some of the major limitations-of HIP process and how does the sinter process
eliminate or minimize them?
******************************************************
39. Differentiate between infiltration and "impregnation” with reference to powder metallurgy
40. What is the purpose of repressing, coining or sizing operations?
41. Why can the original compaction tooling not be used to shape the product during
repressing?
42. What are pre alloyed and pre-coated powders? How are these powders manufactured?
43. What are impregnations and infiltration processes in powder metallurgy?
*******************************************
44. Why it is necessary to use lubricants in the press compaction of powders? State and
explain the advantages of porous and self-lubricating bearings over the standard sleeve
bearings.
45. What are self lubricating bearings?**
46. Why is pore size important in the manufacture of self lubricating bearing? How may pore
size be controlled?
*********************************************
47. Define the following terms in relation to metal powders :
a. Surface area,
b. Compressibility,
c. Apparent density and particle size distribution.
48. Write notes on
a. Hot pressing,
b. Impact compacting
c. Powder rolling.**
***************************************************
49. Explain pre-sintering and sintering in detail.***
50. Differentiate between pre-sintering and sintering.
51. What is meant by sintering of powder compacts?
52. Give an account of sintering atmospheres**
53. What are the effects of sintering on the powder compact produced by pressing
54. Explain the mechanism of sintering of single and multi-phase materials.
55. Outline the advantages of pre-sintering and coining on the metal compacts.
43

56. Give an account of sintering furnaces used in powder metallurgy industries.

Page

57. Should green compacts be brought up to the sintering temperature slowly or rapidly?
Explain the advantages and limitations of each.

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

 Questions from PLC
1. What is a hard wired control? what are its disadvantages
2. List five differences between PLC control and Relay control
3. List three input devices commonly used in PLC control
4. Explain the working of functions of CPU, Input and output module and memory in PLC
5. Mention few applications of PLC
6. What are the functions of timer in PLC?
7. Briefly explain the structure of PLC
8. Differentiate between ON time delay and OFF time delay with help of symbols
9. What is meant by bit logic operations in relation to a PLC
10. Give functions of following PLC program elements a) Program coil b) NC contact c)
NO
11. How were early machines controlled before PLC's were developed?
12. When were the first PLC's developed?
13. List four types of I/O modules?
14. List five devices that would be typical inputs to a PLC. List five devices that a PLC
might control.
15. What types of memory might a PLC contain?
16. Which type or types of memory would store the program to be executed by the PLC?
17. What is the purpose of the programming unit?
18. What type of control system did the PLC replace? Why was the PLC better?
19. What industry was primarily responsible for PLC development?
20. What are the two steps the PLC must perform during operation?
21. What is the Output Image Register?
22. Describe the procedure for solving a rung of logic.
23. What are the allowed direction of current flow in a ladder logic rung?
24. Define scan rate.
25. Define scan time.
26. At what time is data transferred to and from the outside world into a PLC system?
27. What common devices may be used to understand the operation of coils and contacts
in ladder logic?
28. Definition of PLC
29. Architecture of PLC
30. Explain the PLC system
31. Function of PLC
32. Application of PLC
33. Need/role of PLC in automation
34. Explain the ladder diagram with a simple example
44

35. Explain how the PLC are programmed

Page

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

 Extra notes
PM comparing with casting and forging process
1. Net shape manufacturing
2. Controlled porosity product
3. Higher melting point material product can be easily made
4. Brittle and hard material
5. High production rate with automation
6. Higher finish and dimensional accuracy
7. Less scrap
8. More eco-friendly
9. Higher mechanical and other properties
Advantages of PM
1. Eliminates or minimizes machining
2. Eliminates or minimizes scrap losses
3. Maintains close dimensional tolerances
4. Permits a wide variety of alloy systems
5. Produces good surface finishes
6. Provides controlled porosity for self-lubrication or filtration
7. Facilitates manufacture of complex or unique shapes which would be impractical or
impossible with other metalworking processes
8. Parts can be made to net or near net shape
9. Suited to moderate -to high volume components production requirements
10. Permits the production of nano structured materials

Heat treating:
The main purpose is to improve wear resistance rather than strength. The process of heating
and cooling sintered parts is to improve
1. Wear Resistance
2. Grain Structure
3. Strength
The following heat treatment processes are used to the parts made by powder metallurgy:
1. Stress relieving
2. Carburising
3. Nitriding
4. Induction Hardening
45
Page

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET

 46
Page

Department Mechanical Engineering SSET