Ph3151 All 5 Chapter Notes

PH3151 ENGINEERING PHYSICS L T P C
3 0 0 3
OBJECTIVES:
 To make the students effectively to achieve an understanding of mechanics.
 To enable the students to gain knowledge of electromagnetic waves and its applications.
 To introduce the basics of oscillations, optics and lasers.
 Equipping the students to be successfully understand the importance of quantum physics.
 To motivate the students towards the applications of quantum mechanics.
UNIT I MECHANICS 9
Multiparticle dynamics: Center of mass (CM) – CM of continuous bodies – motion of the CM – kinetic
energy of system of particles. Rotation of rigid bodies: Rotational kinematics – rotational kinetic energy
and moment of inertia - theorems of M .I –moment of inertia of continuous bodies – M.I of a diatomic
molecule - torque – rotational dynamics of rigid bodies – conservation of angular momentum –
rotational energy state of a rigid diatomic molecule - gyroscope - torsional pendulum – double
pendulum –Introduction to nonlinear oscillations.
UNIT II ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 9

The Maxwell’s equations - wave equation; Plane electromagnetic waves in vacuum, Conditions on the
wave field - properties of electromagnetic waves: speed, amplitude, phase, orientation and waves in
matter - polarization - Producing electromagnetic waves - Energy and momentum in EM waves:
Intensity, waves from localized sources, momentum and radiation pressure - Cell-phone reception.
Reflection and transmission of electromagnetic waves from a non-conducting medium-vacuum
interface for normal incidence.
UNIT III OSCILLATIONS, OPTICS AND LASERS 9

Simple harmonic motion - resonance –analogy between electrical and mechanical oscillating systems
- waves on a string - standing waves - traveling waves - Energy transfer of a wave - sound waves -
Doppler effect. Reflection and refraction of light waves - total internal reflection - interference –
Michelson interferometer –Theory of air wedge and experiment. Theory of laser - characteristics -
Spontaneous and stimulated emission - Einstein’s coefficients - population inversion - Nd-YAG laser,
CO2 laser, semiconductor laser –Basic applications of lasers in industry.
UNIT IV BASIC QUANTUM MECHANICS 9

Photons and light waves - Electrons and matter waves –Compton effect - The Schrodinger equation
(Time dependent and time independent forms) - meaning of wave function - Normalization –Free
particle - particle in a infinite potential well: 1D,2D and 3D Boxes- Normalization, probabilities and the
correspondence principle.
UNIT V APPLIED QUANTUM MECHANICS 9

The harmonic oscillator(qualitative)- Barrier penetration and quantum tunneling(qualitative)- Tunneling
microscope - Resonant diode - Finite potential wells (qualitative)- Bloch’s theorem for particles in a
periodic potential –Basics of Kronig-Penney model and origin of energy bands.
TOTAL : 45 PERIODS
8
OUTCOMES:
After completion of this course, the students should be able to
 Understand the importance of mechanics.
 Express their knowledge in electromagnetic waves.
 Demonstrate a strong foundational knowledge in oscillations, optics and lasers.
 Understand the importance of quantum physics.
 Comprehend and apply quantum mechanical principles towards the formation of energy bands.
TEXT BOOKS:
1. D.Kleppner and R.Kolenkow. An Introduction to Mechanics. McGraw Hill Education

(Indian Edition), 2017.
2. E.M.Purcell and D.J.Morin, Electricity and Magnetism, Cambridge Univ.Press, 2013.
3. Arthur Beiser, Shobhit Mahajan, S. Rai Choudhury, Concepts of Modern Physics, McGraw-Hill
REFERENCES:
1. R.Wolfson. Essential University Physics. Volume 1 & 2. Pearson Education (Indian Edition),
2009.
2. Paul A. Tipler, Physic – Volume 1 & 2, CBS, (Indian Edition), 2004.
3. K.Thyagarajan and A.Ghatak. Lasers: Fundamentals and Applications, Laxmi Publications,
4. D.Halliday, R.Resnick and J.Walker. Principles of Physics, Wiley (Indian Edition), 2015.
5. N.Garcia, A.Damask and S.Schwarz. Physics for Computer Science Students. Springer-
Verlag, 2012.
CY3151 ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY L T P C

3 0 0 3
OBJECTIVES:
 To inculcate sound understanding of water quality parameters and water treatment techniques.
 To impart knowledge on the basic principles and preparatory methods of nanomaterials.
 To introduce the basic concepts and applications of phase rule and composites.
 To facilitate the understanding of different types of fuels, their preparation, properties and
combustion characteristics.
 To familiarize the students with the operating principles, working processes and applications of
energy conversion and storage devices.
UNIT I WATER AND ITS TREATMENT 9

Water: Sources and impurities, Water quality parameters: Definition and significance of-colour,
odour, turbidity, pH, hardness, alkalinity, TDS, COD and BOD, flouride and arsenic. Municipal water
treatment: primary treatment and disinfection (UV, Ozonation, break-point chlorination). Desalination
of brackish water: Reverse Osmosis. Boiler troubles: Scale and sludge, Boiler corrosion, Caustic
9
PANDIAN SARASWATHI YADAV ENGINEERING COLLEGE PSYEC
QUESTION BANK FOR UNIT – I

Mechanics
PART – A
1) Define centre of mass of the system

A point in the system at which entire mass of the system is supposed to be concentrated is
called centre of mass of the system.
2) Give the example for motion of centre of mass
 Motion of planets and its satellite
 Decay of a Nucleus
 Projectile trajectory
3) Define rigid body
A rigid body is defined as that body which does not undergo any change in shape or
volume when external forces acting on it.
4) Define moment of inertia of a particle.
It is defined as the product of the mass of the particle and square of the distance of the
particle from the axis of rotation.
I = mr2
5) What are the factors the moment of inertia depends on?
It depends on mass, distribution of mass and on the position of axis of rotation.
6) Define angular momentum
The moment of inertia times of angular velocity of the particle is called angular
momentum.
L = Iω.
7) Define torsional pendulum and its uses.
A circular metallic disc suspended using a thin wire that executes torsional oscillation is
called Torsional pendulum.
Uses:
(i) Rigidity modulus of the wire.
(ii) Moment of inertia of the disc.
(iii)Moment of inertia of an irregular body
PH3151 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

8) Explain the term torque.

It is defined as moment of force acting on the body in rotational motion with respect to the
fixed point. Torque = Force × radius
9) What is radius of gyration?
It is defined as the distance from the axis of rotation to the point where the entire mass of
the body is assumed to be concentrated.
10) State conversation of angular momentum.
It states that in the absence of an external torque, the angular momentum of a body
remains conserved.

QUESTION BANK FOR UNIT – II

Electromagnetic Waves
PART – A
1) Write the expression for velocity of EM wave in free space.

1
c
o o
2) What is poynting vector?
It is defined as the product of electric vector and the magnetic field vector.
  
S  E H
3) What is skin depth?
It is defined as the distance inside the conductor from the surface at which the amplitude
of the field vector is reduced to 1/e times its value at the surface.
4) Define intensity of EM wave.

The magnitude of the average value of S at a point is called intensity of radiation at that
point. Unit : W/m2
1
Sav   ocE y2
2
5) What is meant by polarization?
It refers to a relationship between orientation of electric or magnetic field vector and the
direction of EM propagation.
6) Define amplitude of EM wave.
The amplitude of an EM wave is the maximum value of the wave’s electric field.
7) Write short notes on cell phone reception
Cell phone contains radio wave transmitter and receiver. Transmitter converts the electric
signal into radio wave and receiver converts the radio wave into an electric signal through
radio antenna. This receiving and converting function is said to be cell phone reception.
8) What is meant by electromagnetic waves of transverse in nature.
Electric field vector and magnetic field vectors are mutually perpendicular to each other
and also perpendicular to the wave propagation direction. These three are mutually
perpendicular to each other. Therefore EM wave said to be transverse in nature.

9) Write note on phase of EM wave.

Phase at any instant gives the state of the wave as regards its position and direction of
motion at that instant. It gives the relationship between the position of the amplitude crests
and troughs of two waveforms.
10) Define radiation pressure.
The force per unit area on an object due to EM radiation is the radiation pressure (p).
I
Pr  for total absorption
c'
2I
Pr  for total reflection back
c'

UNIT-II
PART –B
1.Derive Maxwell’s equations in integral and differential form.
Maxwell`s first equation from electric Gauss law

Let s consider a dielectric medium of surface ‘s’ bounded by the volume V.If Q is the total charge in
the dielectric material and charge density
Integral Form
According to Gauss law,
. = − − − − − (1) − , − ! =
Displacement vector " = " = , For air =1 " =

Substitute " in Equation (1)we get,
" . = − − − − − (2)
The total charge Q is equal to the charge density over the volume V
=
$
Substitute , Equation (2)
" . = − − − − − −(3)
$
Equation (3) is called integral form of Maxwell Ist Equation.
Differential Form
Applying Guass Divergence theorem to L.H.S of Equation (3)
" . = ∇ ". − − − −(4) 5 . = ∇ 5.
$ $
Substituting Equation (4) in Equation (3),we get
∇ ". =
$ $
∇ " = − − − − − (5)
Equation (5) is called differential form of Maxwell Ist Equation.
Maxwell`s second equation from magnetic Gauss law

Integral Form
∅=0 − − − −(6)
According to Gauss law for magnetic field,the net magnetic flux through any closed surface is equal to zero.
∅= : . − − − − − −(7)
Comparing equations (6)&(7)

: . = 0 − − − − − −(8)
Equation (8) is called integral form of Maxwell IInd Equation.

Differential Form
Applying Guass Divergence theorem to L.H.S of Equation (8)
: . = ∇ .:
$
Substituting the above value in equation (8),
∇ :. =0
$
∇. : = 0 − − − − − −(9)
Equation (9) is called differential form of Maxwell IInd Equation.
Maxwell`s third equation from Faraday’s law

Integral Form
>∅
According to faraday’s lae
>?
=- ---------(10)
Where − @ ! !
∅ − A, ! @BC
@ ! ! interms of electric field E is
= . @ − − − − − −(11)
D
Magnetic flux in terms of magnetic induction B,
∅= : . − − − − − −(12)
Substituting Equation (12),(11) in Equation (10),we get
. @ = − E : . F
D
. @ = − E : . F − − − − − (13)
D
Equation (13) is called integral form of Maxwell IIIrd Equation.
Differential Form
Applying Stoke’s theorem to L.H.S of equation (13),then
. @ = ∇X . 5 . @ = ∇X5 .
D D
∇X . = − E : . F
∇X = − : ----------(14)
>
>?
Equation (14) is called differential form of Maxwell IIIrd Equation.
Maxwell`s fourth equation from Ampere’s law

Integral Form
I
According to Ampere`s circuit law
H . @ =I − − − −(15) JB , , K= → I = K5
5
D
@ , M N , ℎ !B , , !B , , 5= → I = K.
K . =I − − − − − (16)
BM B ,A PB , (16) , (15), N A
H . @= K . − − − −(17)
D
Applying Stoke’s theorem to L.H.S of equation (17),then
H . @= ∇XH . − − − − − (18)
D
∇XH . = K.
∇XH = K
Ampere`s law is modified by introducing displacement current density
∇ X H = K + K D -----------------(19)
Equation (19) is called integral form of Maxwell IVth Equation.
Differential Form
Applying Gauss Divergence theorem on both sides of equation (19),we get
∇. R∇ X HS = ∇. K + ∇ K D
∇. R∇ X HS = 0
∇. K = −
0=− + ∇K
>T
>?
D
=− − − − − − (20)
>T
−∇ K
>?
D
From Maxwell`s Ist equation, ∇ " = ,then equation (20)becomes

∇"
∇. K D =
"
K D= − − − − − − − (21)
Substituting equation (21) in (20)
"
∇XH = K+ − − − − − − − −(22)
Equation (22) is called differential form of Maxwell IVth Equation.
2.Give an account of Maxwell’s equation in free space. Apply the equation to deduce the EM wave
equation and determine the velocity light in vacuum.
Maxwell’s equation for free space (or) vacuum
∇" =
No charge present in the vacuum, therefore = 0 and the above equation reduces to
∇" =0 ∇ε = 0 ∇" =ε
∇. = 0 − − − −(1)
∇. : = 0 − − − −(2)
W:X
∇X =− − − − − − (3)
W
W"
∇XH = K+ − − − − − (4)
W
:
BM B ,A : = Y H or H = K =0&" = ε , PB , (4)
Y
: Wε
∇X \ ]=
Y W
WX
∇X: =Y ε − − − − − (5)
W
Taking curl on both sides of equation (3) ,

Equation 1 ,2,3 & 5 represents the Maxwell’s equation for free space
W:X
∇X X R∇ X S = ∇X X \− ] − − − −(6)
W
WR∇ X : S
∇X X R∇ X S = − − − − − − (7)
W
WX
Substituting equation 5 in equation 7, we get
W
∇X X R∇ X S = − \Y ε ] − − − −(8)
W W
∇ X R∇ X S = ∇. R∇. S − ∇^ X
Using vector identity,we can write
From equation (1) R∇. S = 0

∇ X R∇ X S = −∇^ − − − −(9)
WX
comparing equation(8) and (9)we get
W
−∇^ = − \Y ε ]
W W
W^
∇^ = Y ε \ ]
W2
W^
∇ −Y ε \ 2]=0
^
− − − − − −(10)
W
Equation (10) , ℎ N PB , in terms of electric field in vacuum or free space.
Wave equation for electric field vector (_)
WX
Taking curl on both sides of the equation (5) we get
∇X X R∇ X : S = ∇X X \Y ε ]
W
WR∇ X S
∇ XR ∇ X BS = Y ε − − − − − −(11)
W
Substituting equation (3) in (11)
W W:X
∇ XR ∇ X : S = Y ε \− ]
W W
^ X
W :
∇ XR ∇ X : S = −Y ε − − − −(12)
W ^
Using vector identity,we can write

∇ X R∇ X : S = ∇. R∇. : S − ∇^ :X
From equation (2) R∇. :S = 0
∇ X R∇ X : S = −∇^ : − − − − − −(13)
W ^ :X
comparing equation(12) and (13)we get
−∇^ : = −Y ε
W ^
^ X
W :
∇^ : − Y ε = 0 − − − − − − − (14)
W ^
Equation (14) , ℎ N PB , in terms of magnetic field in vacuum or free space.
W^
The single wave equation for both electric field and magnetic field,equations(10)and(14) becomes
∇^ − Y ε = 0 − − − − − − − (15)
W ^
1 W^c
The standard form of wave equation which travel with velocity ‘v’ can be written as
∇^ c − ^ ^ = 0 − − − − − − − (16)
W
Comparing equation (15) , (16) N A ,
1
^
= Y ε
1
= − − − − − − − (17)
dY ε
Y = 4e f 10gh i ^ J g^ and ε = 8.854 X 10gj^ C^ Ngj g^ substituting the value of
Y , ε in equation (17)N A
1
=
√4e f 10 f 8.854 X 10gj^
gh
1
=
√4e f 10gh f 8.854 X 10gj^
1
=
3.3346 f 10gn
= 2.998 f 10o gj
3. Obtain the expression for reflection and transmission coefficients of electro magnetic waves normal
incident on the interface of non- conductor medium and free space
Let us consider an electromagnetic wave which travel from a non-conducting medium to vacuum.
Here, at the interface of two medium, one part of the incident wave is reflected into same medium
and another part is transmitted into next medium as shown in Fig
j
and magnetic permeability (Yj & Y .).
We know that the non-conducting medium and vacuum will have different electrical permitivity ( & )
Let Ei and Er corresponds to the electric field vectors of the incident and reflected wave
respectively.
Let Hi and Hr corresponds to the magnetic field vectors of the incident and reflected wave respectively.
Ei + Er = Et ---------------(1)
Hi + Hr = Ht --------------(2)
Where i – incedent wave
Where r– reflected wave
Where i – transmission wave
The intrinsic impedance of non conducting medium
Ƞj =
H
H= − − − − − −(3)
Ƞj
The intrinsic impedance of vacuum
Ƞ =
H
H= − − − − − −(4)
Ƞ
Using equation (3)&(4) in equation (2) can be written as
− =
p ?
Ƞj Ƞj Ƞ
1
Negative sign indicates that the reflected wave travels in the opposite direction to that incident wave
( p− )=
?
Ƞj Ƞ
− = − − − − − −(5)
Ƞj
p ?
Ƞ
Adding equation (1) & (5),We get
Ei + Er + − = Et +
Ƞq
p
Ƞr ?
2 = \1 + ]
Ƞj
p ?
Ƞ
Ƞ0 + Ƞ1
2 p = \ ]
Ƞ0
2Ƞ
= − − − − − −(6)
?
Ƞ + Ƞj
2Ƞ
= − − − − − −(7)
?
Ƞ + Ƞj
Transmission Co-efficient (T)
The transmission co-efficient is the ratio of the intensity of the transmitted wave (It) to the intensity
of the intensity wave (Ii)
I?
T = − − − − − −(8)
Ip
The intensity of the transmitted wave as
^
I? = − − − − − −(9)
?
2Ƞ0
Similarly, The intensity of the incident wave as
^
Ip = − − − − − −(10)
p
2Ƞ1
? u2Ƞ0
Substituting equations (9) & (10) in equation (8), we get
^
t= ^
p u2Ƞ1
2Ƞ1 ^
t=
?
2Ƞ0 p^
^
t= v w − − − − − −(11)
Ƞ1 ?
Ƞ0 p
Substituting equation (7) in (11),we get
^
2Ƞ0
t= \ ]
Ƞ1
Ƞ0 Ƞ 0 + Ƞ 1
4Ƞ20 Ƞ
t= 1
Ƞ 0 R Ƞ0 + Ƞ1 S
2
4Ƞ0 Ƞ
t= 2 − − − − − −(12)
1
RȠ0 + Ƞ1 S
Equation (12) represents the transmission co-efficient for electromagnetic wave which have normal
incidence on non-conductor and vacuum interface.
2 Ƞ0
Substituting equation (6) in equation (1),we get
p + = p
Ƞ0 + Ƞ1
2Ƞ 0
= p − p
Ƞ0 + Ƞ1
2Ƞ 0
=\ − 1] p
Ƞ0 + Ƞ1
2Ƞ − Ƞ0 − Ƞ1
=\ 0 ] p
Ƞ0 + Ƞ1
Ƞ0 − Ƞ1
=\ ] p
Ƞ0 + Ƞ1
Ƞ0 − Ƞ1
=\ ] − − − − − −(13)
p Ƞ0 + Ƞ1
Reflection co-efficient (R)

The reflection coefficient is the ratio of intensity of the reflected wave (Ir) to the intensity of the incident
wave (Ii)
I
R = − − − − − −(14)
Ip
The intensity of the reflected wave is
^
I = − − − − − −(15)
2Ƞ1
^
Ip = − − − − − −(16)
p
2Ƞ1
Substituting equations(15) , (16) in equation(14) ,we get
^
u2Ƞ1
R = ^
p u2Ƞ1
2Ƞ1 ^
y=
2Ƞ1 ^
p
^
y=v w − − − − − −(17)
p
Substituting equation(13)in(17),we get,
^
Ƞ0 − Ƞ1
y=\ ] − − − − − −(18)
Ƞ0 + Ƞ1
Equation (18) represents the reflection co-efficient for electromagnetic wave which have normal incidence
on non-conductor and vacuum interface.
Adding equation (12)and(18), we get

The sum of T+R
4Ƞ0 Ƞ Ƞ −Ƞ
^
T+R= 2+ \
0
1 1
]
RȠ0 + Ƞ1 S Ƞ 0
+ Ƞ 1
4Ƞ0 Ƞ + RȠ0 − Ƞ1 S
2
T+R= 1
RȠ0 + Ƞ1 S
2
4Ƞ0 Ƞ + Ƞ0 2 + Ƞ1 2 − 2Ƞ0 Ƞ1
T+R= 1
RȠ0 + Ƞ1 S
2
Ƞ0 2 + Ƞ1 2 + 2Ƞ0 Ƞ1
T+R =
RȠ0 + Ƞ1 S
2
RȠ0 + Ƞ1 S
2
T+R = =1
RȠ0 + Ƞ1 S
2
QUESTION BANK FOR UNIT – III

Oscillations, Optics, LASERs
PART – A
1) Define simple harmonic motion and examples.

The motion in which the acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the
displacement from a fixed point and is always directed towards the fixed point.
Examples: Tuning fork, Sonometer
2) What is resonance?
The phenomenon of making a body to vibrate with its natural frequency under the
influence of another vibrating body with the same frequency is called resonance.
3) What is sharpness of resonance?
The rate of change of amplitude with the change of forcing frequency on each side of
resonant frequency is known as sharpness of resonance.
4) Define progressive wave.
Wave originating from a point source and travels in a isotropic medium with equal
velocity in all directions without disturbance is called progressive wave.
5) Define standing waves.
Standing waves are formed due to superimpose of two progressive wave of same
amplitude and wavelength, when it travelling in same path in opposite direction.
6) Define reflection and refraction.
When a light wave reaches the interface between two different media, it will bounce back into
the original medium. This process is called Reflection.
The bending of light wave, when it passes from one medium to another caused by its change
in speed. This process is called Refraction.
7) What is meant by total internal reflection? What are the conditions for total internal
reflection?
The complete reflection of light wave, when it passes from denser medium to rarer medium,
this phenomenon is called Total internal reflection.
Conditions:
 The light wave should travel from denser medium to rarer medium.
 The angle of incidence (θ) should be greater than critical angle (θc).

8) Define critical angle.

The angle of incidence at which the angle of refraction becomes 90° is called the critical
angle (θc). i.e., θr = 90 °, When θi = θc
9) What is meant by interference of light? What are the conditions to be satisfied for
interference to occur?
The change of intensity of light wave due to the superposition of two or more light waves is
called Interference
Conditions:
 Two sources must be coherent
 The sources should have constant phase difference
 The sources should be closer to each other
 The distance between the sources and screen must be larger
10) What is meant by fringe width?
Distance between any two consecutive bright or dark fringes in the pattern. β=λD/d
11) What is meant by an Air wedge? Give its usage.
Air wedge is formed by two glass plates on each other with contact at one edge and separation by
a thin material at the opposite edge.
It is used to find the thickness of the materials and testing of optical flatness of surface.
12) What is meant by population inversion?
It is a state of achieving more number of atoms in the excited state compared to the ground
state. i.e., N2 > N1
13) What are the characteristics of Laser light?
 It is highly directional
 It is coherent
 It is monochromatic
 It has high intensity
14) What is the role of nitrogen and helium in CO2 laser?
 Nitrogen helps to increase the population of the atoms in the upper energy level of CO2.
 Helium helps to depopulate the atoms in the lower energy level and also cool the discharge tube.
15) What are different methods of pumping?
 Optical pumping
 Direct electron excitation

 Inelastic atom-atom collision

 Direct conversion
 Chemical process
16) What are the conditions required for Laser action?
 Population inversion should be achieved
 Stimulated emission should be predominant over spontaneous emission
17) Can a two level system be used for the production of Laser? Why?
No, two level system cannot be used for the production of Laser, because for population inversion
to be achieved at least three levels are required.
18) What is the principle for Laser action?
Due to stimulated emission the photons multiply in each step leads to coherent, powerful,
monochromatic light.
19) Define the terms (i) Active medium and (ii) Active centre.
Active Medium: The medium in which the population inversion takes place
Active Centre: The material in which the atoms are raised to excited state to achieve population
inversion
20) What is meant by optical resonator or Resonance cavity?
It is a feedback system, which consists of an active medium kept in-between a 100 % mirror and a
partial mirror.

QUESTION BANK FOR UNIT – III

Optics & LASER
PART – B
1) Describe the construction, working and applications of Michelson’s interferometer.
Principle:
Interference by Division of Amplitude - Original amplitude of the wave is divided into
two parts by reflection or refraction and recombines on a screen to produce interference.
Construction:
It consists of a
 Source - To emit light
 Mirrors - Highly polished a movable mirror M1 and a fixed mirror M2.
 Beam splitter - Semi silvered glass plate (G1) inclined at angle 45 ̊ with respect to the
direction of laser beam.
 Compensatory glass - Glass plate (G2) parallel to beam splitter of same thickness & material.
 Telescope - To observe the Interference fringes on the screen.
Figure: 1

Working:
 Light from the source falls on the beam splitter G 1
 At G1, some part of the light gets reflected along M1 and some part of the light gets
transmitted along M2 of equal intensity.
 These two lights are reflected back towards G1 by M1 & M2.
 The ray reflected from M1 is transmitted through G1 to the screen.
 The ray reflected from M2 is again reflected by G1 to the screen.
 Two beams interfere with each other, because both beams originate from same point and
they are coherent.
 Interference pattern are observed on the screen.
Theory:
 When mirrors M1 is exactly perpendicular to mirror M2.
 Air film formed between M1 and virtual image of mirror M2‟ (figure.1).
 The air film gives reflected beam to interfere.
 The path difference depends upon
 The separation between M1 and M2‟
 The inclination between M1 and M2 ‟
 For given separation of „d‟ between M1 and M2‟ , the path difference (Δ) = 2dcosθ
Constructive interference - Path difference = nλ
Destructive interference - Path difference = (2n+1) λ/2
Types of Fringes
Case: 1
When M1 and M2‟ are parallel to each other. Circular fringes are formed. It also called
Haidinger fringes (fig. a)
Case: 2
When M1 and M2‟ are inclined to each other. Curved fringes are formed (fig. b).
Case: 3
When M1 and M2‟ are intersect. Straight fringes are formed (fig. c).

Figure: 3(a) Figure: 3(b) Figure: 3(c)
(i) Determination of wavelength (λ):

 Circular fringes are used to determine the wavelength of light.
 Then path difference for bright fringe,
2d cosθ = n λ
Since θ is very small, cosθ = 1
2d = n λ ---------- (1)
 Mirror M1 is moved a distance „x‟ and „m‟ be the number of fringes passing a given point as
M1 is moved. After moving, now the path difference,
2(d+x) = (m+n) λ
2d+2x = mλ +nλ
Substituting eqn (1), nλ +2x = mλ +nλ
2x = mλ
2x

m
(ii) Determination of refractive index (μ) and thickness of a material:

 A thin transparent material of thickness (t) and refractive index (μ) is introduced in the path of
the interfering light.
 Now path difference is changed due to the thin material by
2(μ - 1) t
 Then path difference for bright fringe,
2(μ - 1) t = n λ

From eqn (1) 2d = n λ

λ = 2d/n -------------------------- (2)
Substitute above eqn,
2(μ - 1) t = n2d/n
(μ - 1) t = d
d
Thickness of the material t
(   1)
d 
Refractive index of the material     1
t
Applications:
It is used to determine:
• Wavelength of monochromatic light.
• The refractive index of a thin film.
• Resolution of spectral lines.
• The evolution of meters in terms of the wavelength of light.

2) Describe the term, ‘air wedge’. Explain the theory of air wedge and its experimental
setup to determine the thickness of a thin material.
Air wedge:
Air wedge or wedge shaped air film is formed by two glass plates on each other with contact
at one edge and separation by a thin material at the opposite edge.
Principle:
Interference by Division of Amplitude - Original amplitude of the wave is divided into
two parts by reflection or refraction and recombines on a screen to produce interference.
Theory:
Let us consider an air wedge formed by two plane surfaces OA and OB.
• θ – Angle between two glass plates.
• μ – Refractive index of the material.
• t – Thickness of the air film.
Interference occurs between the reflected rays from upper surface of the film lower surface of the
film.
We know that,
Path difference (Δ) = 2μtcosr ------ (1)
For normal incidence, r = 90°; cos90° = 1
t
From ΔAOB, we can write; 
x
Then t  x

Refractive index of air (μ = 1), Then Eqn (1) becomes; Δ = 2xθ ---------- (2)
Conditions for the formation of

Dark Fringes: 2xθ = nλ ------------ (3)

Bright Fringes: 2 x  (2n  1) ---------- (4)
2
Fringe Width (β)
Distance between any two consecutive bright or dark fringes in the Interference pattern.
Case (i): Dark Fringes
Let xn be the distance of nth dark fringe and xn+1 be the distance of n+1th dark fringe.
From eqn (3), we can write

nth dark fringe 2xnθ = nλ,
n
xn  ----- (5)
2
n+1th dark fringe 2xn+1θ = (n+1)λ ;
(n  1)
xn 1  ----- (6)
2
Fringe width, β = xn+1- xn
(n  1) n
 
2 2

 ----- (7)
2
Case (i): Bright Fringes
Similarly, distance between the consecutive nth and n+1th bright fringes.

nth Bright Fringe 2 xn  (2n  1)
2


xn  (2n  1)
4

n+1th Bright Fringe 2 xn 1  (2(n  1)  1)
2

xn 1  (2n  3)
4
Fringe width, β = xn+1- xn
 
  (2n  3)  (2n  1)
4 4

 ----- (8)
2
Air Wedge Experiment:
Construction:
 Thin sheet is inserted between two Microscope slides at one end.
 Glass plate is placed vertically at 45° angle.
 Sodium vapour lamp is illuminated on the air wedge through glass plate.
 Microscope is focused on the air wedge.

Working:
 Air wedge be formed between two glass plates, slightly inclined to each other at an angle
θ.
 Air wedge is Illuminate by a parallel beam of monochromatic light.
 Interference occurs between the rays reflected from the upper and lower surfaces of the
air film.
 Alternate dark and bright bands of equal width are observed.
 The horizontal position of the fringes in the order of n, n+5, n+10, n+15, etc are
measured.
 Now microscope readings are tabulated as follows.
Table
Microscope Readings Mean width

Order of Width of 5
of one fringe
bands TR = bands
MSR VSC (β)
MSR+(VSC×LC)
Unit cm div cm cm cm
n+5
n+10
n+15
n+20
The mean of above table gives the fringe width (β)


We know that 
2
t
From ΔAOB, 
l
t – Thickness of thin sheet.
l – Distance between the edge and thin sheet.
Then substituting,
l

2t
l
Thickness of material; t
2
Hence, the thickness of the thin material can be determined using air wedge experiment.
Uses:
Air wedge can be used to find
 Wavelength of the light
 Thickness of the small objects
 Testing of optical flatness of surfaces

3) (i) Derive the expression for Einstein’s Co-efficient and deduce the ratio of rates of
stimulated and spontaneous emission of radiation.
(ii) Explain the term population inversion and resonant cavity.
(iii) Discuss the applications of laser in various fields.
(i) EINSTEINS THEORY OF RADIATION:

Let us consider an atom exposed to light of energy „hυ‟, there are three processes can takes
place,
 Absorption
 Spontaneous emission
 Stimulated emission
Figure Absorption, spontaneous and stimulated emission
Case (i): Absorption

An atom in the ground state E1 absorbs the incident photon of energy (hυ) and goes to the
excited state E2. This process is called as absorption.
The rate of absorption (R12) is proportional to
(i) Energy density of the incident light and
(ii) Number of atoms in the ground state.
R12 α ρυN1
R12 = B12 ρυN1  1
Where, B12 – The probability of absorption.

Case (ii): Spontaneous emission

The atom in the excited state returns to the ground state by emitting a photon of energy
(hυ) spontaneously without any external triggering. This process is known as spontaneous
emission.
The rate of spontaneous emission is proportional to number of atoms in the excited state,
R21 (sp) α N2
R21 (sp) = A21 N2  2
Where, A21 – The probability of spontaneous emission
Case (iii): Stimulated emission

The atom in the excited state can also return to the ground state by external triggering
thereby emitting a photon of energy equal to the energy of the incident photon. This process is
known as stimulated emission.
The rate of stimulated emission is given by
R21 α ρυN2
R21 = B21 ρυN2  3
Where, B21 – The probability of stimulated emission
The constants B12, A21 & B21 are called Einstein‟s Co-efficients.
Hence under thermal equilibrium,

The rate of absorption = The rate of emission
B12 ρυN1 = A21 N2 + B21 ρυN2
 B12 N 1  B21 N 2   A21 N 2
A21 N 2
 
B12 N 1  B21 N 2
A21
   4
B12  N 1 B

 N 2
21
N1  e h / KT from Boltzmann distribution equation in above eqn (4), we have

On substituting
N2

A
  21
h / KT
B12e  B21
A21 1
  .  6
B21  B12 e h / KT  1
 B21 

From Planck‟s black body theory of radiation,
8h 3 1
 . h / KT  7 
C 3
e 1
Comparing the eqns (6) & (7), we have
B12
 1;
B21
 B12  B21  B  (8)
A21 8h 3
and   A  (9)
B21 C3
Since constants A and B are called as Einstein‟s Co-efficient.
Ratio of stimulated emission and spontaneous emission

From the eqns (2) & (3), we have
R21( st ) B21N 2 
  (10)
R21( sp) A21N 2
From eqn (6)
A21 1
 .
B21  B12 e h / KT  1
 B 
 21 
Substituting eqn (8) in the above eqn, we have

A21 1
 . h / KT
B21 e 1
B21 1
  h / KT  (11)
A21 e 1
Substituting eqn (11) in eqn (10), we get
R21( st ) 1
 h / KT  (12)
R21( sp) e 1

Significance:
R21( st )
Case (i): When,  1 and hence Laser action is possible
R21( sp)
R21( st )
Case (ii): When,  1 and hence Laser action is not possible
R21( sp)
PRINCIPLE OF LASER:
 The photon emitted during stimulated emission has same frequency, energy and are in
phase as the incident photon.
 Thus results in 2 photons of similar properties. These photons induce stimulated emission
of 2 more photons thereby resulting 4 photons.
 This process continues in a chain, gives rise to increase in intensity of coherent radiation
enormously.
Definition: “Due to stimulated emission the photons multiply in each step leads to coherent,
powerful, monochromatic light. This light is known as Laser”
(ii) POPULATION INVERSION:

Definition: “It is a state of achieving more number of atoms in the excited state compared to the
ground state”.
i.e., N2 > N1
Hence, population inversion is an essential condition for laser action.

Active Medium: “The medium in which the population inversion takes place”.
Active Centre: “The material in which the atoms are raised to excited state to achieve population
inversion”.
Condition for population inversion:
1. There must be at least two energy levels (E 1 &E2).
2. There must be a source to supply the energy to the medium.
3. The atoms must be continuously raised to the excited state.
PUMPING METHODS:
Pumping:“The process of raising more number of atoms to excited state by artificial
method”. Commonly used methods are,
(i) Optical pumping: Examples: Ruby Laser
(ii) Direct electron excitation:Examples: CO2 Laser
(iii) Inelastic atom-atom collision:Examples: Helium-Neon Laser
(iv) Direct conversion:Examples: GaAs Laser
(v) Chemical method:Examples: Dye Laser
OPTICAL RESONATOR OR RESONANT CAVITY:

 The optical resonator comprises of an active medium kept in between a 100 % reflecting
mirror and a partially reflecting mirror as shown in figure.
 This optical resonator acts as a feed back system in amplifying the light emitted from the
active medium, by making multiple reflections.
 Here the light bounces back and forth between the 100 % mirror and the partially mirror.
Hence the intensity of the light is increased extremely.
 Finally the amplified beam called Laser is allowed to come out through the partial mirror.

APPLICATIONS OF LASER
(a) Industrial Applications:
 It is used in material processing such as welding, cutting, drilling and heat treatment.
 It is also used in 3D profiling and holography.
 It is used in CR-ROM to store the data.
 It is used for heat treatment in the automotive industry.
 It is used to cut glass and quartz.
 It is used in electronic industries for trimming the components of ICs.
(b) Medical Applications:
 It is used in microsurgery and bloodless operations to cure cancers and skin tumors.
 It is used in Nose, Ear, and Throat surgery.
 To shatter kidney stones.
 It is used in eye curvature corrections.
 To remove diseased body tissues.
(c) Communication:
 It is used for under water communication between submarines.
 It is used in space communication, RADARs and satellites.
 Fibre optic communication, LASERs is used as sources.
 It is used in forecasting earthquakes.
(d) Other applications:
 It is used in LIDAR (light Detecting & Ranging)
 It is used to scan the universal barcodes to identify products.
 To determine ozone concentration.
 To detect absolute rotation of earth.

4) Express the principle, construction and working of a Nd-YAG laser with a neat
energy level diagram. Mention its merits, demerits and applications.
Principle:
The active medium of Nd-YAG rod is optically pumped by krypton flash tube. The
neodymium (Nd3+) ions are raised to excited energy levels. During transition from metastable state
to ground state, a beam of wavelength 1.064 μm is emitted.
Construction:
 The active medium is made as a rod which has yttrium aluminium garnet(YAG) doped
with neodymium (Nd) ions.
 The Nd-YAG crystal is cut into a cylindrical rod, whose ends are highly polished.
 The cylindrical rod and a pumping source are kept in an high reflecting elliptical reflector
cavity.
 The optical resonator is formed by using two external reflecting mirrors. M 1 is fully
reflecting and other M2 is partially reflecting.
Working:
 When krypton flash tube is switched on and the light is allowed to fall on the rod.
 The neodymium ions are excited from ground state to higher energy levels E3 and E2 due
to absorption of light radiation of wavelengths 0.73 μm and 0.80 μm.

 From these energy levels, the ions make non-radiative transition to energy level E2 called
as metastable state.
 Thus population inversion is achieved in the energy level E2, a neodymium ion makes a
spontaneous transition from E2 to E1 by emitting a photon of energy hυ.
 This emitted photon triggers a chain of stimulated photons between E 2 to E1.
 Hence, pulsed from of laser beam of wavelength 1.064 μm is emitted and pass through the
partially reflecting mirror.
Characteristics:
Type : Solid state Laser
Active medium : Nd-YAG rod
Pumping method : Optical pumping
Pumping source : Krypton flash lamp
Optical resonator : Two ends of Nd-YAG rod polished with silver
Power output : 20 kW
Nature of output : Pulsed
Wavelength of output : 1.065 μm
Merits:
 It has high energy output.
 It is much easier to achieve population inversion.

Demerits:
 The electron energy level structure is complicated.
7. Applications:
 It is used in endoscopic and neuro surgery applications.
 It is widely used in remote sensing applications.
 It is used in transmitting signals to a longer distance.
5) Describe the construction and working of semiconductor laser.

HOMO JUNCTION SEMICONDUCTOR LASER:
Principle:
 A homo junction Laser uses the same semiconductor material on both sides of the
junction.
 The electron in conduction band combines with a hole in the valence band of the p-n
junction diode during forward bias.
 Hence the recombination of electron and hole produces energy in the form of light.
 This photon, in turn may induce the stimulated emission of another photon. As a result
laser light is produced.
Construction:
 The active medium is a p-n junction diode made from a single crystal of gallium arsenide.
 The thickness of the p-n junction is very narrow so that the emitted laser beam has large
divergence.
 The end faces of the p-n junction are well polished and parallel to each other. They act as
an optical resonator.
 The upper and lower electrodes fixed in the p and n region helps for the forward biasing.
Working:
 The energy level diagram of homo junction semiconductor Laser is shown in the figure.
 When the pn junction is forward biased, the electrons and holes are injected into junction
region.
 Now the electrons and holes recombine with each other. During recombination, light
photons are produced.

 When the forward biased voltage is increased, more light photons are emitted. These
photons trigger a chain of stimulated recombination resulting in the emission of more light
photons.
 These photons travel back and forth between the two polished surfaces of the junction.
After gaining enough strength, laser beam of wavelength 8400 Å is emitted from the
junction.
 The wavelength of Laser beam is given by
hc
E g  h 

hc

Eg
Where, Eg – Bandgap energy

Characteristics:
Type : Semiconductor Laser
Active medium : A pn junction diode made from single crystal of GaAs
Pumping method : Direct conversion method
Power output : a few mW
Nature of output : Continuous or pulsed output
Wavelength of output : 8300 to 8500 Å

Advantages:
 It is very small in size and compact.
 It has high efficiency.
 It emits a continuous wave output or pulsed output.
 It is operated with less power than ruby Laser.
Disadvantages:
 Laser output beam has large divergence.
 It has poor coherence and stability.
 The purity and monochromacity is poor.
Applications:
 It is widely used in fibre optic communication.
 It is used in Laser printers and CD players.
 It is also used as a pain killer.

HETERO JUNCTION SEMICONDUCTOR LASER:

Principle:
 A hetero junction Laser uses two semiconductor materials having different bandgap
energies on both sides of the junction.
 The electron in conduction band combines with a hole in the valence band of the p-n
junction diode during forward bias.
 Hence the recombination of electron and hole produces energy in the form of light.
 This photon, in turn may induce the stimulated emission of another photon. As a result
laser light is produced.
Construction:
 This Laser consists of five layers as shown in the figure.
 A thin layer of GaAs: p-type (3rd layer) acts as active region.
 This layer is kept between two layers having wider bandgap GaAlAs: p-type (2nd layer)
and GaAlAs: n-type (4th layer).
 For biasing, the metal electrodes fixed on top and bottom layers, GaAs: p-type (1st layer)
and GaAs: n-type (5th layer).
 The end faces of the junctions of 3rd and 4th layers are well polished and parallel to each
other. They act as an optical resonator.
Working:
 The energy level diagram of homo junction semiconductor Laser is shown in the figure.
 When the pn junction is forward biased, the electrons and holes are injected into junction
region.
 Now the electrons and holes recombine with each other. During recombination, light
photons are produced.
 When the forward biased voltage is increased, more light photons are emitted. These
photons trigger a chain of stimulated recombination resulting in the emission of more light
photons.
 These photons travel back and forth between the two polished surfaces of the junction.
After gaining enough strength, laser beam of wavelength 8000 Å is emitted from the
junction.

Characteristics:
Type : Hetero junction Semiconductor Laser
Active medium : A pn junction diode made from different type of semiconductors
Pumping method : Direct conversion method
Power output : 1 mW
Nature of output : Continuous wave output
Wavelength of output : nearly 8000 Å

Advantages:
 It produces continuous wave output.
 The power output is very high.
Disadvantages:
 It is very difficult to grow different layers of pn junction.
 The cost of this Laser is very high.
Applications:
 It is widely used in optical communication.
 It is mostly used in computers and CD-ROMs.
6) Explain the different modes of vibration of a CO 2 molecule. Describe the principle,

construction and working of a CO2 laser with a neat energy level diagram. Mention
its advantages, disadvantages and applications.
Principle:
Transition between various vibrational and rotational energy levels of CO 2 molecule leads
to the emission of LASER beam of wavelength from 9.6 μm to 10.6 μm .
Theory:
 Molecular lasers are different from Atomic lasers.
 Besides Electronic energy levels (E1, E2, E3 etc), they have Vibrational energy levels (V1,
V2, V3 etc) and Rotational energy levels (j1, j2, j3 etc).
 Transitions between vibrational energy levels emit photons in infrared region.
 Transitions between rotational energy levels emit photons in microwave region.
Vibrational Modes of Molecule:

In the CO2 molecule, two oxygen atoms were covalently bonded with central carbon atom.
It has three modes of vibrations
(a) Symmetric Stretching Mode:
In this mode, the carbon atom is at rest and the two oxygen atoms vibrate along the axis of the
molecule moving either towards or away from the carbon atom.
Hence, change in bond length occurs.

(b) Bending Mode:

In this mode, both the carbon atom and oxygen atoms vibrate perpendicular to the molecular axis.
Hence, the molecule bends and change in bond angle occurs.
(c) Asymmetric Stretching Mode:

In this mode, oxygen atoms and carbon atoms vibrate asymmetrically. If carbon atom moves in
one direction, oxygen atoms move in opposite direction.
Construction:
 It consists of a quartz tube 5 m long and 2.5 cm in the diameter.
 Discharge tube is filled with gaseous mixture of CO2, N2 & He in the ratio of 1:2:3 with
suitable partial pressures.
 Discharge tubes terminals are connected to a D.C power supply.
 Discharge tube is fixed between two concave mirrors
o Mirror 1 gives 100 % fully reflection
o Mirror 2 gives partial reflection

Working:
 When an electric discharge passed through tube, the electrons are accelerated.
 These accelerated electrons collide with N2 molecules and excite them to excited energy
levels.
N 2  e  N 2*
 The excited N2* molecules exchange resonant energy with the CO2 molecules.
 This leads to the excitation of CO2 molecules to excited energy levels (corresponds to
asymmetric stretching vibration)
*
N 2*  CO2  CO2 (001)  N 2
 Population inversion is reached either between energy levels,
 E5(001) and E4(100)
 E5(001) and E3(020)
 There are two possible laser transitions
o Transition from E5 to E4 produce a laser beam of wavelength 10.6 μm.
o Transition from E5 to E3 produce a laser beam of wavelength 9.6 μm.
Characteristics:
Type : Molecular Gas Laser
Active medium : Mixture of CO2, N2 and He
Pumping method : Electric discharge method
Optical resonator : Two Concave Mirrors

Power output : 10 kW
Nature of output : Pulsed or Continuous
Wavelength of output : 9.6 μm to10.6 μm
Advantages:
 It has high power output.
 It has high efficiency.
 Its construction is simple.
Disadvantages:
 Contamination of gases may occur, which decreases efficiency.
 Output efficiency depends on operating temperature.
Applications:
 It is used in material processing like welding, cutting, drilling.
 It is widely used in open air communication.
 It is used in micro surgery, bloodless surgery operations.

QUESTION BANK FOR UNIT – IV

Basic Quantum Mechanics
PART – A
1) What is Compton wavelength? Give its value.

The shift in wavelength corresponding to the scattering angle of 90° is called Compton
wavelength. Δλ = 0.02424 Å.
2) Define Compton Effect and Compton shift.
Compton Effect: When a beam of high frequency radiation is scattered by an element, the scattered
radiations consists of two lines.
 One component having the same wavelength (λ) as the incident beam
 The other component having slightly longer wavelength (λ').
Compton shift: The change in wavelength of the scattered X-rays.
3) What are matter waves?
Matter Waves: The waves associated with moving particles of matter (electrons ,photons, etc).
4) What is de-Broglie’s wave equation?
Wavelength or Wave equation of de-Broglie wave:
h h
 
mv p
Where, h - Planck’s constant, m - Mass, v - Velocity and p - Momentum
5) What is the physical significance of a wave function?
 It relates the particle and the wave nature statistically.
 It gives the probability of finding the particle at any instant of time.
 It gives the information about the particle behaviour.
 It is a complex quantity.
6) For a free particle moving within a one dimensional potential box, the ground state
energy cannot be zero, why?
When n = 0, the wave function is zero for all values of x. This would mean that the particle
is not present within the box. The state with n = 0 is not allowed. Since ground state energy cannot
be zero.

7) What is meant by photon? Give any two properties.

Definition: Photons are discrete energy values in the form of small quantas of definite frequency or
wavelength.
Properties:
 They do not have any charge and they will not ionize.
 The energy and momentum of the photon is given by E = hν and p = mc.
8) What are the properties of matter waves?
 Matter waves are not electromagnetic waves.
 Lighter particles will have high wavelength.
 Particles moving with less velocity will have high wavelength.
 The velocity of matter waves is greater than the velocity of light.
9) What do you understand by the term ‘wave function’?
Wave function (Ψ) is a variable quantity that is associated with a moving particle at any
position (x, y, z) and at any time‘t’. It gives the probability of finding the particle at any instant of
time.
10) Define Eigen value and Eigen function.
 Particle moving in one dimensional box, for each value of n, there is an energy level. Each
value of En is called Eigen value.
 For every quantum state, there is a corresponding wave function Ψn. This corresponding
wave function is called Eigen function.
11) What is meant by correspondence principle? Give example.
For large value of principal quantum number ‘n’, the quantum mechanics merges with classical
mechanics. i.e., Classical theory and Quantum theory will have same results.

QUESTION BANK FOR UNIT – IV

Basic Quantum Mechanics
PART – B
1) Derive in time dependent Schrodinger wave equation and hence deduce the time
independent Schrodinger wave equation.
SCHRODINGER WAVE EQUATION
Schrodinger equation is the basic equation of motion for matter waves. It describes the
wave nature of a particle in mathematical form. The two forms of the wave equation are:
 Time independent wave equation

 Time dependent wave equation
(i) Schrodinger Time independent wave equation:
 Consider a wave associated with a moving particle.

 Let x, y, z be the coordinates of the particle.
 Let 'Ψ' be the wave function for the de Broglie wave at any time (t) .
 The classical differential wave equation for wave motion is given by
1  2
2       (1)
v 2 t 2
2 2 2
Where,  2    is Laplacian’s operator
x 2 y 2 z 2
V = Wave velocity
 The solution of eqn (1) is of the form,

  o eit      (2)
 Here Ψo(x, y, z) is a funtion of x, y, z only and gives the amplitude with respect to time.
 Differentiating twice the eqn (2) with respect to t, we have

 (i ).o e it
t
 2
 (i )(i ).o e it
t 2

 2 2 2
 i  .o e it
t 2
 We know that, i 2  1 and   oeit , Then above eqn becomes,
 2
  2 .o e it      (3)
t 2
 Substituting eqn (3) in eqn (1), we have
2
2   
v2
2
2    0      (4)
v2
 We know that, Angular frequency is   2

2v
 ;

 2

v 
 Squaring the above eqn, we get
2 4 2
      (5)
v2 2
 Substituting eqn (5) in eqn (4), we have
4 2
2  0
2
h
 on substituting,   in the above eqn, we have
mv
4 2
2 
h m v   0
2
2 2
4 2 m 2v 2
2    0      (6)
h2
h
 we know that, reduced Planck‟s constant,   Substituting in the eqn (6)
2

m2v 2
2    0      (7 )
2
 If E is the energy of the particle,

Total energy = Potential energy + Kinetic energy
1
E  V  mv2
2
1 2
E V  mv
2
2( E  V )  mv2
 Multiplying by m on both sides, we have

m2v 2  2m( E  V )      (8)
 substituting eqn (8) in eqn (7), we get

2m( E  V )
2    0      (9)
2
 Re-arrange the above eqn,

2mE 2mV
2  2
 2 0
 
2mV 2mE
 2  2
 2 
 
2m
 Divide the above eqn by on both sides,
2
2 2
    V  E      (10)
2m
 Equation (10) has no term representing time and hence it is called Time independent Schrodinger
equation.
Special case:
 The one-dimensional equation is represented as
 2  2m( E  V )
 0
x 2 2

(ii) Schrodinger Time dependent wave equation:
 Consider a wave associated with a moving particle.

 Let x, y, z be the coordinates of the particle.
 Let 'Ψ' be the wave function for the de Broglie wave at any time (t) .
 The classical differential wave equation for wave motion is given by
1  2
2       (1)
v 2 t 2
2 2 2
Where,  2    is Laplacian’s operator
x 2 y 2 z 2
V = Wave velocity
 The solution of eqn (1) is of the form,

  o eit      (2)
 Here Ψo(x, y, z) is a funtion of x, y, z only and gives the amplitude with respect to time.
 Differentiating the eqn (2) with respect to t, we have

 (i ).o e it
t
 We know that, Angular frequency is   2 and   oeit , Then above eqn becomes,

 (i 2 ).
t
 Since, E  h , then   E , the above eqn becomes,

h
 E
 i 2  .
t h
  E 
 i .
t h 
 2 
h
 Since,   Substituting in the above eqn
2
 E
 i. .      (3)
t 

 Multiplying „i‟ on both sides in eqn (3), we have

 E
i  i 2  .
t 
 E
i  .
t 

i  E      (4)
t
 Schroedinger‟s time independent wave equation is
2 2
    V  E
2m
 Substituting eqn (4) in the above eqn,
2 2 
    V  i
2m t
 2 2  
   V .  i      (5)
 2 m  t
H  E      (6)
 2 2 
Where, H     V . is Hamiltonian operator
 2m 

E  i is the Energy operator
t
 The eqns (5) & (6) are known as Schroedinger time dependent wave equation.

2) (i) Define Compton effect

(ii) Derive an expression for the wavelength of the scattered photon (Compton shift).
COMPTON EFFECT:
Statement:
 When a beam of high frequency radiation is scattered by a substance of low atomic number
the scattered radiations consists of two lines.
 One component having the same wavelength (λ) as the incident beam
 The other component having slightly longer wavelength (λ').
 This change in wavelength of the scattered X-rays is known as the Compton shift.
 This effect of scattering is called Compton Effect.
Derivation:
 Consider an X-ray photon of frequency striking an electron at rest.
 This Photon is scattered through an angle θ to x-axis.
 Let the frequency of the scattered photon be ν‟ and its energy hν'.
 During the collision, X-ray photon gives a fraction of its energy to the free electron.
 This free electron moves with a velocity V at an angle ф to x axis.

 Total energy before collision

Energy of the incident photon = hν
Energy of the electron at rest = m0c2
where, m0 - Rest mass of electron and c - Velocity of light.
Total energy before collision = hν + m0c2
 Total energy after collision
Energy of the scattered photon = hν'
Energy of the recoil electron = mc2
Where, m – Mass of an electron moving with the velocity ν'
Total energy after collision = hν' + mc2
 According to the law of conservation of energy,
Total energy before collision = Total energy after collision
hν + m0c2 = hν' + mc2
mc2 = hν - hν'+ m0c2
mc2  hv    mo c 2 --------- (1)
 Total momentum along X-axis before collision

h
Initial momentum of photon along X-axis =
c
Initial momentum of electron along X-axis = 0
h
Total momentum before collision along X-axis =
c
 Total momentum along X-axis after collision
The momentum is resolved along X-axis and Y-axis.
h 
Final momentum of photon along X-axis = cos 
c
Final momentum of electron along X-axis = m cos 
h 
Total momentum after collision along X-axis = cos   m cos 
c
 According to the law of conservation of momentum,
Total energy before momentum = Total energy after momentum
h h 
 cos   m cos 
c c

h h 
 cos   m cos 
c c
mc cos   h   cos   --------- (2)
 Total momentum along Y-axis before collision
Initial momentum of photon along Y-axis = 0
Initial momentum of electron along Y-axis = 0
Total momentum before collision along Y-axis = 0
 Total momentum along Y-axis after collision

h 
Final momentum of photon along Y-axis = sin 
c
Final momentum of electron along Y-axis =  m sin 
h 
Total momentum after collision along Y-axis = sin   m sin 
c
 According to the law of conservation of momentum,
Total energy before momentum = Total energy after momentum
h 
0 sin   m sin 
c
h 
m sin   sin 
c
mc sin   h  sin  --------- (3)
 Squaring eqn (2) and (3) and then adding, we get
mc cos 2  mc sin 2  h   cos  2  h  sin  2 --------- (4)
L.H.S = R.H.S
 L.H.S of eqn (4)
 mc cos   mc sin 

2 2

 m2 2c 2 cos 2   sin 2  
 m2 2c 2 Since cos 2   sin 2   1
 R.H.S of eqn (4),
 h 2    cos    h 2 2 sin 2 
2
 
 h2  2  2  cos   2 cos 2   h2 2 sin 2 


 h2  2  2  cos   2 cos 2   2 sin 2  
 h 
2 2

 2  cos   2 cos 2   sin 2   Since cos 2   sin 2   1
 h 
2 2
 2  cos     2
 Equating L.H.S & R.H.S,

m2 2c 2  h 2  2  2  cos   2  --------- (5)
 Squaring eqn (1) on both sides, we get
mc   hv   m c 

2 2
o
2 2
m2c 4  h 2 v    mo c 4  2hv  mo c 2

2 2
 
m2c 4  h 2 v 2  2  2v   mo c 4  2hv  mo c 2 --------- (6)
2
 Subtracting eqn (5) from eqn (6), we get
 
m2c 4  m2 2c 2  h 2 v 2   2  2v   mo c 4  2hv  mo c 2  h 2  2  2  cos    2
2
 
L.H.S = R.H.S
 R.H.S of the above eqn,  m2 c 4  m2 2 c 2
 m2c 2 c 2  v 2 
 L.H.S of the above eqn,
 
 h 2 v 2  2  2v   mo c 4  2hv  mo c 2  h 2  2  2  cos   2
2
 
 h 2v 2  h 2 2  2h 2v   mo c 4  2hv  mo c 2  h 2 2  2h 2  cos   h 2 2
2
 mo c 4  2hv  mo c 2  2h 2v   2h 2  cos 

2
 mo c 4  2hv  mo c 2  2h 2v 1  cos  

2
 Equating L.H.S & R.H.S,
 
m2c 2 c 2  v 2  mo c 4  2hv  mo c 2  2h 2v 1  cos   --------- (7)
2
 From the theory the variation of mass with velocity is given by

mo
m --------- (8)
 v2 
1  2 
 c 
 Squaring the eqn (8) on the both sides, we get

2 2 2
mo mo mo c 2
m2   
 v2   c2  v2  c2  v2
1  2   2

 c   c 
 
m2 c 2  v 2  mo c 2
2
 Multiplying c2 on both sides, we have
  2
m2c 2 c 2  v 2  mo c 4 --------- (9)
 Substituting eqn (9) in eqn(7), we get
mo c 4  mo c 4  2hv  mo c 2  2h 2v 1  cos  

2 2
2hv  mo c 2  2h 2v 1  cos  
v  moc 2  hv 1  cos  

v   h
 1  cos  
v  mo c 2
v  h
  1  cos  
v  v  mo c 2
1 1 h
  1  cos   --------- (10)
  v mo c 2
 Multiplying c2 on both sides, we have
c c hc
  1  cos 
  v mo c 2
h c
    1 cos   Since,  
mo c 
 Therefore the change in wavelength is given by
h
d  1  cos   --------- (10)
mo c
 The change in wavelength d does not depend on the

 Wavelength of the incident photon
 Nature of the scattering material.
 It depends only on the scattering angle.

 Special cases
h
Case (i) when θ = 0, then; d  1  cos 0  h 1  1  0 ; dλ = 0Å
moc moc
Case (ii) when θ = 90°, then; d 

h
moc

1  cos 90o  h
moc
1  0  h ; dλ = 0.0243 Å
moc
Case (iii) when θ = 180°, then; d 

h
moc

1  cos180o 
h

moc
1  (1)  2h ; dλ = 0.0486 Å
moc
3. Experimental verification of Compton Effect
 The experimental set up is as shown in the figure.
 A beam of monochromatic X-ray beam is allowed to fall on the scattering material.
 The scattered beam is received by a Bragg spectrometer.
 The intensity of the scattered beam is measured for various angles of scattering.
 A graph is plotted between the intensity and the wavelength.
 It is found that the curves have two peaks.
 One belongs to unmodified and the other belongs to the modified beam.
 The difference between the two peaks gives the shift in wavelength.
 When the scattering angle is increased the shift also gets increased in accordance with
h
d  1  cos  
mo c
 The experimental values were found to be in good agreement with that found by the
formula.
Experimental verification of Compton Effect

Graph between intensity of the scattered X-rays and wavelength

3) Solve Schroedinger wave equation for a particle in a one dimensional box and
obtain the energy eigen values.
Consider a particle of mass “m” moving inside a one dimensional box. The walls of the
box are between x = 0 and x = a along x-axis.
 The potential energy (V) is assumed to be 0 in inside the box.
 The potential energy (V) is assumed to be α in outside the box and on the wall of the
box.
The potential function is:
V x   0 for 0  x  a
V x    for 0  x  a
This function is known as the square well potential.
V=α V=α
V=α V=0 V=α

Ψ=0 Ψ≠0 Ψ=0
x -axis
x=0 x=a
The Schroedinger one dimensional time independent wave equation,

 2  2m( E  V )
   0      (1)
x 2 2
Since, V=0 in inside the box,
 2  2mE
 2 0
x 2 
2mE
Assuming that k 2  , then above eqn becomes
2
 2
 k 2   0      (2)
x 2

The general solution for the above second order differential equation is
( x)  A sin kx  B cos kx      (3)
Here, A and B are two unknown constants
Applying the boundary conditions
Condition (i): At x=0 and V = α,
Equation (3) becomes, 0  A sin 0  B cos 0
0  A  0  B 1 , Hence B  0
Condition (ii):At x=a and V = α,
Equation (3) becomes, 0  A sin ka  B cos ka
Since, B = 0, we have 0  Asin ka
A is a constant and A  0 then sin ka  0
We know that sin n  0
So, we can write, ka  n
n
k      (4)
a
Squaring eqn (4),
n 2 2
k2       (5)
a2
We know from eqn (2),
2mE 2mE
k2 
 2
 2
h 
4 2

8 2 mE
k 
2
     (6)
h2
Equating eqns (5) & (6), we can write
8 2 mE n 2 2
 2
h2 a
n2h2
En       ( 7)
8ma 2
For each value of n, ( n=1,2,3..) there is an energy level and the particle in a box can have only
a discrete energy level given by (7).
Substituting the value of B and k in eqn (3) , we can write

nx
n ( x)  A sin      (8)
a
Thus, each energy value of En is called Eigen value and the corresponding n (x) is called
Eigen function.
Normalization of the wave function:
Normalization: It is the process by which the probability of finding the particle inside the box
can be done. Probability density is    
nx
The eigen function is n ( x)  A sin
a
Therefore,
nx nx
    A sin  A sin
a a
 nx 
    A2 sin 2        (9)
 a 
The probability of finding the particle anywhere inside the box is given by:
a
   .dx  1
0
 nx 
a
A .dx  1
2
sin 2 
0  a 
A2  

a 1  cos 2nx
a
.dx  1 , Since Sin   1  Cos2
2
0  
2 2
 
 
a
A2
1  cos 2nx .dx  1
2 0 a
A2 a A2  sin
x0 
2nx
a
  a
1
2 2  2nx 
 a 0
The second term of the integral becomes zero at both limits,
A2
a  1
2
2
A2 
a

2
A      (10)
a
The normalized Wave function can be
2 nx
n ( x)  sin      (11)
a a
Special Cases:
Case (i): For n=1, from eqns (7) & (11)
h2 2 x
E1  2
and 1 ( x)  sin
8ma a a
Hence, 1 ( x) is maximum at exactly middle of the box.
Case (ii): For n=2, from eqns (7) & (11)
4h 2 2 2x
E2  2
8ma a a
Hence, 2 ( x) is maximum at quarter distance from either sides of the box.
Case (iii): For n=3, from eqns (7) & (11)
9h 2 2 3x
E2  2
8ma a a
Hence, 2 ( x) is maximum at exactly middle and one-soxth distance from either sides of the
box.

4) Derive an expression for energy levels of a particle enclosed in two-dimensional

infinite potential box.
Consider a particle of mass “m” moving inside a two dimensional box of length a and b
along x and y axis.
box.
V x   0 for 0  x  a & 0  y  b
V x    for 0  x  a & 0  y  b

 2   2  2m( E  V )
 2    0      (1)
x 2 y 2
 2   2  2mE
 2  2 0
x 2 y 
2 2 2mE
Assuming that k x  k y  , then above eqn becomes
2
 2  2
x 2
y
2
 2

 2  k x  k y   0      (2)
We can solve this using method of separation of variables,

  ( x)   y       (2a)

This is simply the product of a two independent particles in one dimensional boxes, So we have
two wave functions
 2 2
 k x   0      (2b)
x 2
 2 2
 k y   0      (2c)
y 2
(i) Solution for (x)

The general solution for the above second order differential equation (2b) is
( x)  Ax sin k x x  Bx cos k x x      (3)
Equation (3) becomes, 0  Ax sin 0  Bx cos 0
0  Ax  0  Bx 1 , Hence  Bx  0
Equation (3) becomes, 0  Ax sin k x a  Bx cos k x a
Since, Bx = 0, we have 0  Ax sin k a
Ax is a constant and Ax  0 then sin k x a  0

So, we can write, k x a  nx
n x
kx       (4)
a
Squaring eqn (4),
nx  2
2
2
kx       (5)
a2
2mE 2mE
 
2
kx  2
 2
 h
4 2
2 8 2 mE
kx       (6)
h2

8 2 mE n x  2
2

h2 a2
2
n h2
En x  x 2      ( 7)
8ma
n xx
n ( x)  Ax sin      (8)
a
Eigen function.
n xx
The eigen function is n ( x)  Ax sin
a
Therefore,
n xx n x
    Ax sin  Ax sin x
a a
2  n x 
    Ax sin 2  x       (9)
 a 
a
   .dx  1
0
 n x 
a
A
2
x sin 2  x .dx  1
0  a 
  2n xx  
1  cos
a
a   1  Cos 2
Ax   .dx  1 , Since Sin  
2 2
0
2  2
 

2 a
Ax  2n xx .dx  1
2 1  cos
0
a 
a
  2n xx  
2 sin 
Ax
2
A  a 
x0a  x  2n x    1
2 2  x 
 a 
0

2
Ax
a  1
2
2 2 2
Ax  ; Ax       (10)
a a
2 n x
n ( x)  sin x      (11)
a a
(ii) Solution for ( y)
Similarly we can write for the wave function ( y)
2
ny h2
En y 
8mb2
2 n yy
n ( y )  sin      (12)
b b
Eigen function for the complete wave function,
   ( x)    y 
2 n x 2 n yy
 sin x  sin
a a b b
2 n x n y
 sin x . sin y      (13)
ab a b
Eigen value for the complete wave function,
E  Env  En y
2 2 2
nx h 2 n y h
E 
8ma 2 8mb2

h 2  nx ny 
2 2
E   2       (14)
8m  a 2 b 
Equations (13) & (14) represents the energy eigen values and eigen functions of an particle in a
two dimensional box.
5) Derive an expression for energy levels of a particle enclosed in Three

dimensional box infinite potential box.
Consider a particle of mass “m” moving inside a three dimensional box of length a, b
and c along x, y and z axis.
box.
V x   0 for 0  x  a & 0  y  b & 0  z  c
V x    for 0  x  a & 0  y  b & 0  z  b

 2   2   2  2m( E  V )
 2  2    0      (1)
x 2 y z 2
 2   2   2  2mE
 2  2  2 0
x 2 y z 

2 2 2 2mE
Assuming that k x  k y  k z  , then above eqn becomes
2
 2  2  2
x 2
y z
2

2 2

 2  2  k x  k y  k z   0      (2)
We can solve this using method of separation of variables,

  ( x)   y   z       (2a)
This is simply the product of a two independent particles in one dimensional boxes, So we have
two wave functions
 2 2
 k x   0      (2b)
x 2
 2 2
 k y   0      (2c)
y 2
 2 2
 k z   0      ( 2d )
z 2
(i) Solution for (x)

The general solution for the above second order differential equation (2b) is
( x)  Ax sin k x x  Bx cos k x x      (3)

Equation (3) becomes, 0  Ax sin 0  Bx cos 0
0  Ax  0  Bx 1 , Hence  Bx  0
Equation (3) becomes, 0  Ax sin k x a  Bx cos k x a
Since, Bx = 0, we have 0  Ax sin k a
Ax is a constant and Ax  0 then sin k x a  0

So, we can write, k x a  nx
n x
kx       (4)
a

Squaring eqn (4),
nx  2
2
2
kx       (5)
a2
2mE 2mE
 
2
kx  2
 2
 h
4 2
2 8 2 mE
kx       (6)
h2
8 2 mE n x  2
2

h2 a2
2
nx h 2
En x       ( 7)
8ma 2
n xx
n ( x)  Ax sin      (8)
a
Eigen function.
n xx
The eigen function is n ( x)  Ax sin
a
Therefore,
n xx n x
    Ax sin  Ax sin x
a a
2  n x 
    Ax sin 2  x       (9)
 a 

   .dx  1
0
 n x 
a
A
2
x sin 2  x .dx  1
0  a 
  2n xx  
1  cos
a
a   1  Cos 2
Ax   .dx  1 , Since Sin  
2 2
0
2  2
 
2 a
Ax  2n xx .dx  1
2 1  cos
0
a 
a
  2n xx  
2 sin 
Ax
2
A  a 
x0a  x  2n x    1
2 2  x 
 a 
0

2
Ax
a  1
2
2 2
Ax 
a
2
Ax       (10)
a
2 n x
n ( x)  sin x      (11)
a a
(ii) Solution for ( y)
Similarly we can write for the wave function ( y)
2
ny h2
En y 
8mb2
2 n yy
n ( y )  sin      (12)
b b
(iii) Solution for (z )
Similarly we can write for the wave function (z )

2
nz h 2
En z 
8mc 2
2 n z
n ( z )  sin z      (13)
c c
Eigen function for the complete wave function,
   ( x)    y     z 
2 n x 2 n yy 2 n z
 sin x  sin  sin z
a a b b c c
2 2 n x n y n z
 sin x . sin y . sin z      (14)
abc a b c
Eigen value for the complete wave function,
E  Env  En y  En z
2 2 22
nx h 2 n y h nz h 2
E  
8ma 2 8mb2 8mc2
h 2  nx nz 
2 2 2
ny
E   2  2       (15)
8m  a 2 b c 
Equations (14) & (15) represents the energy eigen values and eigen functions of an particle in a
three dimensional box.

QUESTION BANK FOR UNIT – V

Applied Quantum Mechanics
PART – A
1) What is a harmonic oscillator and give examples.

A particle undergoing simple harmonic motion is called a harmonic oscillator.
Examples: simple pendulum, diatomic molecule
2) Define zero point energy of a harmonic oscillator.
 1
The energy of the harmonic oscillator  En  n   h
 2
1
When n = 0;  E0  h ; Here E0 represents the zero point energy of the harmonic oscillator
2
3) Define barrier penetration.
The transmission of electrons through the potential barrier is known as barrier penetration
4) What is quantum tunneling?
The transmission of a particle through a potential barrier of finite width and height, even its energy
is less than the barrier height.
5) Define resonant tunneling.
The transmission probability of the double symmetric barrier is maximum. The tunnelling current
reaches peak value, when energy of electron is equal to quantized energy state of the well.
6) What is the significance of tunneling effect?
 In certain semiconductor diode, electrons pass through potential barriers even though their
kinetic energies are smaller that the barrier heights
 The kinetic energy of alpha particle is only a few MeV but it is able to escape from a nucleus.
 It is used in the scanning tunnelling microscope to study surfaces of the material in atomic
scale.
7) What is meant by peak current and valley current?
 When applied voltage is increased in resonant diode, the current increases rapidly and reaches
the maximum peak point is called Peak current.
 When applied voltage is further increased in resonant diode, the current decreases and reaches
the minimum point is called Valley current.

8) What is the principle behind scanning tunneling microscope?

It is quantum tunnelling of electron between the sharp metallic tip and the surface of a sample.
9) State Block theorem.
Block theorem states that for a particle moving in a perfectly periodic potential. The eigen
functions are of the form ( x)  U ( x) cos kx ; where U(x) = U(x+a)
The function U(x) has the same periodicity as the potential energy of the electron and called as
modulating function.
10) What is meant by forbidden gap?
Gap between conduction band and valence band is called forbidden gap.

QUESTION BANK FOR UNIT – V

Applied Quantum Mechanics
PART – B
1) Identify the principle of a Tunnelling microscope. Describe the theory and working of a
Tunnelling microscope. List its applications.
1. Quantum tunnelling:
Quantum tunnellling is the quantum mechanical phenomenon where a particle passes
through a classically forbidden potential barrier.
2. Principle:
It depends on quantum tunnelling of electrons from a sharp metal tip to a conducting
surface.
3. Instrumentation:
 Piezoelectric tube - Capable of moving in X, Y, Z direction due to applied
voltage
 Fine needle tip - To control its position and movement on the surface
 Amplifier - To amplify the tunnelling current from the tip
 Distance control and scanner - To adjust the distance between sample and tip
 Data processing unit - To produce a 3D image of the sample surface
4. Working:
 Keep the tip very close (0.3 – 1 nm) to the surface of the sample.
 The small gap between the tip and sample is act like a forbidden region for electron.
 Due to the biasing voltage, the electrons can tunnel from the tip to the sample.
 This results a tunnelling current in the order of 0.2 to 10 nA.
 Tunnelling current depends on the distance between the tip and the surface of the sample.

 The surface can be scanned using the tip by keeping either the height of the tip to be
constant or the tunnelling current to be constant.
 To maintain constant current, the distance between the tip and the sample is adjusted
continuously.
 The tunnelling current is amplified and is given to the feedback circuit.
 The surface topography of the sample is recorded in the computer.
5. Advantages:
(1) It is used to study the materials in molecular level.
(2) It can be used in ultra high vacuum, air, water and other liquids and gases.
(3) It can be operated in the temperature as low as zero kelvin up to a few hundred degrees
Celsius.
6. Disadvantages:
(1) The cost of the STM is very high.
(2) It requires vibration free environment.
(3) To operate STM, highly skilled technician is required.
7. Applications:
(1) It is used in the research area of semiconductors and microelectronics.
(2) It is used to study the surface roughness and defects.

2) Elucidate the theory and working of a resonant diode. Discuss its V-I
characteristics. Outline the advantages and applications.
Definition:
It is a quantum well structure diode in which electrons can tunnel through various resonant
states at certain energy levels and has unique negative resistance region in I-V curve.
Principle:
It works on the principle of quantum tunnelling, in which the electrons cross the potential
well only, when its energies match an energy level in the well.
Structure:
It can be fabricated by using different types of semiconductor materials.
 Quantum well : intrinsic GaAs
 Two barriers : AlGaAs
 Emitter & Collector : n-type GaAs
Working and I-V characteristics:

Without bias:
 The 1st confined energy level (E1) in the well is higher than the incident electron
energy (E).
E < E1
 There is no probability for electron to tunnel the well and there is no current.

With bias:
1st Positive resistant region:
 On increase the bias voltage, the incident electron energy (E) is equal to the 1st
confined energy level (E1) in the well.
 Now some electrons tunnel through the two barriers and reach the collector. This type
of tunnelling is called resonant tunnelling.
At low voltage and at the resonance, E = E1
 The current increases rapidly due to tunnelling effect and reaches the maximum point
(A) and this current is called peak current (Ip).
 The voltage at which the diode reaches peak current is called peak voltage (Vp).
 This region, in which the current increases due to the increase of applied voltage, is
called 1st positive resistance region.

Negative resistance region:

 When the voltage is further increased, the incident electron energy (E) is greater than
the 1st confined energy level (E1) in the well.
 However, quantum well has discrete energy levels. Now the incident electron energy
(E) is less than the 2nd confined energy level (E2) in the well.
At high voltage, E > E1 and E < E2
 The probability for electron to tunnel the well decreases and current in the diode
decreases and reaches minimum point (B).
 This minimum current is called Valley current (IV) and the corresponding voltage is
called Valley voltage (Vv).
Normal Diode:
 Now, applied voltage is further increased beyond Valley voltage. Now the incident
electron energy (E) is equal to the 2nd confined energy level (E2) in the well.
 Then the current again increases due to the resonant tunnelling.
 Therefore, resonant tunnelling diode behaves as a normal diode.
Advantages:
 Cost and noise is low
 Fabrication is very simple.
 Operation speed is very high.
Disadvantages:
 It is a two terminal device, so difficult to isolate the input and output.
 It is a low output swing device.

Applications:
 High speed electronic devices.
 Optical communications.
 Terahertz generation.
 Oscillator
 Memory cell
 Inverter and Digital logic - bistability
3) (a) Comments on harmonic oscillator. Discuss its energy states. Outline the
significance of the results obtained.
(b) Discuss the theory of finite potential well.
(a) Harmonic Oscillator:
It is a system in which when a particle is displaced from its equilibrium position, it
experiences a restoring force to get back to its original position.
Wave equation for Harmonic Oscillator:
 Let us consider a particle of mass ‘m’ executing simple harmonic motion along the ‘x’
direction.
 The particle displaced through a distance x from its equilibrium position.
 Schroedinger time independent wave equation for a particle
d 2  2m( E  V )
   0      (1)
dx 2 2
1 2
 Potential energy of the particle is V  kx
2
 Substituting the above value in eqn (1)
d 2  2m  1 
2
 2  E  kx2    0
dx   2 
d 2   2mE mkx2 
  2   0
dx 2   2  
h2
 Since  2 
4 2
d 2   8 2 mE 4 2 mk 2 
  x    0      (2)
dx 2  h 2 h2 

1/ 2
8 2 mE  4 2 mk 
 Assume that   &    h2 
h2  
Then
d 2
dx 2
 
    2 x 2   0      (3)
 Now let us introduce a dimensionless independent variable y  x       (4)
y y2
x (or )  x 
2
     (5)
 
 Differentiate eqn (4) with respect to x,
dy
       (6)
dx
We can write
d d dy
 .      (7 )
dx dy dx
 Substituting the eqn (6), we get
d d
 . 
dx dy
d 2 d 2
 Differentiating, we get  . .  ;
dx 2 dy 2
d 2 d 2
 .      (8)
dx 2 dy 2
 Substituting eqn (5)and (8) in eqn (3)
d 2  2 y 
2
 . 2     0
dy   
d 2   
   y 2    0      (9)

2
dy 
 Solution for this equation is
2
  f ( y)e  y /2
     (10)
 By introducing of eqn (10) in eqn (9),
d2 f df   
 2y  1 f  0
dy 2
dy   

 
 Assume,   1  2n
 
d2 f df
2
 2 y  2nf  0      (11)
dy dy
 It is similar to the Hermite’s equation and the solution for eqn (11) are called Hermite
polynomials.
2
  NH n ( y)e  y /2
     (12)
 The above eqn (12) is represents the Eigen function of the harmonic oscillator.
Energy Eigen values:
 
 We know that   1  2n
 
  (2n  1)      (13)
1/ 2
8 2 mE  4 2 mk 
 Substitute the values for   &    h2  , then
h2  
 1
E  n   h
 2
 The energy of the harmonic oscillator is quantized in steps of hv
 1
En  n   h      (14)
 2
Where, n = 0, 1, 2, …
 Eqn (14) represents the Energy eigen value for a harmonic oscillator.
Eigen Values plot:
(i) When n = 0; Eqn (14) becomes
1
E0  h
2
It represents the lowest value of energy of the harmonic oscillator and is called zero point energy
(ii) When n = 1; Eqn (14) becomes
3
E1  h
2
(iii) When n = 2; Eqn (14) becomes
5
E2  h
2

The energy eigen values of an harmonic oscillator are plotted as
(b) Finite Potential Well:

Definition:
A box with finite potential walls in which a particle is confined to it is known as a finite
potential well.
Derivation:
 Let us consider a particle with total energy E < V0 confined within a well bouncing back and
forth between the walls (x = -L and x = L)

The potential well is divided into three region with associated wave functions are
 Region 1: Ψ1, if x < - L (Outside the box)
 Region 2: Ψ2, if - L < x < L (Inside the box)
 Region 3: Ψ3, if x < L (Outside the box)
Region 2:
 2  2m( E  V )
   0      (1)
x 2 2
 2  2mE
 2 0
x 2 
2mE
Assuming that k 2  , then above eqn becomes
2
 2
 k 2   0      (2)
x 2
The general solution for the above second order differential equation is
( x)  A sin kx  B cos kx      (3)
Region 1 & 3:
In this regions, V = Vo , Now the Schroedinger’s equation
 2  2m( E  V0 )
 0
x 2 2
Rewrite the above equations
 2  2m(V0  E )
   0      (4)
x 2 2
2m(V0  E )
Assume that G 2  , then
2
2
 G 2   0      (5)
x 2
The general solution for the above equation is

1,3  CeGx  DeGx      (6)
In the region 1, x < - L, x is always negative, So D must be Zero

In the region 1, x > L, x is always positive, So C must be Zero

Hence,
1  CeGx      (7)
3  DeGx      (8)
Characteristics of finite potential well:

 The number of bound state energies is finite.
 Tunnelling into the barrier is possible.
 Higher energy states are less tightly bound than lower ones.
 A particle provided with enough energy can escape the well.

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PH3151 ENGINEERING PHYSICS L T P C

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