INFORMATION ANALYSIS

AND SYNTHESIS
E-book
COURSE. 95222159
Acknowledgement.
This E-book was created by Nicola Prin. All rights of use are reserved. For access to
this E-book and permission of use, contact the author at nicola@go.buu.ac.th
This is a new updated edition (2022)

Preface.
This course aims to help you develop and improve your logical and critical thinking
skills and to identify common obstacles to effective logical and critical thinking. The
key concepts are illustrated with real-life examples via a combination of videos,
articles and interactive exercises. The course supports peer learning through
discussions that encourage the sharing of ideas and experiences.

This course involves discussion with peers and group problem solving. It is essential
that all participants contribute by communicating and fully engaging with the
material of this course. This course will use Google Meet and Google Classroom as
the main communication tools. All participants must make sure that they sign-up to
both communication tools to access the material, take quizzes, and comment and
share with their peers and instructor.

Higher order thinking skills

Higher order thinking is a skill that we learn and develop. It involves using active
thinking, which means we must work at it. Higher order thinking includes different
techniques which we will cover in this E-book. These techniques include, logical
reasoning, problem solving and critical thinking. In general, using one or more of
these techniques works by breaking arguments and claims down to their basic
underlying structure so we can see them clearly and determine whether they are
rational. The idea is to help us do a better job of understanding and evaluating what
we read, what we hear, and what we ourselves write and speak.

Logical reasoning and critical thinking

A topic that many students find intimidating: formal logic. Although it sounds
difficult and complicated, formal logic is a straightforward way of revealing the
structure of reasoning. By translating arguments into symbols, you can more readily
see what is right and what is wrong with them, and you can learn how to formulate
better arguments. In this course, you will only be looking at the most basic
properties of a system of logic. In this unit you will learn how to turn phrases in
ordinary language into well-formed formulas, draw truth-tables for formulas, and
evaluate arguments using those truth-tables.
Arguments
Arguments are the fundamental components of all rational discourse: nearly
everything we read and write, like scientific reports, newspaper columns, and
personal letters, as well as most of our verbal conversations contain arguments.
Arguments obey a set of formal rules that we can use to determine whether they are
good or bad. In this course, you will learn how to identify arguments, the difference
between deductive and inductive reasoning, and how to map arguments to reveal
their structure.

Complex arguments
An (simple) argument is a set of one or more premise with a conclusion. However,
arguments are often more complicated than this and a more detailed analysis must
be used. A complex argument is a set of arguments with either overlapping
premises or conclusions (or both). Complex arguments are very common because
many issues and debates are complicated and involve extended reasoning. To
understand complex arguments, we need to analyze the logical structure of the
reasoning involved. Drawing a diagram can be very helpful. This chapter will
introduce you to how to approach a complex argument and how to use visual
diagrams to help organize the information to reach your conclusion.

Fallacies
Identifying bad arguments can be very tricky in practice. Very often what at first
appears to be a good argument and reasoning turns out to contain one or more
errors. Fortunately, there are many easily identifiable fallacies – mistakes of
reasoning – that you can learn to recognize by their structure or content. In this
course, you will learn about the nature of fallacies, look at a couple of different ways
of classifying them, and spend some time dealing with the most common fallacies in
detail.

Social Media and News

With the large amount of news currently being published online, the ability to
evaluate the credibility of online news has become essential. Higher-order thinking
skills are needed to look for evidence to support claims and evaluating the
plausibility of arguments. While social media is a convenient way of accessing news
and staying connected to friends and family, it is not easy to distinguish real news
from fake news on social media including hoaxes, false claims, fabricated news, and
conspiracy theories. This E-book will look at some examples of how social media has
contributed to social, political, entertainment, and environmental stories and
analysis the impact on individuals and the public.
 Key Vocabulary terms

• Higher-Order Thinking - thinking skills that go beyond the mere memorization of

facts and figures.
• Active Thinking - the thought processes to analyse information and solve problems.
• Critical Thinking – clear, reasonable, reflective thinking focused on deciding what to
believe or do.
• Logical Reasoning – a form of thinking in which premises and relations between
premises are used to infer conclusions.
• Initiative —take action without being asked. Look for opportunities to make a
difference.
• Creativity — an original thinker with the ability to go beyond traditional approaches.
• Resourcefulness — adapt to new/difficult situations and devise ways to overcome
obstacles.
• Results-Oriented — focus is on getting the problem solved.
• Standard - a measure of how good something is
• Statement - a sentence that can be either true or false
• Argument - a series of statements to determine the degree of truth of another
statement.
• Conclusion - a statement in an argument that indicates of what the arguer is trying
to convince the reader/listener.
• Premise - a statement that supports, or helps lead to, an argument’s conclusion.
• Evidence - facts or information indicating whether a belief or proposition is true or
valid
• Conclusion indicator - Words that introduce the conclusion of an argument.
• Standard form - a way of presenting an argument which makes it clear.
• Deductive reasoning - logical reasoning from one or more statements (premises) to
reach a certainty in a conclusion.
• Inductive reasoning - premises provide a level of probability to reach a conclusion.
• Valid (Validity) - validity describes the relationship between the premises and
conclusion.
• Soundness - is valid and has true premises, its conclusion must also be true.
• Complex argument - a set of arguments with either overlapping premises or
conclusions.
• Argument map - a diagram that captures the logical structure of a simple or
complex argument.
 CONTENTS
Introduction. …………………………………………………………..…………………………..4

Chapter I. Thinking as a Skill

1. Getting to know Socrates…………………………………………………....…..5
1.1 Who is Socrates and why is he important?........................................5
1.2 How do we think?........................................................................................7
1.2.1 Higher-order thinking…………………………………………………..………...7
1.2.2 The benefits of learning higher order thinking skills……….…...…8
1.3 Benjamin Bloom……………………………………………………………………...9
1.4.1 Bloom six levels of thinking skills……………………………………….…...9
1.4 Engaging higher order thinking skills………………………,,,………….10
1.5 Review…………………………………………………………………………,,,………13

Chapter II. Logical Reasoning & Critical Thinking

1.4.2 Logical Reasoning………………………………………………………,,,……….14
2.1 Critical thinking…………………………………………………………....….……15
2.1.1 Who are critical thinkers?.......................................................................15
2.1.2 John Dewey…………………………………………….…….……….………..…….16
2.2 Development of critical thinking…………………………..…………..…..17
2.2.1 The six Socratic questions……………………………………………..………17
2.3 Contributors to critical thinking development………………..….....18
2.4 The six thinking hats………….……………………………………………...…..19
2.4.1 The six hats in action…………………………………………………………..…20
2.5 Problem Solving…………………………………………………………..………..22
2.6 Review. ……………………………………………………………………….....……..26

Chapter III. Introduction to Arguments

3. Arguments……………………………………………………………….………...….28
3.1 What exactly do we mean by argument?........................................28
3.1.1 Statements……………………………………………………………….….……..…28
3.1.2 Statements in Arguments………………………….……………………...…..29
3.1.3 Premises…………………………………………………….……………………….....29
3.1.4 Example argument scenario………………………….….……………...……30
3.2 Indicator…………………………..…...…………………………………………….…30
3.3 Standard form structure of an argument…………………..…….……30
3.4 Two types of reasoning (arguments)………………….…………..……..33
3.4.1 A closer look at inductive reasoning……………………….………….…33
3.4.2 Inductive reasoning in everyday life………………………….…………..34
4.3.3 Skills for inductive reasoning…………………………………….……..……35
3.4.4 Summary………………………………………………………………………..….…..35
3.5 A closer look at deductive reasoning…………………………….………35
3.5.1 Validity. ……………………………………………………………………….….…….36
3.5.2 Invalid arguments……………………………………………………….……..….37
3.6 Soundness of an argument………………………………….……….…..…..40
3.7 Summary………………………………………………………………….…..………..41

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Chapter IV Complex Arguments
4. Complex arguments………………………………………………………..…….42
4.1.1 Argument Mapping…………………………………………………………….…42
4.1.1 Multilayer complex argument……………………………………………….43
4.2 Summary……………………………………………………………………………….46

Chapter V. Fallacies, Language & Debate

5. What is a fallacy?................................................................................. .....47
5.1 Eight common fallacies……………………………………………………. ..…47
5.2 Evaluating Language in an Argument……………………………….. …51
5.2.1.1 Language in use……………………………………………………………… ……51
5.2.1.2 Functions of language……………………………………,…………………..…52
5.2.1.3 Context and meaning…………………………………………,………….….….53
5.3 Debating…………………………………………………………………,…………….53
5.3.1 Why debate?...............................................................................................54
5.3.2 The basic debating skills……………………………………………………….54
5.3.3 How to debate……………………………………………………………..……….54

Chapter VI. Arguments in Social Media and the News

6. The Impact of News on Society and the Individual………………57
6.1 Social media fake news…………………………………………….…………..57
6.1.2 Fake news in detail………………………………………………………………..58
6.1.3 The dangers of fake news……………………………………………………..58
6.1.4 How to spot fake news………………………………………………..………..60
6.2 Social media news at its best and worst. …………………..………….63

Chapter 7. Text-based Arguments.

7 Activities……………………………………………………………………………….66
Answer key………………………………………………………………………………..…….72

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 INTRODUCTION
This E-book is a guide to understanding different types of information, to process the
information and disseminate it using logical thinking. The goal of the book is to give
readers the tools and skills that will enable them evaluate arguments from different
sources and to help with decision making.

What will I learn? In this course, you will learn…

▪ How to use critical-thinking skills
▪ How to analyse an argument
▪ How to evaluate deductive arguments
▪ How to evaluate inductive arguments
▪ How to avoid fallacies
▪ How to problem solve
▪ How to process information
▪ How to form judgment based upon evidence

Every day we are faced with information that is to persuade us to do something, believe in
something or someone, and instructions on how to be successful in our life’s. For example:
reason to buy a product, to support a candidate or an organization, reason to accept a job,
what we should eat, how to behave what decision we should make etc. the list goes on
and on. Some of the decisions we make, we don’t need to put a lot of thought into, but
some we need to be more careful with. We need to assess what is really being asked of us
or told to us and why. These and other questions are important because they can impact
our lives greatly, both positively and negatively. Before we sign our name, shake hands in
agreement, or a simple ‘yes’ to someone, we need to use our critical and logical thinking
skills.

Even though there are many times when we need to use our critical and logical thinking
skills, we often don’t. Why? Well firstly, because we don’t understand that we need to use
them, and secondly, even when we do realize that we need to engage in critical and logical
thinking, we are not very good at it because it is not something that many people are
taught. This E-book hopes to change this by helping you understand how to think in a
more comprehensive way, and to apply the knowledge into your everyday life, study life
and work life. The emphasis here is on learning how to think effectively. Being able to think
in a logical way will benefit you in your choices, actions, and communication.

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 CHAPTER I
Thinking as a Skill

Getting to know Socrates.

How do we think?
Bloom’s taxonomy.
Engaging higher-order thinking skills.

1. Getting to know Socrates

We will start our understanding of information analysis and synthesis by getting to know
Socrates. Socrates is an important historical philosopher, who introduced ‘us’ to the idea
that thinking is a skill which can bring deeper understanding and meaning to everyday life,
as well as more abstract ideas on life in general, about ourselves, and about others.

1.1 Who is Socrates and why is he important?

Socrates was a Greek philosopher from Athens who is one of the founders of Western
philosophy, and as being the first moral philosopher of the Western ethical tradition of
thought. Over two thousand four hundred years ago, Socrates attempted to find out the
meaning of life. [Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates].

Socrates believed in the power of knowledge. He was someone who would seek
knowledge using different methods. He spent large amounts of time seeking meaning to
big questions that we often still ask ourselves today such as, ‘What makes us happy? What
makes us good?’ ‘How to live a fulfilling life?’. I am sure that at some point you have asked
yourself the same or similar questions. In society today, for younger generations the
questions may be ‘What makes someone popular? Why do some people get famous, and
others don’t? How can I achieve my goals?

All these types of questions have a similar thread running through them, which is a desire
for us, as humans, to be happy and content with our lives. This was one of Socrates
strongest beliefs - the decisions humans make are based by the desire to be happy.
He also believed that wisdom comes from knowing yourself.

If you look up the definition of wisdom in a dictionary it states wisdom as,

‘the ability to use your knowledge and experience to make good decisions and judgments.’
[Source: https://dictionary.cambridge.org/]

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Socrates explained that when a person knows himself, then the person has a greater
capacity to make decision that will bring actual happiness. In other words, we can put it in this
simple way:
a. Wisdom comes from your own experiences and knowledge (knowing yourself).
b. The more you know yourself the better decisions and judgements you make for your life.
c. The better decisions and judgements you make the happier you are.

Activity 1. In your opinion, do you think that we need to have wisdom to be happy? Do we
need to understand ourselves to be a wise person? Can wisdom be learnt from others or is it only from
our own experiences that we gain wisdom? Write your thoughts below.
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What is interesting is that Socrates did not write any of believes or ideas down, in fact,
everything that we know today about Socrates and his teachings come mainly from his
students, who also become very famous philosophers: Xenophon and Plato.

Socrates teachings tell us that it is important to seek evidence. That we must closely
examine, reason, and make assumptions not only on what is being told to us but what is
done as well.

His method of questioning is known as ‘Socratic Questioning.’ We will take a closer look
at some of these questions later. Before we move on – let’s take time to get to know
Socrates a little bit more. Click on this video link to watch and learn a little bit more about
Socrates https://youtu.be/c8U9bk_ksE0

Socrates is just one person who contributed to logical and critical thinking. As already
mentioned, Socrates had his students, Xenophon and Plato who also became famous
philosophers in critical and logical thinking. But there are other well-known scholars, both
from the past and the present. They are not all known as philosophers, they are
educationalists, psychologists, scientists, religious leaders, as well as business leaders, all
who have contributed to the importance of using thinking skills – later in this course we
will review some more of them.

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 Activity 2. Do you know any famous thinkers? People who have contributed to
logical reasoning and critical thinking? Take some time to research historical figures
that contributed to the field of thinking – It will help you to understand the development and
important of thinking as a skill. Write a summary of a famous thinker below.

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1.2 How do we think?

Thinking is a natural process. You don’t have to make it happen—it just does. Most of our
everyday thinking takes little or no conscious effort. We just do it. You could almost say
that we think without thinking! If you are asked the question, Are you hungry? There is no
special skill needed to reply. It is a simple yes or no answer depending on if we want
something to eat or not. Similarly, if I am asked a factual question, and I know the answer,
it takes no skill to give it. For example: What is the capital city of Thailand? Bangkok.

Expressing a preference or stating a fact are not in themselves thinking skills. However,
when we need to do activities such as analysis, evaluation, problem solving and decision
making we now must take time and think carefully and in specific ways – this is considered
a ‘skill, which is referred to as ‘higher order thinking.’

1.2.1 Higher-order thinking.

Thinking as a skill is known as a higher-order thinking skill this means that instead of just
knowing or remembering information a more detailed way of thinking is needed. There are
three main components used: knowledge, initiative, and independent thinking.
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Thinking is the foundation of everything we do. Everyone thinks. We think about our
actions, the decisions we make and the results of those decisions. We think and decide
what to eat for lunch and often we consider the results –Will the food I eat make me put on
weight? or be bad for my health? We might think about a project we are working on and
how we will approach the task, what we need to do and when we need to complete it by.
We might think about how to respond to a friend about their new haircut.

We can think in many ways

▪ positively or negatively (good or bad)
▪ with “heart” (with emotions)
▪ rational judgment (with reason)
▪ strategically and analytically (considering benefits and negatives)
▪ mathematically and scientifically (with evidence and research)

1.2.2 The benefits of learning higher order thinking skills.

As a university student one of the main goals is to become an ‘independent learner’.
Using higher order thinking skills is central to this.

You show you are an independent learner when you analyse, evaluate, and synthesize
information from a variety of sources and present your own justified interpretation. You
may encounter some activities during your study that don’t require high levels of thinking.
For example, some multiple-choice questions might simply elicit your knowledge and
understanding of your topic. However, essay- and report-style assignments frequently
demand interpretation and synthesis skills. Class discussions, debate teams, presentations,
and project and report writing, all these require higher order thinking skills.

Once you leave university the use of higher order thinking only increases. Whatever career
path you take, to be successful you must show that you can work independently, share
ideas, problem solve, be creative, and help your team. Just by following orders, you will
not use higher order thinking skills and it will be difficult to show your value and
motivation to your team and management. However, if you can use higher order thinking
then you are more likely to show the qualities that many companies want and encourage
their workers to demonstrate. It can help toward promotion opportunities and leadership
roles.

Another area where higher order thinking skills are useful is in your personal everyday life.
If you have the skill to see other points of view, then there is less likely to be conflict and
misunderstanding. You will be open minded and more accepting of others.
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1.3 Benjamin Bloom.
In the 1950s, Benjamin Bloom, an American educational psychologist created a theory of
mastery learning. identified a set of important study and thinking skills, which he called the
‘thinking triangle.’ This taxonomy is still used today by universities around the world to
develop students thinking skills.

1.3.1 Bloom six levels of thinking skills.

Level 1: the lowest level which is ‘know’ This level of thinking is to remember information
for example, easily recalling historical events; being able to name the organs in human
anatomy; conducting maths times tables, and so on. As you can see from these examples:
Remembering does not mean that you can understand.

Level 2: The next level up is ‘comprehend.’ At this level understanding is also included by
the building of meaning and relationships. Examples of comprehension are, being able to
explain the moral of a story; to show how something works etc.

Level 3: Moving up to ‘apply’ this level is concerned with remembering what you have
learnt, understanding it, and using it in real-life situations. For example, giving a
presentation with examples and solutions, teaching how to use an online application etc.

Level 4: ‘Analyse’ is a cognitive level where you can use the knowledge from level 1-3 and
then dig into that knowledge to make comparisons and associations. show why something
happened, the reasons and consequences to miscommunication etc.
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Level 5: ‘Evaluating’ at this level the participant makes judgements based on the criteria
that they have gained by checking and critiquing the item/s in question. This is when
higher order thinking skills are really needed. This is also the level where independent
thinking and leadership skills can be presented. Examples include proposing certain
strategies to introduce digital technology into the workplace; or reading a newspaper
article and writing a review on its worthiness and fairness.

Level 6: The highest level ‘‘Creating’ involves picking various elements, and then generating
something new. This highest-level calls upon the other 5 levels, as the participant:
remembers, understands, and applies knowledge; evaluating and analyzing processes and
outcomes, and then builds the (conceptual or physical) product. Illustrations of this
incorporate using a computer to design a 3D prototype for a certain product, constructing
and designing a building using Lego. This level is when innovation occurs.
[Source: https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/blooms-taxonomy/]

1.4 Engaging higher order thinking skills.

Another term which describes higher order
thinking is ‘active thinking’.

Active thinking is analyzing information that

is being projected to the individual by
external stimuli. Active thinking comes from
our internal thoughts. According to Webster
dictionary, a thought is “an idea, plan,
opinion, picture, etc., which is formed in your
mind: something that you think of”. In other
words - an individual’s brain triggered by an
external stimulus. Often, we don’t think
about our thinking, or why we think the way
we do.

Most of our everyday thinking is from external influence. For example, a comment read on
social media, feedback from your professor, a YouTube video, even something that you learnt
from your parents as a child. These types of thoughts are based on emotion or
understanding of the direct stimuli that we have encountered. The name for this is ‘passive
thinking.’

Active thinking is must more complex than passive thinking; it takes work and skill. We
can’t just sit back and let the thoughts come from our subconscious (as we do in passive
thinking). Active thinking involves applying skills including ‘analyzing, evaluating, problem-
solving, and decision-making.’ To activate these skills we must use knowledge, initiative,
and independent thinking – and this takes work!

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 Activity 3. In the following activities you will need to use the skills of analyzing,
evaluating, problem solving and decision making. In other words, ‘higher order’
‘active’ thinking. After you complete each of these activities take time to reflect on the
following questions:
▪ What skill/s did you use?
▪ How did this skill/s help you?
▪ Was there any other way (of skill) I could have used to help in the activity?

a. Anagrams. Create new words by rearranging the letters in the words below.
Reflection.

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b. Shapes. How many triangles can you find in this shape? Answer: _____

Reflection.

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c. Meaning in mind. In the final activity below, look at each symbol and image and in

your own understanding write what each one means or represents to you.

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Reflection.
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[Source: https://www.schrockguide.net/uploads/3/9/2/2/392267/critical-thinking-workbook.pdf / Fun-critical-
Thinking-activities.pdf] Answer for activity b. Shapes is 24.

1.5 Review.
Thinking is the foundation of everything we do. Every action, every solution, and every
decision we make is the result of thinking. Thinking is a human action, that we do, either
consciously or subconsciously. We think about our actions, the decisions we make and the
results of those decisions. It is important to learn how to use higher-order thinking
because it relates to nearly all tasks, situations, topics, careers, environments, challenges,
and opportunities.

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 CHAPTER II
Logical Reasoning &
Critical Thinking

Logical reasoning
Critical thinking
.
Socratic questioning method
Important contributors

The term ‘critical thinking’ is one that most students have heard of. It is a term used by
teachers and professors who tell students to ‘think critically’, it is also a term many
employers use when advertising a job. Critical thinking is a valuable skill in many areas,
but what exactly does it mean? To answer this question, first, we must know what ‘logic
reasoning’ is.

2. Logical reasoning.
The word logic comes from the Ancient Greek logike, referring to the science or art of
reasoning. Using logical reasoning, a person evaluates arguments to distinguish between
good and bad arguments, or what is true or false. Using logical reasoning, we can,
‘evaluate the ideas and claims of others, make good decisions, and form sound beliefs about
the world.’

If we separate the two words, we could say that logic is the process (the information) and
reasoning is the action (application)
▪ logic follows visible evidence – information that something is true.
▪ reasoning is about how we use the evidence, information to reach our decision.

A simple example of applying logical reasoning to a critical-thinking situation is as follows.

A man has a PhD in political science, and he works as a professor at a local college. His wife
works at the college, too. They have three young children in the local school system, and their
family is well known in the community. The man is now running to be the next local political
representative. Some questions that might be asked to evaluate the man for the position
are
▪ Does he have the right education level?
▪ Does he have enough experience for the position?
▪ Is he a respectable and professional person?

At first, it looks like that he is a suitable candidate for the job. We can see that he is a
family man, he has a good education, and he is a responsible and respectable person.
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 However, the characteristics described don’t guarantee that the man will do a good job.
The information is somewhat irrelevant because it only tells us general information about
him. What else might you want to know? Additional questions to ask could be…
▪ Does the man have any experience in politics?
▪ What is his motivation? for his own promotion, to help his community etc.
▪ Does he have any biases? for example: people who are uneducated in the community,
▪ What viewpoint does he have on different issues? such as LGBT, Human rights etc.

As you see, there are more deeper and critical questions that need to be asked before
making any judgement on if the man should get the position or not. These types of
questions are engaging the use of logical reasoning and critical thinking skills. We need to
think critically about how much information is needed to make a decision-based on logical
reasoning, and not just general information or assumptions (guesses).

Below are some example questions that can be applied in the above example, or other
similar situations to help us use logical reasoning.
▪ What is happening? Gather the basic information and begin to think of questions.
▪ Why is it important? Ask yourself why it’s significant and whether you agree.
▪ What don’t I see? Is there anything important missing?
▪ How do I know? Ask yourself where the information came from.
▪ Who is saying it? What’s the position of the speaker and what is influencing them?
▪ What else? What if? What other ideas exist and are there other possibilities?

2.1 Critical thinking

Critical thinking is clear, reasonable, reflective thinking focused on deciding what to believe
or do. It means asking probing questions like ‘How do we know?’ or ‘Is this true in every
case or just in this instance?’ It involves challenging assumptions rather than simply
memorizing facts or accepting what you hear or read.

Imagine, for example, that you’re reading a history textbook. You wonder who wrote it and
why because you detect certain biases in the writing. You find that the author has a biased
focus and only shows the viewpoint from one side (only one group within a population). In
this case, your critical thinking reveals that there are “other sides to the story.” Which might
tell a different story.

2.1.1 Who are critical thinkers?

Critical thinkers are usually curious and reflective people. They like to explore and seek
knowledge, and new solutions. They ask questions, evaluate statements and arguments,

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and they distinguish between facts and opinion. They are also willing to examine their own
beliefs, and to be open to other opinions and beliefs. They can admit to lack of knowledge
or understanding when needed. They are open to changing their mind. Perhaps most of
all, they actively enjoy learning, and seeking new knowledge is a lifelong pursuit. This
maybe you!

To become a critical thinker, you must practice and develop your skills. Doing so will help
you develop more balanced arguments and express yourself clearly. Critical thinking skills
will help you in any profession or any circumstance of life, from science to art to business
to teaching. With critical thinking, you become a clearer thinker and problem solver.

However, there are things that get in the way of simple decision making. We all carry with
us a range of likes and dislikes, learnt behaviours and personal preferences developed
throughout our lives. So, we must take time to reflect on our own beliefs, characters,
opinions, and biases, before we can make judgement on others. The clearer we are aware
of ourselves, know our strengths and weaknesses, the more likely our critical thinking will
be productive.

Critical Thinking is Critical Thinking is NOT

Examining assumptions Memorizing
Challenging reasoning Group thinking
Uncovering biases Automatic acceptance of
authority

2.1.2 John Dewey.

John Dewey (October 20, 1859 - June 1, 1952) was an American philosopher and educator.
He emphasized a practical approach to problem solving through experience. Dewey's
belief was that the best education involves learning through doing. This means that
gaining knowledge does not come from ‘passive thinking’ for example, memorizing facts
from a book, or copying information and repeating it. It means being an ‘active thinker’ a
‘critical thinker’, using ‘logical reasoning’. Dewey, describes critical thinking as “Active,
persistent, careful consideration of a belief or supposed form of knowledge in light of the
grounds that support it and the further conclusions to which it tends.”
[Source: Dewey, J. (1933). Experience and education. New York: Macmillan, 1933]

Dewey also uses the words ‘careful and persistent’, which tells us that critical thinking takes
time. We cannot make or accept an argument on the spot but need to take time to weigh
up all sides and consider all points being presented. Dewey also tells us that to think
critically, we must put a lot of emphasis on looking carefully at evaluating the evidence
16
presented to see if it supports the argument before coming to our conclusion.
Learn more about John Dewy and his importance to learning and thinking.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wMh1LYuZ3B4

2.2 Development of critical thinking.

We will now come back to Socrates, to where is all begun. Now you have a little more
understanding on higher-order thinking skills, you will see why he has been so influential
in the development of thinking as a skill, specifically critical thinking.

Often considered the foundation of critical thinking, Socratic teaching is the oldest
teaching technique that develops critical thinking skills. The emphasis on this method is to
ask probing questions: that explore, investigate, stimulate, and engage. Today, this is
known as the ‘Socratic questioning Method’. Knowing what and how the Socratic
questioning method is used helps to develop critical thinking skills.

2.2.1 The six Socratic questions.

Questions to clarify
What did you mean by…?
Can you give me an example?

Questions to challenge assumptions

Is that always the case?
Why do we include and exclude?

Questions to probe evidence/reasons

Why did this to happen?
How do you know this?

Questions to discover other viewpoints/perspectives

What are the advantages of…?
Who benefits from this?

Questions that consider implications and consequences

What are some possible outcomes of this?
How does this match with what we know?

Questions about questions

Why did you ask that question?
What are you trying to find out with that question?

17
These questions are still used in many different situations today to help resolve conflict,
solve problems, or come to a decision. Examples of use are as follows:
Conflict resolution

Negative thinking

[Source: https://www.psychologytools.com/professional/techniques/socratic-questioning-socratic dialogue/]

2.3 Contributors to critical thinking development.

As well as Socrates, throughout history until today, there are many philosophers, who have
developed critical thinking frameworks. You have already been introduced to John Dewey,
Other philosophers who wrote on critical thinking include, Francis Bacon (1561–
1626) whose book “The Advancement of Learning” one of the first texts in critical thinking.

18
Building upon Dewey’s work is Edward Glaser, who co-wrote a test on critical thinking,
known as the Watson–Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal test. More recent contributors to
critical thinking are Richard Paul and Linda Elder, who developed a framework known as
the ‘elements of reasoning’.

Outside of philosophy critical thinking has been expanded into different domains, such as
psychology and education. One of the most well-known frameworks to have been
developed is in cognitive education Benjamin Bloom created the ‘Bloom Taxonomy’
which we have already seen an example of. And let’s not forget Dr Edward de Bono's Six
Thinking Hats, which separates thinking into six distinct categories.

2.4 The six thinking hats.

The Six Thinking Hats technique gets you to look at a problem in six different ways. It is a great
method to use specifically in a team. Each member can take a different hat (a different position) to
build up a range of possible solutions, ideas, and agreed upon outcomes.

[Source: https://www.debonogroup.com/services/core-programs/six-thinking-hats/]

19
 2.4.1 The six hats in action.
To see how you might use the six hats, let us consider this example scenario.
“A coffee café is getting a growing number of complaints from customers as they are having
to wait too long for their coffee – how can they solve this problem?”

Joe, (store manager) has a team of 8 people who work in a variety of roles. Joe has asked
the team to come together for a problem-solving exercise. Joe introduces the team to six
hats thinking before breaking them into two groups of four.

Joe tells them that each group will undertake six 15-minute rounds of six hat thinking. For
each round the groups will have to put on a different hat – this means they have to look at
the problem from a different viewpoint.

Once the groups have worn all the hats Joe facilitates the whole group to share their
thoughts for each of the hats, giving the team a full picture of the problem from all
perspectives.

What the groups might have come up with in their sessions:

Blue Hat: When wearing the blue hat groups would be asking themselves things like:

▪ The problem is that there are complaints and continued customer dissatisfaction
is not good for our reputation.
▪ We are trying to improve customer satisfaction and reduce complaints by
improving the speed at which we can make coffee.
▪ The benefits of solving the problem are improved reputation and more business.
▪ The most effective way to solve the problem could be to get a new, improved
and faster coffee machine, address the process for making coffee as it is
currently inefficient etc.

White Hat When wearing the white hat groups would be asking themselves things like:

▪ How many complaints are we getting that relate to the problem of waiting times
and the speed at which we can serve coffee?
▪ How long does it currently take to make a coffee?
▪ Can it be done quicker?
▪ Do solutions exist and if they do, what impact could they have on speed?
▪ What is the cost of possible solutions?

20
Green Hat When wearing the green hat groups would be getting super positive and
innovative. They will be looking for fresh ideas that may be outside the box. They might try
to answer questions like:

▪ What are we missing? Can we fundamentally change the way we make coffee?
▪ Is there a coffee machine that can make coffee quicker than our current machine?
▪ Could we 5S ("sort", "set in order", "shine", "standardize", and "sustain") the
workplace to make us leaner and more efficient?
▪ What are other coffee shops doing and how can we do it better/different?

Yellow Hat When wearing the yellow hat groups would be optimistic, thinking of all good
things that will arise from the solutions they uncovered in the previous green hat round.
For each idea, they might try to answer questions like:

▪ What are the ways in which this idea can improve our speed in making coffee?
▪ What are all the positive outcomes that can come from this idea, in addition to
reducing complaints and speeding up coffee production?
▪ What are the reasons why we should implement this idea?

Red Hat When wearing the red hat groups will be throwing out all their negative gut
feelings. For each green hat idea, they might try to answer questions like:

▪ What things could go wrong?

▪ What does my gut tell me about why this won’t work?
▪ Is this idea too expensive, too much work, already dismissed?
▪ Why don’t I like this idea?

Black Hat When wearing the red hat groups will be using their logical brain (frontal lobe) to
consider negative aspects of ideas, but from a logical standpoint. For each green hat idea
and red hat negative, they might try to answer questions like:

▪ Will this go wrong in practice?

▪ Are there ways to mitigate the things that could go wrong?
▪ Is there any evidence to say that something will go wrong?
▪ Is the reason I have for not liking this idea a valid one?

21
 Activity 4. Using the example scenario above ‘coffee café’ put on a different hat
and answer the questions for each one to come to a solution for what the Joe, the
manager should do. Write your decision below with an explanation of why you made
the decision and how the hats helped you.

Decision and explanation.

____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________ _____

____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________

2.7 Problem Solving.

As we have seen, using higher-order thinking skills can help us solve problems and come
to decisions using logical reasoning. For most people, a typical day is filled with critical
thinking and problem-solving challenges. In fact, critical thinking, and problem-solving go
together. They both refer to using knowledge, facts, and data to solve problems effectively.
But with problem-solving, you are specifically identifying, selecting, and defending your
solution. Below are some examples of using critical thinking to problem-solve.

Your roommate was upset and said some unkind words to you, which hurt your relationship.
You try to see through the angry behaviours to determine how you might best support the
roommate and help bring the relationship back to a comfortable spot.

You have a job interview for a position that you feel you are only partially qualified for,
although you really want the job, and you are excited about the prospects. You analyse how
you will explain your skills and experiences in a way to show that you are a good match for
the prospective employer.

You are doing well in college, and most of your college and living expenses are covered. But
there are some gaps between what you want and what you feel you can afford. You analyse
your income, savings, and budget to better calculate what you will need to stay in college
and maintain your desired level of spending.

22
Problem solving is the act of defining a problem; determining the cause of the problem;
identifying, prioritizing, and selecting alternatives for a solution; and implementing a
solution. To problem solve, you can follow the 5-step problem solving process.

▪ Define the problem.

▪ Gather information.
▪ Generate possible solutions.
▪ Evaluate ideas and then choose one.
▪ Evaluate.

Step 1, defining the problem is very important because if you get this wrong then the
problem will not completely by solved, but just some part of it. The key to a good problem
definition is ensuring that you deal with the real problem – not its symptoms.

Example situation:
Step 1. Define: Students in an English class are getting low grades and not turning in their
homework on time. The professor automatically thinks that it is because the students are
lazy and not studying enough. However, before coming to this assumption higher-order
thinking skills should be applied.

Step 2. Gather information: The professor asks students what issues they have. Next the
professor checks with other instructors to see the grades and feedback of the students in
other classes. Socratic questioning method can be used here. From the information, the
professor realized the issue is that the students are overloaded with project work and
homework from other classes, which all have similar deadlines for submitting work and
taking exams.

Step 3. Generate possible solutions. This is a time when using the six hats can help to
generate some ideas and solutions. If possible, the professor should meet with all the other
instructors and together they can discuss together, taking a different color hat each to see
the possible solutions from different viewpoint.

Step 4. Evaluate ideas and choose one: For each idea, an in-depth analysis of the benefits
and negatives can be discussed by looking at the ideas form different angles. Again the six
hats can help, as well as asking questions using the Socratic questioning method.

Step 5. Evaluation: At this stage, one solution should stand out from the rest to be the best
one. This does not mean that everything is finished. The solution must be applied,

23
monitored, reflected upon, and evaluated to see if it solved the problem correctly or does
another solution need to be looked at. This is using the theory from Bloom’s model. As
‘doing’ is the best way to learn and discover.

Activity 5. Below are some different problem-solving skills. For each one you will
need to engage in higher-order thinking. For some of the problems you will need to
use your critical thinking skills, (Use Socratic questioning method for scenario a, and the Six
hats for scenario b).

Scenario a. Read the following situation. Work it out using logical reasoning and asking
questions. Write your answer below and explain how you worked out the answer.

Two prisoners are held in a prison. One night a strange visitor appears in and offers them a
chance to escape. It is only a chance because they must first use logical reasoning to make
a decision, which will determine if they do go free. The two prisoners are locked in a room
at the bottom of a long flight of steps. To unlock the door and go three the prisoners must
solve a problem.

Three envelopes, marked X, Y and Z, are placed on a table in the locked prison room. One
of the envelopes, contains the key to unlock the door, to let them go free. However, the two
prisoners must choose only 1 of the envelopes and if they choose the wrong one, they wil
be locked in the room until they die.

There are six clues, A to F, to help them work out which envelope holds the key. Two clues
are printed on each envelope. There is also a general instruction which says the following:
‘No more than one of each clue on each envelope is false.’ (This is important to know and use
your critical thinking to understand what this means).

On envelope X it says: ‘Clue A The jailhouse key is solid brass. Clue B The jailhouse key is
not in this envelope.’
On envelope Y it says: ‘Clue C The jailhouse key is not in this envelope either. Clue D The
jailhouse key is in envelope Z.’
On envelope Z it says: ‘Clue E The jailhouse key is solid silver. Clue F The jailhouse key is not
in envelope X.’

You have 20 minutes ONLY to decide which envelope the prisoners should choose to escape.
Remember: As well as deciding which envelope to choose, answer this further question: Why
is the envelope you have chosen the right one; and why can it not be either of the others?

24
Write your answer with explanation to [Scenario a] below.

________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________
[Source: Thinking Skills: Critical Thinking and Problem Solving. Cambridge University Press]

Scenario b. You are lost at sea after your ship was damaged in a storm, and you had to
escape in a life raft before it sank. You are now in a life raft with other passengers- your
group (you do not know each other) must make some important decisions.

You are drifting in the middle of the ocean and so far, no-one knows what has happened
to you. It will take between 7 and 14 days before anyone will probably find you – so you
need to survive for this amount of time.

Firstly, you need to take care of yourself, as no-one else in the raft is someone you know,
or cares about you. Everyone in the raft is only worried about themselves. However, to
survive you must work together as a team to have any real change for any of you to make
it. Some of you might not. (Use six thinking hats to take on a different role (viewpoint).

Things to consider before making your decision.

▪ Are you willing to risk others' lives to save your own?
▪ Should the weaker members give you priority in your chance to survive?
▪ Do you risk your own life to save as many others as possible?

From the list of items below. You can only choose 5, which you think will be the most
useful to help you survive. From the 5 items, you must also put them in the correct order of
importance. 1 the most important and 5 the least important. Write you answers and
reasons for selecting each item below.

25
Items available.
Shaving mirror Fishing rod
Can of petrol Rope
Water container Shark repellent
Emergency rations Bottle of rum
Plastic sheet Radio
Sea chart Mosquito net
[Source. http://plcmets.pbworks.com/f/lost_at_sea.pdf]

Write your answer with explanation to [Scenario b] below. (Remember to place the 5 items

you chose in the correct order of importance 1 highest 5 lowest) and explain why you

chose these items.

________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________
[The answers can be found at the end of the book]

2.6 Review.

General Thinking Higher-Order Thinking

Passive Thinking Active Thinking

Logical Reasoning Critical Thinking Problem-Solving

26
The process of critical thinking includes the ability to evaluate, formulate and present
convincing reasons in support of conclusions; and to make reasonable, intelligent decisions
about what to believe and what to do. Critical thinking is not a passive process, where you
just receive information from someone, but you must be part of the process by asking
questions, finding additional information, before making a judgement.

Now we have reviewed the basics of thinking skills, using higher order thinking, the next
step is to see how we apply this to an argument. The next chapter will focus on arguments,
what they are, how to form one, and how to evaluate.

27
 CHAPTER III. Introduction to Arguments

In this chapter we turn our attention to arguments. You will

learn what goes into making an argument, how to balance and
judge an argument based upon the evidence presented.

Formal structures
Simple arguments
Analysis arguments

3. Arguments.
In everyday use, the term ‘argument’ is often used for an angry
exchange of words. People often think of an argument as something negative. However, in
academic and professional circles, the term ‘argument’ has a different meaning.

3.1 What exactly do we mean by argument?

An argument is a connected series of statements, including at least one premise, intended
to demonstrate that another statement, the conclusion, is true. Don’t worry, this may
sound confusing, but we will break it down to make it easy to understand. The first
important thing to know is that arguments contain statements.

3.1.1 Statements.
A statement is a sentence that can be either true or false.
Example: “The Nile is a river in North-eastern Africa” is a statement. Why? Because it makes
sense to inquire whether it is true or false. (In this case, it happens to be true.)

But a statement can also be false. For example, the sentence, “The Yangtze is a river in
Japan” is a false statement (the Yangtze River is in China). In contrast, none of the following
sentences are statements:
▪ Tell your mother about the surprise.
▪ Close the window, it is too noisy to hear the lecture.
▪ Do you like Vietnamese pho?
▪ I got an A in my test.

The reason that none of these sentences are statements is that it doesn’t make sense to ask
whether those sentences are true or false (they are requests, commands, questions, facts).

28
3.1.2 Statements in Arguments.
Statement “The earth is round.” Most people believe that this statement is true. However,
there are still some who believe that the earth is flat. You can see that the statement ‘the
earth is round’ can be either true or false, depending on what you believe.

In an argument this statement is the claim – in other words what we want others to agree
with us about. When we do a formal argument, the claim is known as the conclusion. Now
there are other statements that we need to understand as well. Remember, an argument is
connected by a series of statements, so it has more than one. We now know that the claim
we are making is a statement called the ‘conclusion’ The other statement that you will see
in an argument are called premises.

3.1.3 Premises.
A premise is a statement that supports, or helps lead to, an argument’s conclusion. Most
arguments will contain 2 or more supporting premises.

Here is an example of what premise statements look like.

Premise 1. The shadow of the earth on the moon’s surface has a curved shape.
Premise 2. When a ship sails out to sea it appears to go below the horizon.
Promise 3. Stars that you see on one continent are not the same constellation
when looking from another continent.
Conclusion. (Therefore) the earth is round.

From this example, you can see that the job of the premise is to give evidence to support
the conclusion statement. It is an argument written in a standard form. This is a simple
argument, and as we move on you will see that this simple standard form can get more
complex. It is important to use premises in our formal argument, If we do not use then our
argument is not strong, and it is unlikely that someone will agree with us just based upon a
claim with no supporting reasons or evidence.

Example: ‘Abortion is morally wrong’ This statement, on its own, does not give any reason
for us to agree or disagree with it. However, if we changed it and said, ‘Abortion is morally
wrong because it is wrong to take the life of an innocent human being, and a fetus is an
innocent human being’. Now a strong argument against the morality of abortion. That is because
there is a reason for thinking that abortion is morally wrong (premise). Writing out it look like this.
Premise 1. It is wrong to take life of an innocent human being.
Premise 2. A fetus is an innocent human being.
Conclusion. (Therefore) abortion is morally wrong.

29
3.1.4 Example argument scenario.
Stan was driving his truck over the speed limit. He had no excuse for driving over the
speed limit. Furthermore, he was intoxicated. Therefore, Stan was breaking the law.

Example.
Premise 1. Stan was driving his truck over the speed limit.
Premise 2. Stan had no excuse for driving over the speed limit.
Premise 3. Stan was intoxicated.
Conclusion. (Therefore) Stan was breaking the law.

3.2 Indicators.
The word ‘therefore’ you can see in brackets at the beginning of each conclusion
statement. This is known as an indicator word. We can use the for both the conclusion
statement and the premise statements. Indicators are used to make clear which statements
are premises and which statements are conclusions in arguments. They can help you
organize your thoughts when you are writing out your standard argument. However, in the
argument they are often left out, especially in more complex arguments.

A list of the most common used indicator words.

Conclusion Premise
indicators indicators
Therefore Because
Thus Since
Hence Supposing
that
Consequently Assuming
that

3.3 Standard form structure of an argument.

To make an argument easier to evaluate, it is put into a “standard form.” To do this, we
write each premise on a separate line then underneath the last premise statements we
draw a line. The conclusion statement is written underneath the line. Remember, from an
argument, you do not need to write every single word.

You write the statements in simple sentences, concise and short. So, lots of words and
phrases in the argument such as, ‘In addition, also, another reason, I found that…. The
arguments tell us… -‘do not need to be included in the standard from.
Example.
30
‘The train doesn’t leave until 4.24, but it can take up to 40 minutes to get to the station, if the
traffic’s bad. It’s 3.30 now. We need to leave for the station within ten minutes to be sure of
catching the train.’

In standard form.
Premise 1. The train leaves at 4.24 pm
Premise 2. It takes 40 mins to get to the station
Premise 3. It is now 3.30 pm
________________________________________________________________________________________
Conclusion. [Therefore] We need to set off within ten minutes to catch the train.

As you can see from the above example, the premises are put first and the conclusion at
the bottom. You will also see that there is a line drawn between the premises and the
conclusion. Remember, in a formal argument we do not need to include the ‘indicator
word – ‘so’ ‘therefore’ etc.

Here is an example that illustrates how the words have been re-written in the standard
from in simple sentences.
‘Oxygen is required for life. Europa (a moon of Jupiter) has an atmosphere containing
oxygen, so this tells us there is strong possibility that there is life on Europa.’

In standard form.
Premise 1. Europa has an atmosphere containing oxygen
Premise 2. Oxygen is required for life
_______________________________________________________________
Conclusion. There is possible life on Europa. (The indicator ‘therefore’ is not written)

Activity 6. Read the following arguments and put them in a standard form. Change or
take our words, to make the statements more concise. Identify the conclusion first.

a. ‘If you want to find a good job, you should work hard. You do want to find a good job.
So, you should work hard.’

Premise 1 ……………………………………………………………………………………...

Premise 2 ……………………………………………………………………………………...
_____________________________________________________________________
Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………………….

31
b. ‘You cannot be a good critical thinker if you are passive. To think critically you need to
ask questions. You need to find evidence and judge the source of the information.’

Premise 1 ………………………………………………………………………………….….
Premise 2 ………………………………………………………………………………….….

Premise 3 …………………………………………………………………………………..…
_____________________________________________________________________

Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………………….

c. ‘The Arts club requires a picture ID of members to show that they are over 18.
Kara is planning to go to the Arts club. Kara Lee will have to get a picture ID.’

Premise 1 …………………………………………………………………………………..….
Premise 2 …………………………………………………………………………………..….
_____________________________________________________________________

Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………………….

d. ‘Eating lots of fruits and vegetables provides energy that lasts for hours. Eating lots of
fruits and vegetables supplies the eater with many different vitamins. Eating lots of fruits
and vegetables helps prevent diverticulitis. You should eat 5-9 servings of fruit and
vegetables a day.’
Premise 1 ………………………………………………………………………………..…….

Premise 2 ………………………………………………………………………………..…….
Premise 3 ………………………………………………………………………………..……

_____________________________________________________________________
Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………………….

e. ‘All machines have a finite working lifetime, and even though that big tree doesn’t look
like a typical machine it is really just a biological machine; therefore, I believe it will stop
working someday, too.’
Premise 1 ……………………………………………………………………………………...

Premise 2 …………………………………………………………………………………..….
Premise 3 …………………………………………………………………………………..…

_____________________________________________________________________
Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………………….

[The answers to activity 7 (a-e) can be found at the end of this book]

32
3.4 Two types of reasoning (arguments).
There are two main types of arguments ‘deductive’ and ‘inductive’. For this course we will
be focusing on deductive arguments. However, it is helpful to know the difference between
the two.

A deductive argument is an argument whose conclusion follows from its premises with
absolute certainty. If a conclusion does not 100% follow on from the premises, then it is
not a good deductive argument.

An inductive argument is an argument whose conclusion is supposed to follow from its

premises with a level of probability, which means that although it is possible that the
conclusion doesn’t follow from its premises.

The main difference between the two are as follows:

Deductive Inductive
Process of formulating conclusions with Process of formulating general
help from facts and information statements with the help from real life
presented in the premises. events.
Argument is based on facts, truths, and Argument is based on observed
rules patterns and trends.
Certainty Probability

3.4.1 A closer look at inductive reasoning.

Inductive reasoning is a method of logical thinking that combines observations with experiential
information to reach a conclusion. When you can look at a specific set of data and form general
conclusions based on existing knowledge from past experiences, you are using inductive
reasoning.

Imagine there is a bag of marbles. You put your hand inside the bag and take out a blue
marble. You pull hand inside again and pull out another blue marble. The next marble you
take out is blue again. You will probably conclude that all the marbles in the bag are blue.

However, this may not be true, the next marble might be green, or yellow, but we are
basing our conclusion on observation of the pattern of ‘blue’ marbles so far. This is an
example of inductive reasoning. There are no facts or evidence, but just from our own
experience of what has already happened and the probability of it happening again.
The example of the marbles is a simple explanation, now we will look at an example that
could be applied in a real-life situation.

33
Example.
In your job you must write a report that gives information about the expected population
growth in your city in the next 5 years. If you review the population information of the city
for, let’s say the past 5 years, you may observe that the population has increased at a
consistent rate. This means that each year the population has grown by approximately 2%
and this has been unchanging over the past 5 years.

If you want to predict what the population will be in 5 years’ time; you can use this past
evidence of information to make an estimate. (a prediction)

Here is an example of inductive reasoning in a standard form.

You ate a dish of strawberries and soon afterward your lips swelled. A few weeks later you
ate strawberries again and soon afterwards your lips again became swollen again. The
following month, you ate yet another dish of strawberries, and you had the same reaction.
You are aware that swollen lips can be a sign of an allergy to strawberries. Using induction,
you conclude that, more likely than not, you are allergic to strawberries.

In standard form.
Premise 1. After I ate strawberries, my lips swelled (1st time).
Premise 2. After I ate strawberries, my lips swelled (2nd time).
Premise 3. After I ate strawberries, my lips swelled (3rd time).
Premise 4. Additional Information: Swollen lips after eating strawberries
may be a sign of an allergy.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Conclusion. (Probably) I am allergic to strawberries.

This conclusion is not 100% a fact – as if we use our questioning methods, we can also
determine other possible reasons for lips swelling.
▪ Did they eat anything else as well as the strawberries?
▪ Did the strawberries have chemicals on them?
If more careful investigation was carried out, the answer may lie in another reason.

3.4.2 Inductive reasoning in everyday life.

We use this type of reasoning often in our daily lives. Phrases such as ‘I will probably get a
good grade in my business course’ this may be because you have always (up to this point)
got good grades in this course. Or ‘she will probably be late again’ because the pattern so
far, is that she is always late. There are various ways to use inductive reasoning depending
on the situation.

34
Examples.
You’re looking at flowers in your garden and you know that your roses bloom every year, so
you can assume that they’ll bloom again this year.

You need a weekly report from your co-worker Mary before you can leave for the weekend.
You know that she always sends you the report on Fridays between 2:30 and 3:30 pm before
leaving. You can guess that Mary will also send you this week’s report on Friday between
2:30 and 3:30 pm.

3.4.3 Skills for inductive reasoning.

Paying attention to detail: No one can draw conclusions based on details without first
noticing those details; paying attention is crucial to inductive reasoning. If you're trying to
develop better inductive reasoning, start by noticing more about the things around you.

Recognizing patterns: Those who have strong inductive reasoning quickly notice patterns.
They can see how certain objects or events lining up in a certain way can result in a
common outcome.

Making projections: Closely related to recognizing patterns is being able to predict what
the future will hold based on the information you have. Leaders can typically predict that
certain decisions will lead to more group cooperation and greater success. Financial
projections are one example of making projections.

Committing information to memory: Inductive reasoning is often directly connected to

your ability to recall past events and the details leading up to those events. To bolster your
memory, take notes so you can reference your observations later on.

Using emotional intelligence: Emotional intelligence (EI) is the ability to perceive the
emotions that are behind people's actions.4 People with high levels of EI are more
understanding of others and better able to get to the heart of issues between two or more
people

3.4.4 Summary.
Understanding the various types of inductive reasoning allows you to better implement them in
your day-to-day life and within the workplace for quick and easy analysis and reasoning.

3.5 A closer look at deductive reasoning.

Deductive reasoning is an argument for which the premises are offered to provide logically
conclusive support for its conclusion. In other words, there is strong evidence in our
35
premises to say for sure that the conclusion is true. Unlike ‘inductive reasoning’ where we
look at probability. ‘Deductive reasoning’ looks at certainty. To do this there are two main
elements that have to be met. The first is ‘validity’ and the second ‘soundness’.

3.5.1 Validity.
A valid deductive argument shows the relationship between premises and the conclusion.
It does not look at the information being right or wrong, but it looks at the relationship,
the connection between the premises and the conclusion. This is a very important point to
remember, but a point that is sometimes difficult to understand.

Here is an example that illustrates a basic valid deductive reasoning

‘All men are mortal. Socrates is mortal because he is a man.’

In standard form.
Premise 1. All men are mortal.
Premise 2. Socrates is a man.
_________________________________________________________
Conclusion. Socrates is mortal.

Analysis.
▪ Premise 1 is true because this is a fact. All men are mortal. (Mortal – a living being
that will at some point in time die)
▪ Premise 2 is true. We know that Socrates was a man from history. There is evidence
that he existed.
▪ Conclusion. Based upon the 2 premises, we can say that this conclusion is true. (The
2 premises give evidence to support the conclusion)

The example above is called a ‘valid, deductive argument’. When we use the word ‘valid’ it
means that it is a ‘logical argument’ – it makes sense. A valid argument is an argument in
which if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true.

Here is another example of a valid argument:

Premise 1. Everyone born in France can speak French.
Premise 2. Barack Obama was born in France.
_________________________________________________________
Conclusion. Therefore, Barak Obama can speak French.

This is a valid argument. Why? Because when the premises connect to the conclusion in a
logical way (that it makes sense) then it is valid because the conclusion is true based upon
36
the information that we are given in the premises. However, you might have noticed that
there is something not quite right about the premises. Let’s use or logical reasoning here,
to analyse this argument.

If we ask the question. Does everyone who was born in France speak French? The answer is
of course No. Think about people who were born there but moved to another country
while they were still a baby, the probably can’t speak French.

Another question we can ask is. Was Obama born in France? Again, with a little research, it
is easy to find out that this is also not true. He was in fact born in Hawaii.

If the two premises are false, how can it still be a valid argument? It may sound strange, but
if you understand the concept of validity, it is not strange at all.

Remember: validity describes the relationship (connection) between the premises and
conclusion. What this means is that if the premises are all true then the conclusion is also
true. It also means if the premises are all false (as in the example above), if the conclusion
matches the false premises, we can still say the argument is valid because the conclusion
‘makes sense’ based upon the information in the premises.

3.5.2 Invalid arguments.

‘Joan jumped out of an airplane without a parachute. Therefore, Joan fell to her death.’
To work-out if this argument is valid use the following steps.

First, put the argument into a standard form. Find the conclusion and then see what
premises there are to support it. In this example there is 1 conclusion and 2 premises.

Premise 1. Joan jumped out of an airplane.

Premise 2. Joan did not have a parachute.
_________________________________________________________
Conclusion. Joan fell to her death.

Next, use critical thinking and ask questions about this situation. For example:
▪ How high off the ground was the airplane?
▪ Where did Joan land?
▪ Are there any cases where someone has survived?
▪ Is there more information and detail about this story?

37
Analysis.
Answering these questions, you may find out that the airplane was not very high off the
ground, maybe it was not even in the air. You find evidence where people have survived a
fall an airplane. Uncovering more details of the story you discover that another sky jumper
managed to catch Joan in the air, while she was falling. You can see that this argument it is
not 100% certain that Joan would fall to her death.

The premises are true, but the conclusion may not be because there are other possible
conclusions to the outcome. This means we cannot say the ‘conclusion’ 100% is supported
by the premises. This makes it a ‘invalid’ argument

Another example. What do you think, is it valid or invalid?

Premise 1. If the match is burning, then there is oxygen in the room.
Premise 2. The match is not burning.
______________________________________________________________
Conclusion. There is no oxygen in the room.

Analysis.
This argument is invalid. Why?
Premise 1. Burning a match is ‘only 1 way’ to check for oxygen. (Which tell us that there
are also other ways)
Premise 2. Tells us that the match did not burn. (This premise we can believe to be true,
but there are many possible reasons why it did not burn. (The match watch wet; the match
was an old match etc.)
Conclusion. This statement is false because it is not 100% supported by the 2 premises.

If you used critical thinking, you could also come up with some questions.
▪ What if the match was broken?
▪ What if there was a wind that stopped it lighting?

Activity 7. Decide for each deductive argument below if it is valid or invalid. Write it
out in standard form and explain your reason for your choice.

a. Some football coaches are poets. But no poet knows how to play football. So, some
football coaches do not know how to play football.

____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________
38
____________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________

b. Some cars are purple, and some cars are Chevrolets. So, some cars are purple
Chevrolets.

____________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________

c. If Smith wins, Jones will be happy. However, Smith won't win. So, Jones won't be
happy.

____________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________

d. Only birds are blue. My pet is blue. So, my pet is a bird.

____________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________

e. Ann and Bob both won't be home. So, Ann won't be home.

____________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________

39
 ____________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________
[Answer for Activity 7 can be found at end of the book]

3.6 Soundness of an argument.

When we construct our arguments, we must aim to construct one that is not only valid,
but also sound. A sound argument begins with premises that are true. This means ALL the
premises must be true. If just one of them is wrong, then it is not a sound argument.

Here is an example.
Premise 1. In some states, no felons are eligible voters, that is, eligible to vote. (true)
Premise 2. In those states, some professional athletes are felons. (true)
________________________________________________________________________________
Conclusion. In some states, some professional athletes are not eligible voters. (true)

Here, not only do the premises provide the right sort of support for the conclusion, but the
premises are true. Therefore, so is the conclusion. Below are two examples of arguments.
One is valid but not sound, while the other is both valid and sound. Can you see which is
which?

Premise 1. All tigers are mammals.

Premise 2. No mammals are creatures with scales.
______________________________________________________________
Conclusion. No tigers are creatures with scales.

Premise 1. All spider monkeys are elephants.

Premise 2. No elephants are animals.
________________________________________________________________
Conclusion. No monkeys are animals.

Analysis.
The first example is sound because both premises 1 and 2 are true, which also means the
conclusion is true.

The second argument is unsound. Do you see why? Although it is valid because the
conclusion follows the premises. You will see clearly that the premises are false, so it is not
a sound argument. To make sure that an argument is good, both validity and soundness
need to be met.
40
3.7 Summary.
▪ A deductive argument is composed of a premise (at least 2) and a conclusion.
▪ Both a premise and a conclusion are statements.
▪ The premise of the argument provides support the conclusion.
▪ The conclusion is the claim that you are trying to prove.
▪ If all the premises are true, then the conclusion is also true. This is a valid argument.
▪ If all the premises are false, then the conclusion is also false. This is still valid.
▪ A deductive argument is it to look for ‘validity’ this means the relationship between
the premises and conclusion – not the correctness or truthfulness of the statements.

[Source. https://learn.saylor.org/mod/page/view.php?id=21533]

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 CHAPTER IV Complex Arguments
Main Arguments
Argument Maps
Sub-Arguments
Intermediate Conclusions

So far, we have seen that an argument consists of a premise and a conclusion.

However, very often arguments and explanations have a more complex structure than just
a few premises that directly support the conclusion.

4. Complex arguments.
A complex argument is a set of arguments with either overlapping premises or conclusions
(or both). Complex arguments are very common because many issues and debates are
complicated and involve extended reasoning. To understand complex arguments, we need
to analyse the logical structure of the reasoning involved. Drawing a diagram can be very
helpful.

4.1 Argument Mapping.

An argument map is a diagram that captures the logical structure of a simple or complex
argument. It can help when the argument is more complex. In other words, has lots of
parts to it. By drawing the argument out in a visual form can help to see how each part
connects to each other.

In the simplest possible case, we have a single premise supporting a single conclusion.
Consider this argument:
Premise 1. All humans are born and then will die.
Conclusion. Everyone will die.

Example of argument map. You can also present your map with numbers

1
All humans are born and then will die.

Everyone will die. 2

42
Here is another example with 2 premises and a conclusion. 1 2
Premise 1. Paris is in France.
Premise 2. France is in Europe.
_______________________________________________
Conclusion. Paris is in Europe. C

In this example above, the two premises are connected before linking to the conclusion.
This means the two premises are’ ‘co-premises’ which work together in a single argument
to support the conclusion. In other words, they do not provide independent reasons for
accepting the conclusion. Without one of the premises, the other premise would fail to
support the conclusion.

In this example, notice that the premises are NOT co-premises.

1 2
Premise 1. Smoking can increase the chance of a heart attack.
Premise 2. Smoking can cause cancer.
_____________________________________________________________________
C
Conclusion. Smoking in unhealthy.

The map tells us that [1] and [2] are independent reasons supporting [C]. In other words,
without [1], [2] would still support [C], and without [2], [1] would still support [C].

4.1.1 Multilayer complex argument.

A multilayered argument is often found in complex arguments. It means that there are
both co-premises, independent premises, where each one has its own separate conclusion
that leads to one main conclusion. It sounds complicated, but with some practice you can
start to see how mapping such an argument can help you to analysis and synthesis
information using logical reasoning and critical thinking.

Example.
Po cannot come to the party because her scooter is broken. David also cannot come because
he must pick up his new hat. I did not invite the other classmates, so no classmates will come
to the party.

Process.
Start with listing all the statements and put into a standard form. (remember to find the
conclusion first)
Premise 1. Po cannot come to the party. [co-premise with premise 3]
Premise 2. Po's scooter is broken. [support for premise 1]
Premise 3. David cannot come to the party. [co-premise with premise 1]
43
Premise 4. David must pick up his new hat. [support for premise 3]
Premise 5. I did not invite the other classmates. [independent premise]
__________________________________________________________________________
Conclusion. No classmates will come to the party.

Organize the premises into co-premises’ and ‘independent premises.’ [1,3]

Create an argument map.

Analysis.
Premise 2 gives a reason of support for premise 1.
Premise 4 gives a reason of support for premise 3.

However, we can see that premises 1 and 2 share

similar information – this makes them ‘co-premises’.
They can connect before they connect to the main
conclusion.

Both premise 1 and 2 not only are they co-premises, but they also work as conclusions for
premises 2 and 4. When this happens, we can them ‘intermediate conclusions’

Premise 5 is an ‘independent’ premise. It gives support that leads directly to the ‘intermediate
conclusions’ 2 and 4.

Lastly, we can see that from the 2 ‘intermediate conclusions’ and the ‘independent premise’
they connect to premise 6, which we have already established as the main conclusion.

Another example.
All university students should study critical thinking. Critical thinking is necessary for
surviving in the new economy. We need to adapt to rapid changes and make critical use of
information in making decisions. Critical thinking can help us reflect on our values and
purposes in life. Finally, critical thinking helps us improve our study skills.

Premise 2. Critical thinking is necessary for surviving in the new economy.

Premise 3. We need to adapt to rapid changes and make critical use of information in making
decisions.
Premise 4. Critical thinking can help us reflect on our values and purposes in life.
Premise 5. Critical thinking helps us improve our study skills.
________________________________________________________________________________________________
Conclusion. All university students should study critical thinking.

44
Argument map analysis.
▪ Premise 3 gives supportive information
for premise 2. Premise 2 is an
‘intermediate conclusion.’
▪ Premises 4 and 5 are both ‘independent
premises.’
▪ Premise 1 has been established as the
‘conclusion. ‘

Activity 8. Create a standard form an argument map for the following.

a. In some parts of the world, cars are still driven on the left side of the road. This can result
in accidents involving drivers from other countries who are used to driving on the right.
Pedestrians are also at risk because they might look the wrong way when trying to cross
the road. Therefore, cities should be safer if the rules were the same for all countries. The
countries that drive on the left are in the minority, So, the countries that drive on the left
should change over to drive on the right.

b. Marriage is becoming unfashionable.] [2. Divorce rate is at an all time high], and [3.
cohabitation is increasingly presented in a positive manner in the media]. [4. Movies are
full of characters who live together and unwilling to commit to a lifelong partnership]. [5.
Even newspaper columnists recommend people to live together for an extended period
before marriage in order to test their compatibility.

45
4.2 Summary.
A complex argument is a set of arguments - more than one. either overlapping premises or
conclusions (or argument is complex if it contains a sub-argument (intermediate
conclusion), that is, if one of the premises also provides evidence for the other premise for
the main argue premise of an argument is related to another premise in the argument in a
premise/conclusion relationship.
[Source. https://philosophy.hku.hk/think/arg/complex.php]

46
 Chapter V. Fallacies, Language & Debate.

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-

8 What is a fallacy?
Fallacies are mistakes of reasoning, as opposed to making mistakes that are of a factual
nature. Look at the following example:
‘I counted twenty people in the room when there were in fact twenty-one.’ This is a factual
mistake. The person miscounted the number of people.

However, in the next example, you will see that the reasoning is wrong in the argument
itself – not that a mistake has been made. This is an example of a fallacy. The logic is
wrong.
‘I believe that squares can also be round.’

The study of fallacies is part of critical thinking. Knowing some of the most common fallacies
can help you when evaluating an argument. There are many different types of fallacies, but
for this course we will concentrate on the most common logical fallacies.

5.1 Eight common fallacies.

Ad Hominem, also known as ‘attacking the person.’ This is when you attack or criticize the
person themselves instead of the argument they are making.
Example.
▪ Person 1: ‘I am for raising the minimum wage for all the staff.’
▪ Person 2: ‘She is for raising the minimum wage, but she is not smart enough to run a
successful business.’

In this example, the main issue of minimum wage is not addressed by person 2, instead
they attack the person in a personal way by saying ‘she is not smart enough….’ When we
attack the person instead of the issue, our audience might think we don’t understand or
can’t disprove our opponent’s view. However, it is often used as a quick and easy response,
but this does not use higher-order thinking.

47
Appeal to Authority, when you use this fallacy, you accept a truth just because the person
speaking it is someone you admire and respect. Often a person in authority.
Example
▪ ‘The president said that wearing a mask, won’t help you. So, it must be true.’
▪ ‘I know that Santa Clause is real because my mother told me.’

For this fallacy, the argument is accepted, even if no evidence is provided because as you
see, the information comes from someone in ‘authority - president’ and someone who we
‘respect – mother.’

Appeal to Ignorance is a fallacy that an argument is accepted because no one else can
prove otherwise.
Example.
▪ ‘Since the students have no questions concerning the topics discussed in class, the
students are ready for a test.’
▪ ‘Aliens are not real because no one can show evidence they are.’

In this case there is not logical reasoning being used. As we have already learnt questions
need to be asked ‘Socratic questioning’ before we can conclude such as in this fallacy.

Appeal to Pity, this fallacy occurs when someone tries to gain acceptance by showing a
negative consequence if it is not accepted.
Example.
▪ ‘If we don't adopt that puppy today, it will not have a home. Do you want to be
responsible for that?’
▪ ‘If I don’t get an A on my test, then my parents will not let me continue to study here.
So, please can you give me an A?’

This is a fallacy that often said to parents by children, or students to teachers. It plays upon
emotions of the receiver that they are somewhat responsible for any negative outcome.

Bandwagon fallacies occur when an argument is claimed to be true just because many
people believe it to be so.
Example.
▪ ‘Everyone on campus is wearing Air Jordans. I need to buy those sneakers.’
▪ ‘All my friends are doing a low carb diet. That must be the only way to lose weight.’

This fallacy starts trends that we can now see on social media started by influences.

48
False dilemma fallacies occur when someone is only given two choices for possible
alternatives when more than two exist.
Example:
▪ ‘In Latin America, only two countries offer travel and tourism options: Mexico and
Guatemala.’
▪ ‘Katie is one of 16,400 students on her college campus. The only boy’s worth dating
are Dave and Steve.’

We can see that in both cases there are obviously more choices ‘more countries in Latin
America’ ‘more than 2 boys are students on campus.’ However, other choices are not
offered, this is usually because the person wants to control the ‘agreement’ to get
agreement to their argument.

Hasty Generalization If you’ve ever been accused of jumping to conclusions, then you’ve
committed a hasty generalization. This type of informal generalization makes an
assumption based on a small sample and can lead to stereotypes.
Example:
▪ ‘My brother eats cheeseburgers and pizza. He is thin. Cheeseburgers and pizza aren’t
the cause of obesity.’
▪ ‘Four out of five doctors recommend “Heal” brand lotion for patients. It must be the
best.’
This type of fallacy can cause many negative real-life problems. We have seen this in recent
times around the benefits of wearing ‘face masks’ or even ‘vaccinations.’

Slippery Slope You might see a slippery slope fallacy when someone assumes a very small
action will lead to extreme outcomes.
Example:
▪ ‘If I fail my exam, I won’t graduate, and then I will not get a good job, and I will not be
able to pay my rent, and I will have nowhere to live.’
▪ ‘If you drink a glass of wine, you will then want a bottle, and then you will want to
smoke, and then take drugs.’
This fallacy is when our thought process goes wild and ‘over thinks’ outcomes which are
not based on any logical reasoning or factual evidence.

Videos on fallacies: https://guides.lib.uiowa.edu/c.php?g=849536&p=6077643

[Source. https://thebestschools.org/magazine/15-logical-fallacies-know/]

49
 Activity 9. Use the information and examples above to name each fallacy being used.

a. Louise is running for class president. In her campaign speech she says, "My opponent does
not deserve to win. She is a smoker and she cheated on her boyfriend last year." What
fallacy has Louise committed? Fallacy. ________________

b. ‘I guess I should buy my 12-year-old daughter an iPhone. Everyone at her new school has
one and I want her to fit in with the other kids.’ Fallacy. ________________

c. Persons 1. ‘I think we should put more money into schools. Quality public education is so
important.’

Person 2. ‘So, you’re saying we should cut military spending and spend it instead on more
notebooks and student books? I guess you want our country to be a weak and a target for
terrorists.’ Fallacy. ________________

d. ‘If I don’t take this A.P. class, then I won’t do well on the exam. If I don’t do well on the
A.P. exam, then I can’t get into a good college. If I can’t get into a good college, then I’ll
never get a good job. If I can’t get a good job, then I’m going to have to live in my
parents’ basement forever. Guess I’ll sign up for the A.P. class.’ Fallacy. ________________

e. ‘The two courses I took at UF were not very interesting. I don't think its a good university.’
Fallacy. ________________

f. Sarah wakes up one morning to find that she has just slept through her anatomy test. She
emails her teacher and asks if she can make up the test. Sarah states that she deserves to
take it over because she didn't sleep well because her boyfriend just broke up with her,
her dog is sick and she stained her favorite dress. Fallacy. _________________

g. Ricky is watching television when he sees a commercial for foot cream. The commercial
announcer says, "This is the best foot cream on the market because no other foot
cream makers have been able to prove otherwise!" Fallacy. ________________

h. “You can either come with me to the party tonight or sit at home alone and be bored
all night.” Fallacy. ____________________

50
5.2 Evaluating Language in an Argument.
One reason to learn about fallacies in an argument is of course to be
able to convince other people, to point out their mistakes and to
change their minds. However, as we have seen, using fallacies should
be avoided and more logical reasoning using direct and concise
language makes a much better and stronger argument. It shows that
you have used your logical reasoning, analyzed, and evaluated the
information and synthesized it to create a meaningful argument with
evidence to support your claim.

Often when we present our claim (argument) it is done in a formal way. For example, as a
student you may have to write an essay or present to your instructor. At work, your
argument might be made during a team meeting or presentation to a client or your
management. And of course, in more informal situations with friends we may present our
argument through a discussion. Whatever situation you are in where you must present
your claim how to conduct a constructive dialogue is an art that requires not just an
understanding of logic, but also empathy, self-control, and a good grasp of human
psychology.

8.1.2 Language in use.

Language for an argument needs to pass some sort of judgment, positive or negative, on
something. Look at the example.
▪ Bob is tall.
▪ Bob is good.

“Tall” is a descriptive term since being tall is neither a good nor bad thing. Rather, it is a
purely descriptive term – describing how someone looks (factual) that does not pass any
sort of judgment, positive or negative.

In contrast, “good” is a purely evaluative term, which means that the only thing the word
does is make an evaluation (in this case, a positive evaluation) and doesn’t carry any
descriptive content. ‘bad’ ‘right’ and ‘wrong’ are other examples of purely evaluative terms.

If you can get a person to think of someone in terms of a positively or negatively evaluative
term, chances are you will be able to influence their evaluation of that person. That is one of
the rhetorical uses of evaluative language. For example,
▪ Bob is a freedom fighter.
▪ Bob is rebel.

51
Whereas the word ‘freedom fighter’ is usually seen as positive, someone who is defending
their country and people’s rights. The word ‘rebel’ is seen as negative, someone who is
attacking and hurting people.

Both words, however, have the same descriptive content, namely, that Bob is someone
who has been trained for combat and fights for/or against an existing government. The
difference is that whereas “rebel” makes a negative evaluation, “freedom fighter” makes a
positive evaluation.

English language as a word that can be used to turn positive evaluative terms into negative
evaluative ones. All you have to do is put the word “too” before positively evaluative terms
and it will suddenly take on a negative connotation. Compare the following:
▪ John is honest.
▪ John is too honest.

Whereas “honest” is a positively evaluative term, “too honest” is a negatively evaluative

term. The word “too” indicates an excess, and to say that something is an excess is to make
a criticism, we can see why the word “too” changes the valence of an evaluation from
positive to negative.

5.2.2 Functions of language.

The formal patterns of correct reasoning can also be shown through language, it is helpful
to identify at least three distinct uses of language:

The informative use of language involves an effort to communicate some content.

For example, if I state…
▪ "Logic is the study of correct reasoning,"
▪ "Jennifer—555-3769,"
This kind of use presumes that the content of what is being communicated is true.

An expressive use of language, is to show feeling.

For example, When I say,
▪ "Friday afternoons are boring,"
▪ "Ouch!"
Although such uses don't convey any information, they do serve an important function in
everyday life, since how we feel sometimes matters as much as—or more than—what we
hold to be true.

52
Directive uses of language aim to cause or to prevent some action by a human agent.
For example,
▪ "Shut the door,"
▪ "Read the textbook,"
I am using direct language. But like the expressive use, it doesn't always relate logically to
the truth of our beliefs.

5.2.3 Context and meaning.

The intended use in a particular language use often depends on the specific context and
tone of voice than it does on the grammatical form or vocabulary of what is said. Even
single words or short phrases can exhibit the distinction between purely informative and
partially expressive uses of language.

Many of the most common words and phrases of any language have both a descriptive
meaning that refers to the way things are and an emotive meaning that expresses some
(positive or negative) feeling about them. Thus, the choice of which word to use in making
a statement can be used in hopes of evoking a particular emotional response.
For example,
▪ ‘I'm hungry.’
Could be used to report on a physiological condition, or to express a feeling.

In fact, in an argument, emotional use of language can create an appearance of a

statement being true, even if there is no evidence to support it. Also, the tone of voice of
the speaker can create the same effect. This is something to consider when you are in a
debate and arguing your point. Remember, as well as what you say, it is also important in
the words you choose and the way you say it.

5.3 Debating.
A debate is a structured argument. Two sides
speak alternately for and against a particular point
of view. usually based on a topical issue. Unlike
the arguments you might have with your family or
friends however, each person is allocated a time
they are allowed to speak for. The subject of the
dispute is often prearranged so you may find
yourself having to support opinions with which
you do not normally agree. You also must argue
as part of a team, being careful not to contradict This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC

what others on your side have said.

53
5.3.1 Why debate?
It is an excellent way of improving speaking skills and is particularly helpful in providing
experience in developing a convincing argument. Those of you who are forced to argue
against your natural point of view realize that arguments, like coins, always have at least
two sides. In a debate is where you can really show your skills in higher order thinking.
Using the Socratic questioning method, and putting an argument into a standard form,
and mapping it, can really help you to see the different sides of the argument concisely.

5.3.2 The basic debating skills.

There are five main skills that you must use for a successful debate. These skills are as
follows.
Style. This is the way you communicate your arguments. This is the most basic part of
debating to master. Content and strategy are worth little unless you deliver your material
in a confident and persuasive way.

Speed. It is vital to talk at a pace which is fast enough to sound intelligent and allow you
time to say what you want, but slow enough to be easily understood.

Tone. Varying tone is what makes you sound interesting. Listening to one tone for an
entire presentation is boring.

Volume. Speaking quite loudly is sometimes a necessity, but it is by no means necessary to

shout through every debate regardless of context. There is absolutely no need speak any
more loudly than the volume at which everyone in the room can comfortably hear
you. Shouting does not win debates. Speaking too quietly is clearly disastrous since no one
will be able to hear you.

Clarity. The ability to concisely and clearly express complex issues is what debating is all
about. The main reason people begin to sound unclear is usually because they lose the
“stream of thought” which is keeping them going. It is also important to keep it simple.
While long words may make you sound clever, they may also make you incomprehensible

5.3.3 How to debate.

There are some simple steps and rules to follow to make sure your debate goes smoothly.
Here are the steps.
Step 1. Case (argument)- the whole
Introduction. The case your group is making must be outlined in the introduction. This
involves stating your main arguments and explaining the general overall point of view of

54
your case. This must be done briefly since the most important thing is to get on and argue
it. It is also a good idea to indicate the aspects of the subject to be discussed by each of
the team members.

Conclusion. At the end, once everyone has spoken, it is useful to briefly summarize what
your group has said and why.

Step 2. Case (argument)- the parts

Having outlined the whole of your argument, you must then begin to build a case (the
parts). The best way to do this is to divide your case into between two and four arguments
(or divide your case based on the number of people in your group).

You must justify your arguments with basic logic, worked examples, statistics, and quotes.
Debating is all about the strategy of “proof”. Proof, or evidence, supporting your assertion
is what makes it an argument.

Under each argument part, you should explain the reasoning behind the argument and
justify it using the methods outlined above. It is usually best to put the most important
arguments first.

Here is an example of a case outline:

“The media exert more influence over what people think than the government does. This is
true for three reasons. Firstly, most people base their votes on what they see and hear in
the media. Secondly, the media can set the political agenda between elections by deciding
what issues to report and in how much detail. Thirdly, the media have successfully
demonized politicians over the last ten years so that now people are more likely to believe
journalists than politicians.”

All of the arguments in this case outline are debatable (almost immediately you can see
the counterarguments), but they give the case a wide range which cover all kinds of issues.

Step 3. Rebuttal – the parts

Arguments can be factually, morally, or logically flawed. They may be misinterpretations, or
they may also be unimportant or irrelevant. A team may also contradict one another or fail
to complete the tasks they set themselves. These are the basics of rebuttal and almost
every argument can be found wanting in at least one of these respects.

55
Here are a few examples:
“Banning cigarette product placement in films will cause more young people to smoke
because it will make smoking more mysterious and tabooer.”
This is logically flawed; the ban would be more likely to stop the steady stream of images
which make smoking seem attractive and glamorous and reduce the number of young
people smoking.

“My partner will then look at the economic issues...” “Blah..blah..blah...(5 minutes later
and still no mention of the economic issues)”
This failed to explain a major part of the case and attention should be drawn to it.

When a speaker starts with,

“to win this debate there are three things I must do…”.
If the speaker fails to do any of those things you can then hang her or him by the noose by
repeating their exact words – by his or her own admission he or she cannot have won, the
debate.

Step 4. Rebuttal – the whole

It is very important to have a good perspective of the debate and to identify what the key
arguments are. It isn’t enough to rebut a few random arguments here and there. There are
several things you should do to systematically break down a team’s case.

▪ Ask yourself how the other side have approached the case. Is their methodology
flawed?

▪ Consider what tasks the other side set themselves (if any) and whether they have in
fact addressed these.

▪ Consider what the general emphasis of the case is and what assumptions it makes. Try
to refute these.

▪ Take the main arguments and do the same thing. It is not worth repeating a point of
rebuttal that has been used by someone else already, but you can refer to it to show
that the argument has not stood up. It is not necessary to correct every example used.
[Source. https://www.sfu.ca/cmns/130d1/HOWTODEBATE.htm]

Video on debating https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kezvnxqs3sw

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 CHAPTER VI. Arguments in
Social Media and the News

9 The Impact of News on Society and the Individual

News influences both society and culture. Different forms of communication, including
messages in the mass media, give shape and structure to society. Additionally,
mass media outlets can spread cultural knowledge and artistic works around the globe.
News can influence change, help us as a society and individual to understand and see
issues that are faced around the world. News can make us feel emotional, either excited,
happy, or sad and angry. News can influence us to act or change behaviour. Just a few
hours each day can have an impact far beyond what you might imagine.

However, as we are bombarded with news stories through our new media (Facebook,
Twitter, YouTube etc.), it is important to know how to interpret the news we are viewing,
and we should use our logical thinking to ask questions such as: Is it true? What is the
purpose? How does it affect me? Unfortunately, news is not always as it seems. We must
consider details such as.
▪ Who is telling the story?
▪ What is their opinion?
▪ What is their reason to tell the story?

This brings us to the most important aspect of news in the 21st century, which is, how do I
know the news is true? As nowadays, anyone with social media can create a news story.

6.1 Social media fake news.

When looking at what is “fake news” and how it gets shared on social media, there are two
kinds of false information to be aware of ‘misinformation’ and ‘disinformation.’

Misinformation is classified as “false or misleading content including hoaxes, conspiracy

theories, fabricated reports, click-bait headlines, and even satire.” Misinformation is not
deliberately intended to deceive. Instead, it aims to shape or change public opinion on a
given topic.

Disinformation can be spread using many of the same tactics as misinformation—hoaxes,

click-bait, fabricated reports. Disinformation is created to deceive. There are a variety of
57
reasons that individuals’ social media accounts or even business accounts might spread
disinformation. It could be to increase their social media marketing effectiveness, boost
their online traffic, build more followers for their page or business, incite an emotional
response, or create a distraction. Disinformation can be dangerous on social media
because, as previously mentioned, the sheer amount of information there and the length
of readers’ attention spans can allow it to go unchecked.

Because social media is a public platform, anyone—including news outlets—can post

anything without being accountable for fact-checking. It’s left to users to distinguish
misinformation vs. disinformation in their feeds.

6.1.1 Fake news in detail.

Fake news is defined as news stories that are false. The story is fabricated (made-up) and
there are no verifiable facts, sources, or quotes.

Fake news can be propaganda that is intentionally designed to mislead the reader or may
be designed as “clickbait” written for economic incentives. Think about advertisements, or
writers that profit on the number of people who click on their story.

There are two kinds of fake news. Stories that aren't true. These are entirely invented
stories designed to make people believe something false, to buy a certain product, or to
visit a certain website. Stories that have some truth but aren't 100 percent accurate.

For example, a journalist quotes only part of what a politician says, giving a false
impression of their meaning. Again, this can be deliberate, to convince readers of a certain
viewpoint, or it can be the result of an innocent mistake. Either way, it quickly attracts an
audience and can become entrenched as an "urban myth."

9.1.2 The dangers of fake news.

Fake news stories come with many disadvantages. Just how harmful are little lies? A little
bit of fake news is nothing new, right? Wrong. The ability to distort reality has taken a leap
forward with this new trend: “deep fake” technology. It’s possible to create audio and video
of real people saying and doing things they never said or did. Deep fakes are more realistic
and resistant to detection.

Fake statements can influence society, business, and individuals. Falsely created videos
show events that have never happened. They can show people saying, things they never
said for example…
58
Fake news can influence politics. A fake article
such as “BREAKING: Pope Francis Backed
Trump…” can leave a huge impact on politics
and elections.

These articles influence certain groups of

people or people that look up to persons in
their life.
Pope Francis is one of the biggest influencers
when
it comes to the Catholic Church. So, if he backs
a certain politician…

Fake multimedia can ruin personal lives. Photoshopped images of two people meeting,
intimate scenes, and much more will ruin a person’s personal life. People start judging
without checking the facts or the source.

In the last 2 years with the outbreak of the coronavirus pandemic there has been an
enormous amount of fake news across all media platforms. Unfortunately, a lot of it has
put people’s lives at risk and even cost people their lives. From advertisements of herbal
drinks and tablets to even drinking bleach, promoted by the former president of the USA.
All of these and other misinformation have and continue to cause a lot of personal
damage.

Not only is the sharing of misinformation potentially costly to people’s health, but also
their psychological wellbeing, according to Dr William Van Gordon, Associate Professor in
Contemplative Psychology at the University of Derby. “In addition to unduly influencing a

59
person's decision making, exposure to fake news can lead to false memories, as well as foster
anxiety and a catastrophic outlook. It is a good idea to think critically about all news,” he
explains.
[Source. https://www.derby.ac.uk/magazine/issue-12/influence-of-fake-news/]

Fake news feeds a conversation.

Sometimes, fake news spreads like
rumors or gossip. People will believe
and share anything they find engaging,
or that reinforces their beliefs. On top of
that, juicy, fake news feeds a
conversation and creates equality
between people with the same opinions.

9.1.3 How to spot fake news.

Check the headline. If the headline uses
excessive punctuation or capital letters, it might be a good thing to dig a little deeper. If
the headline makes a claim about containing a secret or telling you something that “the
media” doesn’t want you to know, are two “headline traps” which could indicate fake news.
You are probably familiar with the concept of “clickbait”, even if the word itself is unfamiliar. These
are the headlines or story titles you see on the internet that are designed to get you, the reader, to
click on the link and visit the website. Typically, these are things like:
• 17 Cats who should be running for President
• This woman started shouting at her kid on the bus. You won’t believe what happened next!
• The worst things teachers say to their students: REVEALED!!!

Google images.
Often photographs are recycled and/or doctored to fuel interest and provide visual "proof"
for fake news. Knowing how to do a reverse image search can help you identify most
photographs.

Google’s image search tool can be used to fact check and research images. To do a reverse
search in Google Image, you can click on the small camera icon and past in the web
address for the image you are investigating.

60
No, President Bush was not really trying
to read a book upside down.
Video. How to discover fake news images.
https://youtu.be/p5e9wTdAulA

Question the publisher/ author

Most of the time we just click on the first
result that appears in Google without
looking at the link. You should always
question the reliability of the publisher
before using the information from a
website.

Look for credibility in the articles. This can be the “about us” page on a website or look for
the author bio in the article. If the author’s background is unknown or if the webpage is
written by an author without a biography linked to it, you should investigate further to see
if the story is fake.

Easy sharing
Is the resource easy to share? Take a
meme for example. They get shared a
lot, but the content isn’t reliable at all.
It’s created by a random person with a
random opinion with or without
checking the facts. Most memes are
biased.

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Encounter
How did you find this resource? Was it promoted on a website? Was it advertised in Google?
Did it show up in a social media feed? Was it sent to you by someone you know? If it was
advertised, the resource is less reliable than content that reaches Google’s top pages
without advertising.

Ask yourself what the purpose of the document is and why it was produced. Sometimes it’s
very easy to distinguish spam and promotion from real facts and neutral information

Links
Does the example link to or cite a variety of sources, including official and expert sources?
Does the information this example provides appear in reports from news websites?

Domain authority
Check the domain of the article. What institution publishes this document? Use Google
Advanced Search to narrow down the search by omitting specific words or searching exact
websites. For instance, enter “.gov” or “.edu” in the box that asks for site or domain. It will
limit their search results to just government or university-owned websites.

Up to date
If you come across a page with many broken links, this post isn’t up to date, so neither will
be the information on it probably. Always check the date. Information in a post from 3
years ago may not have much of an impact anymore. Who knows what new things could
have happened by now that makes the content completely irrelevant?

Check more sources

It’s always better to check 2 or more sources to verify information. The more resources
state the same facts, the more likeable it is the information is true.

Emotional stage
If you are intensely hoping that the information turns out to be true or false, it might be
not the right emotional stage to start from. Ask yourself, if your emotional stage is biased.

Video, how to detect fake news. https://youtu.be/cSKGa_7XJkg

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6.2 Social media news at its best and worst.
Below are some case studies of social media news stories. Not all social media is negative.
There has been some news that has had a massive impact on changing government
policies, bringing attention to misjustice, and raising awareness on social issues, calling
people to action.

▪ Arab Spring.
One of the most impressive and most remembered of all social media impacts was during
the Arab Spring. Social media was never the cause of revolution in the region, but did fuel
and assist, and is seen as a major catalyst. Arab citizens revolted and using social media as
a communication tool and a collective war effort was organized via social media. The size
and effects of this impact are impressive: more than 15 countries were affected, four rulers
forced from power, two new countries formed, and it spanned the entire Arab world from
Mauritania to Syria and Oman.

▪ WikiLeaks
Julian Assange, whistle-blower, decided that using the internet and social media, he would
publicize sensitive and secret government material about corruption, human rights
violations and the underhanded dealings of governments. This caused a lot of change as
mentioned above in many parts of the world. In retrospect this is not a once-off event but
can be seen more as an ongoing endeavor.

▪ Japan 2011 Earthquake and Tsunami relief fund

After a magnitude 8.9 quake and one of the most devastating tsunamis in history, Japan’s
telecommunications infrastructure was left broken. Without a plan, social media came to
the forefront with a combination of internet savvy and simple humanitarianism. Twitter and
Facebook proved an invaluable tool for those involved in relief efforts, posting up to the
minute reports on tsunami alerts, emergency numbers and shelters.
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▪ Twestival (or Twitter-Festival)
Twestivals were organized globally, using the power of social media to organize offline
events. The idea is that if local communities were able to collaborate on an international
scale, spectacular results can be achieved. Since 2009 over US$1.75 million has been raised
for various community causes. Twestival Global collaborates with Twestival Local, which in
turn directly impacts their own community. Local events are coordinated by volunteers and
all funds raised directly support these individual causes.

▪ Save the rhino

Rhino poaching has gone largely unnoticed for many years. Since the advent of social
media, especially Facebook and Twitter, it has been able to garner massive support. The
public got involved, information was more easily obtainable, and several citizens’ arrests
were made, whether personally or by contacting the police. Updates on statistics are now
daily. Instead of just one cause dedicated to it, several different causes are linked together,
showing the growing interest social media has led to.

▪ Black Lives Matter.

When a Minneapolis police officer murdered George Floyd last year, the video of his killing
immediately spread around the web. Millions took to the streets and the internet to express a
desire for racial justice in the United States, in a movement that has become known by the viral
hashtag #BlackLivesMatter.

In the year since Floyd’s murder, online interest in Black Lives Matter has steadily grown. An
analysis of more than 50 million Twitter posts between Jan. 28, 2013, and April 30, 2021, the online
support for #BlackLivesMatter following Floyd’s killing resulted in a lasting shift and a more vocal
and engaged online public. While the Black Lives Matter movement’s impact on the policy
landscape remains uncertain, its online presence is undoubtedly stronger.
[Source. https://www.brookings.edu/techstream/how-george-floyd-changed-the-online-conversation-around-black-
lives-matter/]
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 Activity 10. Research an issue or event where social media influenced its success
(either positively or negatively) This could be a political, social, environment,
educational, or health issue). The issue/event should be important to you.

Remember to …
1. Ask questions (Socratic questioning)
2. Evaluate the information (Logical argument).
3. Check for any fallacies and account for them by stating that they exist.
4. Check the media source is reliable.
5. Reflect on your own understanding and critical analysis on the issue/event.

65
 Chapter 7. Text-based Arguments.
An argument can be found in the form of a text. This could be in literature, newspaper
story, a blog, or business report. However, no matter what form the principle of applying
higher order thinking skills remains the same.
Activity 11. Analyse each text-based argument below.
a. Newspaper text. Read the newspaper story and answer the question that follows.

66
How strongly does the information in the article support the headline claim that the Wright
brothers were not the first to fly?

________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________

b. Report. Read the report below and answer the following questions.
▪ What is the main conclusion of the passage?
▪ Identify three or four of the main reasons which the passage offers to support the
conclusion that car chases should be banned.
▪ What grounds does the author have for saying that the police policy ‘emphasizes
the stupidity’ of car chases?
▪ What two explanations does the passage offer as to why the policy is ‘ineffective’?

________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________

67
C. A business dispute. Read the argument ‘Party time Star Accused of Stealing Song.’
Decide how credible is the testimony given by each of the following:
▪ Magnolia
▪ Sarah Berry
▪ Paco
▪ Jon Rudenko.

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Consider the following in your analysis.
▪ How reliable do you consider Jan Ewbank’s article to be in its reporting of the dispute?
▪ On what grounds might someone question its reliability?
▪ Imagine you were an informal jury considering the evidence contained in the article.
What would your verdict be, and why?
▪ Assess the language used by the author Jan Ewbank. Do you consider it to be a fair and
neutral report, or judgmental, perhaps even biased?
▪ What evidence is there, if any, of partiality towards one side or the other?

_______________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________

69
70
71
 Answer Key.
Activity 5:
Procedures and strategies
Start with the general claim, on the card, that: [1] No more than one of the statements on
each envelope is false. This also tells you that: [1a] At least one of the statements on each
envelope must be true. Negative statements can be confusing to work with. A positive
statement may express the information more practically. Just rewording statements from
negative to positive helps you to organize your thoughts.

Now let’s look at the envelopes and ask what more we can learn from the clues on them.
Here are some suggestions: [2] Statements B and F are both true or both false (because
they say the same thing). [3] A and E cannot both be true. (You only have to look at them
to see why.) Taking these two points together, we can ask questions.
‘What if B and F were both false?’ Well, it would mean A and E would both have to be true,
because (as we know from [1a]) at least one statement on each envelope has to be true.
We know from [3], A and E cannot both be true (because no key can be solid silver and
solid brass). Therefore: [4] B and F must be true: the key is not in envelope X: it is in either Y
or Z.

Now all the clues we need are on envelope Y. Using reasoning again we ask:
▪ What if the key were in Y? Well, then C and D would both be false.
▪ But we know (from [1b]) that they can’t both be false.
▪ Therefore, the key must be in envelope Z.

Activity 6:
Here is the "correct" order, which was put together by the experts at the US Coast Guard
(from most to least important):
1. Shaving mirror. (One of your most powerful tools, because you can use it to signal
your location by reflecting the sun.)
2. Can of petrol. (Again, potentially vital for signalling as petrol floats on water and can
be lit by your matches.)
3. Water container. (Essential for collecting water to restore your lost fluids.)
4. Emergency rations. (Valuable for basic food intake.)
5. Plastic sheet. (Could be used for shelter, or to collect rainwater.)
6. Here are the rest:
7. Fishing rod. (Potentially useful, but there is no guarantee that you're able to catch fish.
Could also feasibly double as a tent pole.)
8. Rope. (Handy for tying equipment together, but not necessarily vital for survival.)

72
9. Shark repellent. (Potentially important when in the water.)
10. Bottle of rum. (Could be useful as an antiseptic for treating injuries, but will only
dehydrate you if you drink it.)
11. Radio. (Chances are that you're out of range of any signal, anyway.)
12. Sea chart. (Worthless without navigational equipment.)
13. Mosquito net. (Assuming that you've been shipwrecked in the Atlantic, where there are
no mosquitoes, this is pretty much useless.)

Activity 7 answers.
a. Valid
b. Invalid
c. Invalid
d. Valid
e. Valid

Activity 8 answer.
a. Standard Form.
▪ Premise 1: Driving on the left can result in accidents involving drivers from other
countries who are used to driving on the right. (independent)

▪ Premise 2: Pedestrians are also at risk because they might look the wrong way when
trying to cross the road. (independent)

▪ Premise 3. Countries that drive on the left are in the minority (independent - support
for main conclusion)

▪ Intermediate conclusion. Cities should be safer if the rules were the same for all
countries. (Is a conclusion supported by

▪ Premise 1, Premise 2. Is a direct support for main conclusion).

▪ Conclusion. The countries that drive on the left should change over to drive on the
right.

Argument map.
▪ Premise 1: is independent and supports
o the intermediate conclusion.
▪ Premise 2: is independent and supports the
o intermediate conclusion.
▪ Premise 3: is independent but does not
support

73
 o the intermediate conclusion. Instead
▪ supports the main conclusion.
o Intermediate conclusion: directly supports the main conclusion.

▪ Premise 1. Marriage is becoming unfashionable. [main conclusion]

▪ Premise 2. Divorce rate is at an all-time high. [independent]
▪ Premise 3. Cohabitation is increasingly presented in a positive manner in the media.
[intermediate conclusion]
▪ Premise 4. Movies are full of characters who live together and unwilling to commit to
a lifelong partnership. [support for premise 3]
▪ Premise 5. Even newspaper columnists recommend people to live together for an
extended period before marriage in order to test their compatibility. [support for
premise 3]

Activity 9. Fallacies
a. Ad Hominem
b. Band Wagon
c. Strawman
d. Slippery slope
e. Hasty generalization
f. Plead to pity
g. Appeal to ignorance
h. False dilemma

Activity 11.
The Wright Brothers:
This is a typical critical thinking question, and one you will be asked in one form or another
many times on different topics. This commentary will give you an idea, in quite basic terms,
of the kind of critical responses you should be making.

Firstly, with any document, you need to be clear what it is saying, and what it is doing. We
know from this article’s style that it is journalistic. But perhaps the most important point to
make about it is that it is an argument. It is an attempt to persuade the reader: the Wright
brothers were not the first to fly a powered airplane. That claim is, as we have seen, made in
the headline.

The article gives four reasons to support the claim. Two obvious questions need answering:
(a) whether the claims in the article are believable; and (b) whether they support the headline

74
claim.
You cannot know if the claims are true unless you have done some research. But it can be
said with some confidence that they are believable. For one thing they could easily be
checked. As it happens, most if not all the claims in the first four paragraphs are basically
true.

Firstly, there are people who believe that Whitehead flew planes successfully before 1903.
Not one of the claims is a first-hand record of a confirmed and dated Whitehead flight
pre-1903. All the evidence consists of is a list of people who said that Whitehead flew.
Author Jacey Dare reports that author Stella Randolf wrote that Louis Daravich said that he
flew with Whitehead. Such evidence is inherently weak. It is what lawyers call ‘hearsay’
evidence. Here are three more negative points that you could have made, and quite
probably did make.

Firstly, the photograph of Whitehead’s plane does not show it in the air. The Wrights’ Flyer,
by contrast, is doing exactly what its name implies: flying. ‘No. 21’ might have flown. But
that is not the same as a photograph of it in flight; and had there been such a photograph,
surely Jacey Dare would have used it in preference to one that shows the machine
stationary and on the ground. The clear implication is that there is no photograph of a
Whitehead machine airborne.

Secondly, the New York Herald report is not a first-hand account: it quotes a single
unnamed ‘witness’, but the reporter himself clearly was not there, or he would have given
his own account.

Thirdly Stella Randolf’s article and book were published 34 years after the alleged flight of
‘No. 21’, and the testimony of Louis Daravich was not made public until then either. Why?
There are many possible reasons; but one, all-too plausible reason is that it simply wasn’t
true.

Another major weakness in Jacey Dare’s argument is that the evidence she provides does
not give sufficiently compelling grounds for rewriting the record books. However, it raises
a question mark over the Wright brothers’ claim to fame. For even if the argument fails to
show that they were not the first to fly, it doesn’t follow that they were. Lack of evidence
for something does not prove that it is false, or that the opposite is true.

On that reading, the wording of the headline is just down to journalistic style. If we
understand it as a ‘punchy’ title and take the last sentence of the article as the real

75
conclusion, then perhaps Jacey Dare has a point.
Whichever judgement you come to in the end, you have now had a taste of critical
thinking, and of two of its core components: analyzing (or interpreting) an argument and
evaluating it.

b. Thrill of the Chase.

The conclusion is in the first paragraph, and you should have had no problem identifying it:
‘The police should be prohibited from carrying out these car chases.’ The two sentences
before the conclusion are introductory and explanatory.

You could have chosen any or all the following as the main reasons offered in support of
the conclusion:
▪ Car chases have led to the deaths of car thieves and innocent bystanders.
▪ The police drivers’ judgement as to whether their speed is safe will become unreliable.
▪ By the time the police driver judges that his speed is unsafe, he will have pushed the
pursued driver well beyond his limit of competence.
▪ Saving lives is more important than preventing thefts of cars.
▪ The police would be more profitably employed trying to catch serious criminals.
▪ There are other (safe) ways of stopping stolen cars.
▪ Sometimes the car chases are unsuccessful.

Note that these reasons have simply been extracted from the passage and listed. A list like
this doesn’t show how the argument is structured, or how the reasons are grouped
together to form sub-arguments within the whole argument. Nor does the list show all the
claims that are made in the passage.

For example, it doesn’t include the claim that car chases can be fun (paragraph 3). This is
because it is not one of the main reasons. Yes, it contributes to the argument by helping to
explain why police drivers may drive too fast for safety, namely because they enjoy it. But
by itself it does not provide any grounds for believing that car chases should be banned.
We would therefore classify the claim about car chases being fun as an indirect reason,
leading to an intermediate conclusion, rather than directly to the main conclusion.

Similarly, the last half-sentence, after the dash, explains in what sense car chases are
sometimes unsuccessful. It is the claim that they are sometimes unsuccessful (as well as
dangerous and time-wasting) which is a main premise here and therefore makes it into the
list.

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Finally, of course, there are some claims that are not reasons at all, or conclusions, but have
other functions in the passage. The first sentence of paragraph 2 is a good example. It
offers no support at all for the conclusion, either directly or indirectly. Its role is to set up
an objection that an opponent – in this case the police – might wish to make. The
objection is that they, the police, have a policy of stopping the chase if it becomes too fast
for safety, and that therefore they are not putting the public at unnecessary risk.

The author claims that the policy is both ineffective and stupid and devotes the middle
three paragraphs of the passage to supporting these claims. The next pair of questions
focuses on this section of the argument

The question also asked you to identify the explanations that are offered for the policy’s
failure to work. There are two of these. The first is that police officers find the chase exciting,
and that this affects their judgement about safety. The second is that whereas the police
driver is likely to be competent to drive safely at high speed, the pursued driver has little
driving experience, so that the officer will overestimate what is a safe speed for the car thief.

The author concludes that not only is the policy ineffective, but that it is ‘easy to
understand why’. How successful is this reasoning? (This was not part of the question you
were asked, but it is part of the next one.) Like all arguments, its success depends not just
on what is stated but also on what is assumed, and whether the assumptions that the
argument rests on are warranted assumptions

c. Party time Star Accused of Stealing Song

Responses will vary.
The most important items are the two songs, including the chords, and what can be
inferred reliably from the similarities and/or differences between them.

Obviously what Ewbank writes is hearsay, not direct testimony. She is reporting what those
involved in the case have said when interviewed, and in response to questions.
However, she is allegedly quoting them directly in many cases. She also produces some
factual evidence, such as the content of Berry’s scrapbook, and the song itself.

These factors need to be considered when deciding how reliable her report is.

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Backmatter.
This workbook is for the use of students who are studying Effective Global Communication
in the class with A. Nicola.

This workbook is NOT to be copied or altered without permission from the author.
Contact nicola@go.buu.ac.th

Additional material will be added by the instructor, for extra information and learning
activities.

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