HUMAN RELATIONS

CATERING AND ACCOMODATION DIPLOMA

Human relations
  is an important part to our career success. It is defined as relations with or between people,
particularly in a workplace setting. Because a company depends on good 

human relations

 through its organizational structure, developing these skills is important.

Technology has greatly impacted 

human relations

 because so much of our communication occurs without the advantage of seeing body
language. This can result in miscommunications.

IMPORTANCE OF HUMAN RELATIONS

Relationships between employees and management are of substantial value in any

workplace. Human relations is the process of training employees, addressing their needs,
fostering a workplace culture and resolving conflicts between different employees or between
employees and management. Understanding some of the the ways that human relations can
impact the costs, competitiveness and long-term economic sustainability of a business helps
to underscore their importance.
Employees collaboration with the workplace culture

Human relations in the workplace are a major part of what makes a business work.
Employees must frequently work together on projects, communicate ideas and provide
motivation to get things done. Without a stable and inviting workplace culture, difficult
challenges can arise both in the logistics of managing employees and in the bottom
line. Businesses with engaging workplaces and a well-trained workforce are more
likely to retain and attract qualified employees, foster loyalty with customers and more
quickly adapt to meet the needs of a changing marketplace.
Improving employee’s retention
The quality of workplace relations is critical to employee retention. Employee retention may
seem trivial – especially in a workplace that is used to a high turnover – but managers must
remember that turnover is financially very costly. Every new employee requires a substantial
investment of time and energy in their recruitment and training.
Motivation and productivity
Workplace relationships provide a source of employee motivation, which is important to
maintaining productivity. Employees who are interested in their work and in the well-being of
other employees tend to be more productive than those who are not. This productivity pays
obvious financial dividends to the company, as it can get more done in less time with fewer
costs. Building relationships, by both recognizing an employee's value to the company and a
concern for their needs, often goes a long way.

Fostering employee’s productivity

The modern business environment often rewards businesses that are able to quickly develop
products that meet changing consumer needs. In some industries – such as technology, for
example – employees' ability to come up with effective new ideas is often the difference
between the entire company's success and failure. Employees' creativity is often dependent
on their ability to communicate with other employees and share ideas. Without quality
workplace relationships, employees are less likely to be able to develop and share the
solutions that a business needs to survive.

Emergency of human relations

The human relations movement was born from the Hawthorne studies, which were conducted
by Elton Mayo and Fritz Roethlisberger from 1924 to 1932. Originally, the studies focused on
how physical conditions, like lighting, affected workers' productivity, but the studies found that
one of the biggest factors influencing employees' performance was whether they were being
observed by others.
In other words, relationships between workers and management affect employee efficiency. If
workers are being analyzed by their boss, they will be more motivated to do well – a
phenomenon known as the Hawthorne effect.
Being part of a group and having a specific responsibility in that group also increased
employees' motivation. Workers want to feel that their personal goals align with their team's
overall goals and that their work is valuable.
Theory x and theory y
Management professor Douglas McGregor later created Theory X and Theory Y, two opposing
perceptions of employee motivation. Here are the basics of the two theories, according to
McGregor's 1960 book The Human Side of Enterprise:
Theory X: Negative outlook on workers
Management is responsible for organizing company components in the interest of economic
ends.
Managers should direct workers' efforts, motivate them, control their actions and modify their
behavior to suit organizational needs.
Managers must persuade, reward, punish and control workers to stop passiveness and
resistance.
Theory Y: Positive outlook on workers
Management is responsible for organizing company components in the interest of economic
ends.
Passiveness or resistance to organizational needs develop with experience in organizations.
Motivation, potential for development, capacity for assuming responsibility and readiness to
direct behavior toward organizational goals are naturally instilled in people.
Above all, management should focus on creating a system where workers can achieve their
own goals in line with company objectives.
Theory Y shared similarities with the human relations movement, noting that workers can be
trusted and are naturally motivated and efficient. However, American psychologist Abraham
Maslow had developed a theory of hierarchical needs, which McGregor referred to in his book,
to indicate employee incentives to perform well. From lowest to highest in the hierarchy, those
are physiological needs, safety needs, social needs, ego needs and self-fulfillment needs.
The two theories were important additions to management studies, and the human relations
movement progressed by aligning individual needs with organizational needs.

Essentials of human relations

Treat work naturally. Try to encourage employees to treat work just as naturally as

they would resting or playing. After all, this is one of the central points of human
relationship management. They are exercising their skills in a professional environment.
The more that employees can treat work as a natural state, the easier this will become.

Share the big picture. Try to share the overall theme and big picture of the job with
employees. Everyone wants to feel valued, and they want to know that their work is
contributing to larger successes. When employees can see how they fit into the big
picture, they will be more motivated.

Give employees more power. Everyone wants to feel independent, and nobody wants
to feel like someone is constantly looking over their shoulder. Therefore, push
employees to innovate and make independent decisions when appropriate.

Train employees, and develop their skills accordingly. Employees who feel like the
company is investing in them are more likely to perform better. As they grow, increase
their freedom and responsibilities as well.

Reward success. Recognize employees when they do well. Nobody wants to feel like
their work is being ignored. Therefore, reward employees and success, and make sure
they know their hard work is being noticed. This will encourage others to work hard to
achieve company goals as well.
 END OF TOPIC

TOPIC 2

SOCIAL ORGANISATION

 social organization is a pattern of relationships between and among individuals and social groups.

Characteristics of social organization can include qualities such as sexual composition,

cohesion, leadership, structure, division of labor, communication systems, and so on.

And because of these characteristics of social organization, people can monitor their everyday work and
involvement in other activities that are controlled forms of human interaction. These interactions
include: affiliation, collective resources, substitutability of individuals and recorded control. These
interactions come together to constitute common features in basic social units such as family,
enterprises, clubs, states, etc. These are social organizations.

Factors determining social satrisfaction

Social stratification is a particular form of social inequality. All societies arrange their members in terms
of superiority, inferiority and equality. Stratification is a process of interaction or differentiation whereby
some people come to rank higher than others.

Main factors which affect social change can be discussed a follow:

1. Natural Factors

Natural forces and factors play an important role in unifying or disintegrating the society. Although human
beings have made tremendous progress during the last 150 years or so, yet they have not been able to
wield full control over the nature.

A storm, earthquake, flood, drought, disease and similar natural events even today can disrupt the social
system. Natural calamities like floods, earthquakes, draughts, famines and other natural disasters always
force changes in the social conditions and life of the affected people

2. Geographical Factors of Social Change

The geographical conditions always affect the social system and act as factors of social change. The
cultural life of the people depends upon the physical environment. Progress also depends upon the
availability of natural resources, their exploitation and how are these being recouped and preserved

It is necessary to remember that physical environment changes slowly and in a society social change can
come at a fast rate. As such geographic factors are not the sole determining factors of social change.

3. Biological Factors

Biological factors also affect social change. Biological factors are those factors which determine the
structure, selection and hereditary qualities of generations. The human element is ever changing. Each
new generation is different from previous generation. It is different in form, ideas and in many other ways
from the one gone before.
Darwin and Spencer are of the opinion that each generation and its members have to compromise with
the physical environment. Only those persons survive in the struggle for life who are fit and are able to
live, or those, in other words, who have the ability to face the physical conditions. The weak ones get
destroyed. The process of the survival of the fittest affects the social organization.

4. Demographic Factors:

The Demographic factors always influence the process and nature of Social Change. The population
increase or decrease always brings social problems. When the birth-rate in a society exceeds death-rate,
population begins to rise. A constantly rising population gives birth to poverty, unemployment, disease
and several other related problems.

On the other hand, a low birth-rate means leads to decrease in the size of the population. When
population is low, there are fewer skilled hands available and the country cannot make full use of the
natural resources. The social conditions deteriorate the size of families shrink and it affects the social
relations.

Even the sex ratio of in a society greatly influences social order. When in a society the number of women
is more than men, the custom of polygamy sets in. On the contrary, if there are more men than women, it
often gives rise to polyandry. When women outnumber men, dowry system becomes common, when men
outnumber women the custom of bride valuation starts.

5. Socio-economic Factors:

The economic factors constitute an important factor of social change. Marx said that the entire social
structure of a country is determined by economic factors i.e the means of production and distribution of
material means of production and distribution. When there are changes in the means of production i.e the
material productive forces of society, it is always changes the social organization.

6. Cultural Factors

7. Science and Technology as factors of Social Change.

Meaning and characteristics of beauracracy

Bureaucracy, specific form of organization defined by complexity, division of labour, permanence,

professional management, hierarchical coordination and control, strict chain of command, and legal
authority. It is distinguished from informal and collegial organizations. 

Command and control

Bureaucracies have clear lines of command and control. Bureaucratic authority is organized

hierarchically, with responsibility taken at the top and delegated with decreasing discretion below.
Because of the risk of organizational parochialism produced by limited and specific
jurisdictional competencies, the capacity to coordinate and control the multiplicity of units is essential.
Authority is the glue that holds together diversity and prevents units from exercising unchecked
discretion. Yet, few features of bureaucratic life have received so much adverse attention as the role of
hierarchical authority as a means for achieving organizational command and control.
Popular criticisms emphasize that hierarchical organization strangles creative impulses and injects hyper-
cautious modes of behaviour based on expectations of what superiors may desire. Command and control,
which are necessary to coordinate the disparate elements of bureaucratic organization, provide for
increasing responsibility upward, delegation, and decreasing discretion downward.
Continuity

Continuity is another key element of bureaucratic organization. Rational-legal authority necessitates

uniform rules and procedures for written documents and official behaviour. A bureaucracy’s files (i.e., its
past records) provide it with organizational memory, thereby enabling it to follow precedent and standard
operating procedures. The ability to utilize standard operating procedures makes organizations more
efficient by decreasing the costs attached to any given transaction. Organizational files record
procedures, antecedent behaviour, and personnel records. They also allow an organization to be
continuous and, thus, independent of any specific leadership. On the whole, continuity is vital to an
organization’s capacity to retain its identity and even its culture. Without its records, it would be
impossible to maintain transactions grounded in legality. Yet continuity also has a dysfunctional side,
leading organizations to behave predictably and conservatively or, worse perhaps, merely reflexively.
Continuity also may lead a bureaucracy to repeat regularly activities that may be inaccurate and whose
inaccuracies thereby cumulate.

Professionalization

Professionalization of management, another basic element of bureaucracy, requires a full-time corps of

officials whose attention is devoted exclusively to its managerial responsibilities. In government,
professionalization is vested in the corps of civil servants whose positions have generally been obtained
through the passage of tests based upon merit. The civil service is sometimes considered a permanent
government, distinct from the transient politicians who serve only for a limited time and at the pleasure of
the electorate in democratic political systems.

In businesses and in other nongovernmental bureaucratic organizations, there is also a professional cadre
of managers. Professionalization increases expertise and continuity within the organization. Even when
organizations are temporarily leaderless or experience turmoil in their top leadership positions, the
professional cadre helps to maintain an organizational equilibrium. The virtues of professionalization are
clear: without a professional corps, organizations would suffer from crises induced by incompetency.
Professionalization thus contributes to the superior technical proficiency that Weber claimed was the
hallmark of bureaucratic organization.

Rules

Rules are the lifeblood of bureaucratic organization, providing a rational and continuous basis for
procedures and operations. An organization’s files provide the inventory of accumulated rules.
Bureaucratic decisions and—above all—procedures are grounded in codified rules and precedents.
Although most people dislike rules that inhibit them, the existence of rules is characteristic of legal-
rational authority, ensuring that decisions are not arbitrary, that standardized procedures are not
readily circumvented, and that order is maintained. Rules are the essence of bureaucracy but are also
the bane of leaders who want to get things done their way instantly.

Division of Labor

Ideally, organizational tasks are assigned in bureaucracies according to the specialized skills of the
employees and the most efficient method of accomplishing goals. That's a lot of “ideality,” and in many
bureaucracies, rules and structures become rigid and employees end up defending their job functions
the way animals defend their turf. A well-designed organization develops realistic job descriptions and
evaluative practices to guide employees and encourage collaboration rather than empire building.

Achievement-Based Advancement

As 20th century Europe urbanized, failures, such as the series of miscues following the assassination
of the Austrian archduke that led to World War I, contributed to the rise of hierarchies based on
competency. Advancement within or between the levels of bureaucracies were based on achievement
and competency rather than influence or favor, as in traditional hierarchies. Meeting organizational and
production goals benefit not just the bureaucracy but also its customers, clients or those otherwise
dependent on its work. The “publish or perish” imperative, for example, measures achievement only
when what is published enlarges knowledge or aids the cause.

Efficient Operations

Efficiency was, Weber insisted, one of the hallmarks of a bureaucracy. This might include harnessing
technology in the office or factory, but it also applied to allocating resources and determining the most
efficient way of producing products, delivering services or otherwise achieving the organization's goals.
Regular evaluation of written rules and procedures, employee effectiveness and job function are all
parts of forging an efficient bureaucracy.

Impersonal Environment
Bureaucracies depend on job descriptions and merit-based advancement, which is an improvement
over feudal hereditary or charismatic absolutism. The emphasis on achievement and efficiency,
however, can lead to the inability to respond to individual situations or needs and can concentrate
power in the positions at the top of the hierarchy. Vigilance against limitations caused by “red tape” help
keep a bureaucracy efficient, and involving employees in decision-making, evaluation and goal-setting
at each level helps them become committed to creating a responsive organization.

Principles of organization

Principle of unity of objectives: Organizational goals, departmental goals, and individual goals must be
clearly defined. All goals and objectives must have uniformity. When there is contradiction among
different level of goals desired goals can’t be achieved. Therefore, unity of objectives is necessary

2. Principle of specialization:  Sound and effective organization believes on organization. The term
specialization is related to work and employees. When an employee takes special type of knowledge and
skill in any area, it is known as specialization. Modern business organization needs the specialization,
skill and knowledge by this desired sector of economy and thus, efficiency would be established.

3. Principle of coordination: In an organization many equipment, tools are used. Coordination can be
obtained by group effort that emphasize on unity of action. Therefore, coordination facilitates in several
management concepts

4. Principle of authority: Authority is the kind of right and power through which it guides and directs the
actions of others so that the organizational goals can be achieved. It is also related with decision-making.
It is vested in particular position, not to the person because authority is given by an institution and
therefore it is legal. It generally flows from higher level to the lowest level of management. There should
be unbroken line of authority.

5. Principle of responsibility: Authentic body of an organization is top-level management, top-level

management direct the subordinates. Departmental managers and other personnel take the direction
from top-level management to perform the task. Authority is necessary to perform the work .only
authority is not provided to the people but obligation is also provided. So the obligation to perform the
duties and task is known as responsibility. Responsibility can’t be delegated. It can’t be avoided.
6. Principle of delegation: Process of transferring authority and creation of responsibility between
superior and subordinates to accomplish a certain task is called delegation of authority. Authority is only
delegated, not responsibilities in all levels of management. The authority delegated should be equal to
responsibility

7. Principle of efficiency: In enterprise different resources are used. These resources must be used in
effective manner. When the organization fulfills the objectives with minimum cost, it is effective.
Organization must always concentrate on efficiency.

8. Principle of unity of command:  subordinates should receive orders from single superior at a time and
all subordinates should be accountable to that superior. More superior leads to confusion, delay and so
on.

9. Principle of span of control: unlimited subordinates can’t be supervised by manager, this principle
thus helps to determine numerical limit if subordinates to be supervised by a manager. This improves
efficiency.

10. Principle of balance: the functional activities their establishment and other performances should be
balanced properly. Authority, centralization, decentralization must be balance equally. This is very
challenging job but efficient management must keep it.

11. Principle of communication:  Communication is the process of transformation of information from

one person to another of different levels. It involves the systematic and continuous process of telling,
listening and understanding opinions ideas, feelings, information, views etc, in flow of information.
Effective communication is important

12. Principle of personal ability: for sound organization, human resources is important. Employees must
be capable. Able employees can perform higher. Mainly training and development programs must be
encouraged to develop the skill in the employees

13. Principle of flexibility:  organizational structure must be flexible considering the environmental

dynamism. Sometimes, dramatically change may occur in the organization and in that condition,
organization should be ready to accept the change

14. Principle of simplicity: This principle emphasizes the simplicity of organizational structure, the
structure of organization should be simple with minimum number of levels so that its member can
understand duties and authorities.

Importance of social organization

For the proper functioning of society, it has to work out some mechanism by which people engaged in
different occupations get different recognition. If each activity is associated with same type of economic
returns and prestige, there will be no competition for different occupations.

Stratification is that system by which different positions are hierarchically divided. Such a system has
given rise to different classes like Upper, Middle, Working and Lower or caste groups like Brahmins,
Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Sudras. The importance of stratification can be seen with regard to the
functions it performs for the individual and society.

I. For the Individual:

No doubt system of stratification is applicable to the whole society yet it serves some functions for the
individual also.

1. Competition:

Individuals based on their attributes compete with each other and only those individuals who have
better attributes get greater recognition. This may be in the field of sports, education, occupation etc.

2. Recognition of Talent:

The persons with more training skills, experience and education are given better positions. The
deserving individuals are not treated at par with deserving candidates. Such a system helps people to
acquire better talents.

3. Motivation:

The system of stratification motivates the individuals to work hard so that they can improve upon their
social status. It is more true in case of those societies in which statuses are achieved.

4. Job Satisfaction:

As the jobs are given to the individuals according to their skills and education, the workers get job
satisfaction. In case, a person with higher qualification is not allowed to move higher in the social ladder,
he feels dissatisfied with his job.

5. Mobility:

The system of achieved status also provides an opportunity for upward and downward mobility. Those
persons who work hard and are intelligent move up in the social ladder. On the other hand, those who
fail to come up to the expectations move downward. Hence, the possibility of change in the position
keeps the people always alert and makes them work hard.

II. Functions for the Society:

The system of social stratification is also useful for the progress and the well-being of the society. This
can be seen if we take into account two forms of stratification.

1. Ascriptive Form of Stratification:

Under the caste system, the status of the individual is fixed at birth and different castes are
hierarchically arranged. However, even within the caste system those members who perform their caste
roles effectively and efficiently occupy higher’ status. On the other hand, those members who do not
perform their role properly occupy lower status even when they belong to the same caste. This
functional base has given rise to sub castes. In other words, one caste is further divided into different
sub castes and these sub castes are hierarchically divided within a caste group.
Fixation of status of a caste group also facilitates better training of the members. As the members are
made aware about the future roles, they start getting training from the childhood. Such a situation was
more applicable in the traditional societies where knowledge was foil knowledge and it could be
acquired through membership of a caste group.

In this way we find that under ascriptive form of stratification, society was being well-served and there
was interdependence of the caste because of the specialization of their roles.

2. Achieved Form:

Under the achieved form of social stratification, the social statuses are assigned according to the worth
of the individual. This system serves the following functions for the society:

(a) Occupational Hierarchy:

Depending upon the importance of a particular occupation, different occupations are hierarchically
divided. The occupations which are very important for the well-being of the society are associated with
high prestige and those occupations which do not need specialized training are given low status. Such a
system is free from confusion, and motivates the people to work hard, so that they could take up
occupations of high prestige.

(b) Division according to Intelligence:

All persons are not equal with regard to their intelligence. Those persons with higher level of intelligence
can perform more complicated functions of the society. Hence they are provided with different
opportunities and high prestige.

(c) Training:

Society makes elaborate arrangements for the training of younger generation. Those who spend more
time on training and acquiring new skills are compensated with high returns. Even though such persons
start working later yet the economic returns and social prestige associated with their work is higher than
others.

(d) Work Efficiency:

Persons with appropriate knowledge and training occupy appropriate positions. Hence, their work
efficiency is also higher. Under this system there is no place for parasites and those who shirk work. The
fittest to survive is the rule which is followed.

(e) Development:

The competition to move higher in the social ladder has resulted into new inventions, new methods of
work and greater efficiency. This system has led to progress and development of the country. The
Western societies are highly developed; it is attributed to the fact that these societies adopted open
system of stratification.

In this way we find that system of stratification helps in the progress of the society. There are some
sociologists who are of the opinion that social stratification is also associated with dysfunctions e.g.
giving rise to frustration, anxiety and mental tension. In short, we can say that social stratification has
both positive and negative functions. But no society can survive unless it has some system of
stratification.

END OF TOPIC
NEW TOPIC 3

MOBILIZATION AND EMPLOYEES’ MORALE

Motivation is an important factor which encourages persons to give their best performance and help in
reaching enterprise goals. A strong positive motivation will enable the increased output of employees
but a negative motivation will reduce their performance. A key element in personnel management is
motivation.

Theories of motivation
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Abraham Maslow postulated that a person will be motivated when his needs are fulfilled. The
need starts from the lowest level basic needs and keeps moving up as a lower level need is
fulfilled. Below is the hierarchy of needs:

Physiological:  Physical survival necessities such as food, water, and shelter.

Safety:  Protection from threats, deprivation, and other dangers.

Social (belongingness and love):  The need for association, affiliation, friendship, and so on.

Self-esteem:  The need for respect and recognition.

Self-actualization:  The opportunity for personal development, learning, and fun/creative/challenging

work.  Self-actualization is the highest level need  to which a human being can aspire.

The leader will have to understand the specific need of every individual in the team and
accordingly work to help fulfil their needs. 
2. Hertzberg’s two factor theory

Hertzberg classified the needs into two broad categories namely hygiene factors and motivating
factors.

Hygiene factors are needed to make sure that an employee is not dissatisfied. Motivation
factors are needed for ensuring employee's satisfaction and employee’s motivation for higher
performance. Mere presence of hygiene factors does not guarantee  motivation, and presence
of motivation factors in the absence of hygiene factors also does not work.
3. McClelland’s theory of needs
McClelland affirms that we all have three motivating drivers, and it does not depend on our
gender or age. One of these drives will be dominant in our behaviour. The dominant drive
depends on our life experiences. 
The three motivators are:

Achievement: a need to accomplish and demonstrate own competence People with a high need for
achievement prefer tasks that provide for personal responsibility and results based on their own efforts.
They also prefer quick acknowledgement of their progress.

Affiliation: a need for love, belonging and social acceptance People with a high need for affiliation are
motivated by being liked and accepted by others.  They tend to participate in social gatherings and may
be uncomfortable with conflict.

Power: a need for control own work or the work of others People with a high need for power desire
situations in which they exercise power and influence over others.  They aspire for positions with status
and authority and tend to be more concerned about their level of influence than about effective work
performance.
4. Vroom’s theory of expectancy

Victor Vroom stated that people will be highly productive and motivated if two conditions are
met:  1) people believe it is likely that their efforts will lead to successful results and 2) those
people also believe they will be rewarded for their success.
People will be motivated to exert a high level of effort when they believe there are relationships
between the efforts they put forth, the performance they achieve, and the outcomes/ rewards
they receive.
5. McGregor’s theory X and theory Y

Douglas McGregor formulated two distinct views of human being based on participation of
workers. The first is basically negative, labelled as Theory X, and the other is basically positive,
labelled as Theory Y. Both kinds of people exist. Based on their nature they need to be
managed accordingly.

Theory X:  The traditional view of the work force holds that workers are inherently lazy, self-centered,
and lacking ambition.  Therefore, an appropriate management style is strong, top-down control.

Theory Y:  This view postulates that workers are inherently motivated and eager to accept responsibility.
An appropriate management style is to focus on creating a productive work environment coupled with
positive rewards and reinforcement.
Conclusion

Motivation is the state of mind which pushes all human being to perform things with the highest
spirit and with positivity. The leader will have to ensure that every individual in the team and the
organization is motivated. The various motivation theories helps in understanding what will
motivate people.
 Approaches to Motivation in the Workplace

When you analyze theories and models of motivation and their application in the workplace, you may
notice that all of them fall into two categories that Psychology Today describes as intrinsic motivation
and extrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic motivation is when we do something because it is enjoyable. We are happy to do whatever it

is, whether we are paid or not. For example, when you hire a kitchen employee who loves to make
jam at home and then give them the opportunity to make jam from scratch at work, they are
intrinsically motivated by their enjoyment of the activity itself.

Extrinsic motivation is when we do something because of an external reward or recognition. When an

employee wants to earn certain marks on their next review so that they're eligible for promotion, they
increase their performance due to extrinsic motivation. The review marks and promotion provide an
external reward and recognition.

Often, the application of motivation theories in organizations involves some combination of both
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Different approaches are appropriate for different situations and
with different personalities.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

One of the best places to start analyzing theories and models of motivation and their application in
the workplace is Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Of all the types of approaches to motivation in
workplaces, this is probably the most famous. Maslow's needs form a pyramid with physiological
needs at the base and self-actualization needs at the top. Simply Psychology lists the needs as:

Physiological needs: Water, food, sleep, shelter

Safety and security needs: Financial security, employment, housing, health

Love and belonging needs: Relationships at home, with friends and at work

Self-esteem or status needs: Recognition, raise at work, prizes

Self-actualization needs: Living out dreams and potential

The most basic physiological, safety and love needs are intrinsic in nature, while status and self-
actualization needs are extrinsic. To meet the extrinsic needs, you must first address the intrinsic
ones.

In your small business, this means looking at your team's physiological, security, and belonging needs
before introducing things such as recognition or coaching. Offer a living wage and ensure that your
employees have what they need to care for their health and feel they belong. Introduce company
picnics, health benefits, and referrals for financial planners, housing professionals and more.

After the most basic intrinsic needs are met, consider addressing extrinsic motivation through:

Sales competitions

Recognition events
Raises

Coaching and mentoring

Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Herzberg's motivation-hygiene theory uses different categories than Maslow's hierarchy of needs and
is less concerned with an employee's life outside of work. According to the  MindTools website, the
theory still addresses intrinsic needs before extrinsic needs. As you analyze theories and models of
motivation and their application in the workplace, this is a pattern you see repeatedly. When in doubt,
ask yourself what needs you need to address for an employee before they exhibit the level of
motivation you need for success.

Herzberg uses the categories of hygiene and motivation to increase motivation, and this model insists
that hygiene needs must be met before motivation is possible. When hygiene is addressed, job
dissatisfaction decreases, and when motivation is met, job satisfaction increases. These are how
things break down in this model:

Hygiene: security, status, working conditions, interpersonal relationships, supervision, company policy,
administration

Motivation: growth, advancement, responsibility, enjoyable work, recognition, achievement

McClelland's Human Motivation Theory

McClelland's human motivation theory assumes that people have one of three driving needs,
depending on their life experiences. According to Mind Tools, they are:

Achievement: Extrinsically motivated by rewards, recognition and quick affirmation

Affiliation: Intrinsically motivated by a need for love, belonging and relationship

Power: Extrinsically motivated by power, status, and control over their own work or others' work

McClelland's approach to applying motivation theories in organizations is not centered around

meeting everyone's intrinsic needs before addressing extrinsic motivation. In a small business, you
identify which driving need each employee has and work with that one driving need.

For example, someone with an affiliation need should be on a team with people they like and with low
conflict. However, someone with an achievement need can work on a higher stress team, as long as
they are provided quick recognition and affirmation of their efforts. Those with power needs can also
thrive on a team with conflict, as long as they have enough control over their own work or are put in a
position of leadership where they can direct others.

Vroom's Theory of Expectancy

Vroom's application of motivation theories in organizations involves addressing intrinsic and extrinsic
needs simultaneously. According to the Management Is a Journey  website, this is done through the
following two beliefs:

People believe they are likely to be successful and reach goals

Those people believe they will be rewarded for their success

Using Vroom's approach is relatively simple for most small-business owners. You might look at your
company's overall goals and break them down into small manageable chunks for each employee,
ensuring you personalize expectations to each person. For example, you might meet with each
employee to determine their strengths and set achievable, customized goals. Then, meet with them
again later to assess their progress and offer rewards or recognition.

When people feel goals are achievable for them, they buy into your company's culture, mission and
values. They feel that what they do makes a difference, which grants them a sense of purpose. Your
consistent and reliable recognition affirms that and makes them want to continue giving their best.

McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y

McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y, as covered on the Management Study Guide  website, describe
two types of people who are likely present in your workplace. Your motivational strategies can be
tailored to one of these two types:

Type X: These people are lazy and focused on themselves. They benefit from top-down leadership and
expectations.

Type Y: These people are self-starters who are intrinsically motivated to give their best. They benefit
from a positive work environment, rewards and recognition.

As a small-business owner, keep tabs on employee behavior and work patterns. For those who would
rather play on their phones than quickly serve a customer, impose top-down expectations and
consequences. For those who go the extra mile for customer satisfaction, ensure they have proper
support on the job and receive the recognition they have earned.

Causes of low morale

Wasted Potential

Low morale would simply result from wasting talent, especially when you hire people for a job that they
are overqualified for or that they have a different set of skills or interests than what their work requires.
In this case, they can get easily bored or frustrated with their tasks, where they would end up being
more concerned about leaving your company rather than doing a good job. Not only this, but it could
also rob them of their ability to reach their true potential. So, find appropriate positions for your
employees to avoid unfavorable results.
2. Poor Employee Treatment

Often cited as a cause of morale issues, poor management can come in many forms, and one of them is
the failure to treat employees appropriately. One example of this is when a manager acts as though an
employee is fortunate enough to have a job, instead of respecting him/her and his/her work.
3. Closed Communication
If your workplace does not allow an open line of communication to the management, then you are
risking staff morale. Making your employees feel like they are kept away from communicating with their
leaders will present opportunities for rumors to break out and will create resentment. This means that
you should often provide your employees with insights into ways of improving office procedures or your
service or product, otherwise you will have legitimate staff issues. If they do not feel comfortable with
approaching your managers or yourself neither have their concerns or ides heard, then you are running
the risk of having problems fester or missing out on creative concepts. Make sure you set up guidelines
that allow your people to know how to discuss issues with other people or privately and never make
them feel like they are doing something wrong by doing so.
4. Unreasonable Workload

While most of your employees understand that workloads can go up and down, requiring a member of
your staff to keep up with unreasonable workload for long periods of time can result to burnout and
resentment. This is especially true when you are downsizing on a recession and simply expecting your
people to take on more work without even recognizing their effort.
5. Not Recognizing Hard Work

While not each of your employees would respond to the same type of recognition, most of them would
be happy to have their efforts recognized in some way. This does not only imply that they are meeting
and even exceeding expectations, but also gives them a sense of accomplishment and pride in their
work.
6. Unclear and Misunderstood Expectations

Confusion can certainly bring down employee morale, where your people would be unmotivated and
frustrated from not knowing what they are working towards. As you can see, you should give regular
feedback to your employees to let them know where they stand and what your expectations from them
are. When employees lack clear guidance, they will tend to perform poorly by your standards and will
experience a decrease in morale as they would start to think they are just wasting their time and the
organization’s as a whole.
7. Ill-Defined Employee Development Plan

When you hire employees, they would have a long-term vision for what roles and responsibilities they
would take as time passes by. When your company and your people are on the same page, then you
should have a clear employee development plans in place, stating that they would be taking on new
roles in the future. The failure to do this will run a high risk of your employees feeling dissatisfied and
being unable to perform to their full potential in their individual tasks. Then, they would begin searching
for other companies to find new opportunities. Thus, you should provide a clear line of how your people
will develop their career with you and achieve their goals.
8. Changing Goals

Understandably, your employees would get frustrated if your set goals are constantly changing,
especially when this occurs even before the first goal is accomplished or when the new goals contradict
the old, which makes obsolete their previous work. Constant changes would also exhaust your
employees who are trying to perform well. Remember that having them to focus all their time and
energy onto accomplishing a certain goal and suddenly discarding it for a new one can result in
discouragement and a sense of lack of accomplishment.
9. Lack of Trust on Employees to Complete Work

Usually, this manifests in micromanagement or in a work environment where employees do not feel
that they have any leeway. Take note that your people would prefer to do their assignments as best as
possible and be allowed to make the right call without having their decisions often called into question.
Respectively, your employees should also feel free to ask questions without receiving negative
repercussions as much as possible.
10. High Turnover Rates

When you are experiencing high turnovers, it would put undue stress on your entire organization, where
the remaining employees would have to pick up the slack. Additionally, this would also cause the
remaining employees to lose confidence in their job security.
Conclusion

Surprisingly, salary does not factor as high as some people might guess when it comes to affecting
morale levels, but it still needs to be reasonable and should reflect employee work quality and
responsibility level, as there would be more issues and frustrations to contend with if unreasonable
compensation is coupled with any of the things listed above. So, make it right and avoid these mishaps
to assure your company of a good level of employee morale.

Measures of improving employee’s morale

Allow employees to work flexible hours. Today, best practice workplaces offer flex-time, part-time, and
work from home options.

Listen to the ideas and advice of your employees. Encourage them to speak up on different issues that
relate to the organization or themselves. Implement their ideas if practical and let people know of their
contribution.

Use mornings to share ideas. Bring in baked goods or provide simple breakfast supplies to kick start the
day and bring the team together. 

A management expert believes that short messages should be delivered in person. Today, we live in an
era where 40 percent of emails don't have value. Rather than emailing the person who sits two floors
down, just go and talk to him/her directly; it strengthens the relationship.

Encourage employees to sit in different parts of your office from time to time. This will offer fresh
perspectives and provide insights on other parts of the organization and the roles people perform.
Offer employees advice on how they can strive to make the best of their careers. Reimburse them for
continuing education courses, professional seminars, and lectures.

Run contests and awards programs. You can set a prize for something as simple as the best customer
feedback received during the month.

Maintain a specific budget for entertainment. Arrange a team to decide the fair allocation of the budget
for each quarter.

Celebrate the birthdays of your employees. It won't cost anything to share these special days on your
intranet or other internal comms tool. And if you've got the budget, decide on a monthly way to
celebrate birthdays with treats or other gestures. 

Keep your workplace working well and reduce unnecessary stress. Make sure office supplies are always
available and the kitchen is stocked with provisions.

END OF TOPIC

NEW TOPIC 4

STRESS
definition

Stress can be defined as any type of change that causes physical, emotional, or
psychological strain. Stress is your body's response to anything that requires attention or
action. 

Everyone experiences stress to some degree. The way you respond to stress, however,
makes a big difference to your overall well-being.

Sometimes, the best way to manage your stress involves changing your situation. At
other times, the best strategy involves changing the way you respond to the situation.

Developing a clear understanding of how stress impacts your physical and mental health is
important. It's also important to recognize how your mental and physical health affects your
stress level.

 Signs

Stress can be short-term or long-term. Both can lead to a variety of symptoms, but chronic
stress can take a serious toll on the body over time and have long-lasting health effects.

Some common signs of stress include:1

Changes in mood
Clammy or sweaty palms

Decreased sex drive

Diarrhea

Difficulty sleeping

Digestive problems

Dizziness

Feeling anxious

Frequent sickness

Grinding teeth

Headaches

Low energy

Muscle tension, especially in the neck and shoulders

Physical aches and pains

Racing heartbeat

Trembling

Identifying Stress

Stress is not always easy to recognize, but there are some ways to identify some signs that
you might be experiencing too much pressure. Sometimes stress can come from an obvious
source, but sometimes even small daily stresses from work, school, family, and friends can
take a toll on your mind and body.

If you think stress might be affecting you, there are a few things you can watch for:

Psychological signs such as difficulty concentrating, worrying, anxiety, and trouble

remembering

Emotional signs such as being angry, irritated, moody, or frustrated

Physical signs such as high blood pressure, changes in weight, frequent colds or

infections, and changes in the menstrual cycle and libido

Behavioral signs such as poor self-care, not having time for the things you enjoy, or
relying on drugs and alcohol to cope

Causes

There are many different things in life that can cause stress. Some of the main sources of
stress include work, finances, relationships, parenting, and day-to-day inconveniences.
Stress can trigger the body’s response to a perceived threat or danger, known as the fight-
or-flight response.2 During this reaction, certain hormones like adrenaline and cortisol are
released. This speeds the heart rate, slows digestion, shunts blood flow to major muscle
groups, and changes various other autonomic nervous functions, giving the body a burst of
energy and strength.

Originally named for its ability to enable us to physically fight or run away when faced with
danger, the fight-or-flight response is now activated in situations where neither response is
appropriate—like in traffic or during a stressful day at work.

When the perceived threat is gone, systems are designed to return to normal function via
the relaxation response.3 But in cases of chronic stress, the relaxation response doesn't
occur often enough, and being in a near-constant state of fight-or-flight can cause damage
to the body.

Stress can also lead to some unhealthy habits that have a negative impact on your health.
For example, many people cope with stress by eating too much or by smoking. These
unhealthy habits damage the body and create bigger problems in the long-term.4

Types of Stress

Not all types of stress are harmful or even negative. Some of the different types of stress
that you might experience include:

Acute stress: Acute stress is a very short-term type of stress that can either be positive or
more distressing; this is the type of stress we most often encounter in day-to-day life.

Chronic stress: Chronic stress is stress that seems never-ending and inescapable, like the
stress of a bad marriage or an extremely taxing job; chronic stress can also stem from
traumatic experiences and childhood trauma.

Episodic acute stress: Episodic acute stress is acute stress that seems to run rampant
and be a way of life, creating a life of ongoing distress.

Eustress: Eustress is fun and exciting. It's known as a positive type of stress that can keep
you energized. It's associated with surges of adrenaline, such as when you are skiing or
racing to meet a deadline. 

Impact of Stress

The connection between your mind and body is apparent when you examine the impact
stress has on your life.

Feeling stressed out over a relationship, money, or your living situation can create physical
health issues. The inverse is also true. Health problems, whether you're dealing with high
blood pressure or you have diabetes, will also affect your stress level and your mental
health. When your brain experiences high degrees of stress, your body reacts accordingly.

Serious acute stress, like being involved in a natural disaster or getting into a verbal
altercation, can trigger heart attacks, arrhythmias, and even sudden death. However, this
happens mostly in individuals who already have heart disease.5
Stress also takes an emotional toll. While some stress may produce feelings of mild anxiety
or frustration, prolonged stress can also lead to burnout, anxiety disorders, and depression.

Chronic stress can have a serious impact on your health as well. If you experience chronic
stress, your Autonomic nervous system will be overactive, which is likely to damage your
body.

Stressed influenced condition

Diabetes

Hair loss

Heart disease

Hyperthyroidism

Obesity

Sexual dysfunction

Tooth and gum disease

Ulcers

Treatment

Stress is not a distinct medical diagnosis and there is no single, specific treatment for it.
Treatment for stress focuses on changing the situation, developing stress coping skills,
implementing relaxation techniques, and treating symptoms or conditions that may have
been caused by chronic stress.

Some interventions that may be helpful include therapy, medication, and complementary
and alternative medicine (CAM).

Psychotherapy

Some forms of therapy that may be particularly helpful in addressing symptoms of stress
including cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and mindfulness-based stress reduction
(MBSR). CBT focuses on helping people identify and change negative thinking patterns,
while MBSR utilizes meditation and mindfulness to help reduce stress levels.

Medication

Medication may sometimes be prescribed to address some specific symptoms that are
related to stress. Such medications may include sleep aids, antacids, antidepressants, and
anti-anxiety medications.

Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Some complementary approaches that may also be helpful for reducing stress include
acupuncture, aromatherapy, massage, yoga, and meditation.

Coping with stress

Although stress is inevitable, it can be manageable. When you understand the toll it takes
on you and the steps to combat stress, you can take charge of your health and reduce the
impact stress has on your life.

Learn to recognize the signs of burnout. High levels of stress may place you at a high
risk of burnout. Burnout can leave you feeling exhausted and apathetic about your job.6
When you start to feel symptoms of emotional exhaustion, it's a sign that you need to find a
way to get a handle on your stress.

Try to get regular exercise. Physical activity has a big impact on your brain and your
body. Whether you enjoy Tai Chi or you want to begin jogging, exercise reduces stress and
improves many symptoms associated with mental illness. 7

Take care of yourself. Incorporating regular self-care activities into your daily life is

essential to stress management. Learn how to take care of your mind, body, and spirit and
discover how to equip yourself to live your best life.8

Practice mindfulness in your life. Mindfulness isn't just something you practice for 10
minutes each day. It can also be a way of life. Discover how to live more mindfully
throughout your day so you can become more awake and conscious throughout your life.9

END OF TOPIC

NEW TOPIC 5

FRUSTRATIONS

Frustration is a feeling of annoyance that occurs when something doesn't go as you expect. There are
few things more likely to cause frustration for an impatient driver than rush hour traffic.

Types of Reactions to Frustration ↓

The reactions to frustration are also known as Defense Mechanisms. These defense mechanisms are so
called as they try to defend individuals from the psychological effects of a blocked goal. When some
employees get frustrated, they become tensed and irritable. They experience an uneasy feeling in their
stomach and also show various other reactions of frustration.

Following are the various types of reactions to frustration: -

Withdrawal: Behaviors such as asking for a transfer or quitting a job.

Fixation: An employee blames others and superiors for his problems, without knowing complete facts.

Aggression: Acting in a threatening manner.

Regression: Behaving in an immature and childish manner and may self-pity (to feel sorry for oneself).

Physical Disorder: Physical ailments such as fever, upset stomach, vomiting, etc.

Apathy: Becoming irresponsive and disinterested in the job and his co-workers.

Sources or Causes of Frustration ↓

Following are the main sources or causes of frustration: -

Environment: The workplace environment and natural environment both may frustrate the employees.
For example, there may be break down in machinery, no canteen facilities, a wet rainy day or a hot
sunny day may prevent the employees to perform their duties efficiently.

Co-workers: Co-workers may be a major source of frustration. They may place barriers in the way of
goal attainment by delaying work, withholding work inputs, poor presentation of work, affecting its
quality, etc.

Employee Himself: The employee himself is rarely recognized as a source of frustration. The employee
may set higher goals than his abilities.

Management: Management may act as the source of frustration; they may block the promotion of an
employee due to change in organization’s promotional policies.
They Don’t Have Good Working Conditions

An ideal workplace should include safe and comfortable facilities like advanced tools, comfortable work
stations, good lighting, proper ventilation, etc. These basic requirements are equally important for job
satisfaction and can help boost team productivity.

Teamwork is Not Encouraged

Many managers do not feel the need to encourage teamwork. And when this happens, internal conflicts
are likely to surface. Things will end up being a matter of deciding whose fault it is. Management should
ensure that employees feel supported and start encouraging teamwork to nurture healthy team
relationships.

Management Directives Don’t Match Their Capabilities

Gauge the competency levels of your employees and match assignments according to their experience
and capacity. When the bar is set unrealistically high, they may feel as if they are being underestimated
or exploited.

They may even feel that their managers don’t have a realistic understanding of their capabilities. Such
beliefs may lead to an unwillingness to work efficiently, resulting in poor performance.

They Feel the Cultural Burn

Even if everyone in your office is of the same ethnicity, there will still be cultural differences. This is
bound to occur when you bring together people from diverse families and different backgrounds with
diverse understandings of things. This may lead to mistrust, inadvertent offences, and inappropriate
workplace behavior.

How do you overcome such differences on a management level? You can do cross-cultural training to
help employees understand one another and their different backgrounds.

Loss of Trust in Management

Employees become frustrated when they are not heard. At the same time, they may trust you to hear
them out and respond positively to address their frustrations.

There must be a constant reminder that there is room for change. You can foster an environment of
trust in three ways:

Encourage them to vent their frustrations. Welcome their suggestions and attend to their worries.

When they approach you, listen rather than reacting.

Be flexible with your policies to accommodate your employees’ needs. If an employee wants to pick up
their child from school or wants to leave early on a Thursday, give them the flexibility to do so. Find
alternatives such as having them work from home that afternoon. When employees see that their
problems are being addressed, you will end up with a more productive environment.

Too Much Micromanagement

Not just in the professional world but in every other sphere too, micromanagement saps the life out of
us. Moreover, micromanagement shows your employees that you don’t trust them or their judgment.
This can trigger disengagement and cause them to leave for more autonomy.

Minimal Benefits Beyond Financial Compensation

No doubt we all work for money, but we also want our work to be recognized as well. This recognition
and appreciation can be in the form of work benefits like better vacation time, flexible work hours, etc.

Be mindful of unnecessary rules like restrictive office hours, vacation policies, and break timings. Your
aim should be to create an effective, high-yielding workplace and not simply just a busy one.
They Are Engulfed in the Job Insecurity Puddle
If you are on a sinking ship, you’ll prepare to jump — that’s how basic instinct works. The same holds
true at work.

REACTIONS TO FRUSTRATIONS

Generally, our reactions to frustrations will be as follows:

1. Attack or direct approach:

In this approach the individual will try to overcome obstacles to reach the goal. If necessary, he may
develop new and necessary skills, put more effort or change the mode of attack or approach. In case of
failure, he may change the goal to one that is available.

2. Reduce the level of goal:

When a person fails to attain his goal even after repeated attempts, he may realize his inabilities and
limitations and try to reduce his level of goal to avoid further disappointment. For example, a sportsman
may reduce his level of goal after realizing that he cannot attain higher level goal. A student, who fails to
achieve high percentage of marks, may reduce his goal to an attainable level and avoid frustration.

3. Aggressiveness:

Many people may react to the situation in an aggressive way. Aggressive reaction is very common when
some external obstacles like other people or object is the cause of frustration. He may attempt to cause
damage to these sources.

4. Withdrawal:

When all the measures said above become ineffective, the individual develops feelings of helplessness,
inadequacy and inferiority. These negative feelings make him to withdraw from the situation in order to
avoid further damage.

5. Compromise:

In some cases, the individual does not want to accept the humiliation due to failure, at the same time he is
unable to face the situation also. So finally, he will resort to compromise to save his self-respect.

Measures to Face Frustration:

However, we can save ourselves from the severe damaging effect to our personality and avoid painful
experiences by adapting the following measures:

a. Review the situation:

At times our perception of the situation may be wrong. Hence, review the situation again and try to
understand the gravity of the situation. This will help you to adapt appropriate measures / steps. For
example, financial level and career aspiration, inter group conflicts, etc.

b. Change our goals:

People tend to set the goals according to their level of aspirations. But these goals may be very high when
compared to their abilities-leading to frustration. Hence, we have to set the goals according to our ability
level.
However, in case of frustration, the intelligent behavior is to reduce the level of goal, change them or
modify our desires. For example, a sportsman aspiring to jump 6′, when found that he is not capable, may
reduce the goal to jump only 5′.

c. Opt for substitute goals:

In some instances, the original goals will be highly impossible to attain. But we cannot forgo completely
and keep quite. But we can opt for substitute goals. For example, a student is not good in studies may shift
his option to sports or cultural activities to gain recognition in the college.

Most of the times substitute goals also give the same amount of satisfaction as the original goals give.

d.calm down. This will help stop your mind from racing, which is something that happens at the start of
an anxiety producing situation. There are several ways to do this. One is to work on your breathing. Take
five deep breaths. Slowly breathe air in through your nose, hold it for five seconds, and then exhale
slowly through your mouth. Another way to calm down is to close your eyes and focus on a place that
relaxes you, such as a beach or a forest.

e.clear your mind. Everyone does this differently. Some people stand and stretch. Others pet an animal,
or step outside for a moment. There are many more examples you can try. Find one or two that work
best for you. What’s important is that it’s something that you can focus on for a couple of minutes that
is not what’s bothering you. Clearing your mind is taking a quick mental break.

f.come back to your problem or stressor, but this time do it in a calm manner. Look at it in a new way.
Imagine how a friend would see it if they just came across it. Try to see it differently.

g. describe the problem in one sentence. For example, “I’m frustrated that I spilled coffee on my paper
and I am not going to have time to print off a clean copy.”

h.define why this frustrating thing concerns or worries you. It could be something simple like “I’m
worried I’m going to be late again to work” or as complex as “My marriage is falling apart and I’m afraid
our relationship will end in divorce.”

END OF TOPIC

NEW TOPIC 6

CONFLICTS

Conflict- is defined as a clash between individuals arising out of a difference in thought process,
attitudes, understanding, interests, requirements and even sometimes perceptions. A conflict results in
heated arguments, physical abuses and definitely loss of peace and harmony. A conflict can actually
change relationships. Friends can become foes as a result of conflict just as in the case of Tim and Joe.

A Conflict not only can arise between individuals but also among countries, political parties and states as
well. A small conflict not controlled at the correct time may lead to a large war and rifts among countries
leading to major unrest and disharmony.

Common causes of workplace conflict

These are the top ten causes of workplace conflict:

1. Poor communication

A fellow employee who fails to deliver vital information across an organization is a big problem and can
cause plenty of problems.

Good communication is key when it comes to working in a team. If someone doesn’t communicate

well, or fails to send the right message, people will start to get annoyed at their incompetence.

Be clear, concise and make sure you keep to the point when passing on information and you’ll be fine.

2. Two-faced colleagues

They know everything there is to know about everyone, and seem to be best of friends with each and
every person in the office. They’re overly nice, but always seem to have the latest gossip.

Talking about your colleagues behind their back, no matter how annoying they might be, is a disaster
waiting to happen and is one of the biggest causes of office conflict.

If you’re not impressed with the way a colleague is behaving, tell them you don’t want to get caught up
in other people’s business. As a general rule, it’s best to stay out of the politics.

3. Clash in personalities

The nature of a workplace means you’re thrown into the deep end with people who you might not
otherwise choose to socialize with.

There will always be some sort of disagreement on matters in the office because everyone has their own
view, and it would be a very dull place if everyone thought the same. Knowing when to hold back your
opinion is key.

4. Slackers

A slacker’s desk is covered in dust and they pull one too many sickies for it to be believable anymore. Or,
maybe they’re the one whose lunch hour turns into the whole afternoon. Whichever one, it? s never
nice to feel like you’re doing all the work. This is one of the biggest complaints when it comes to conflict
in the workplace.

5. Competitiveness

There’s always someone in the office who seems to want to do everything better than everyone else.
Maybe they’re after a promotion, or maybe they just want to prove that they’re the best. Either way, a
colleague’s constant campaigns to outdo everyone in their path can be both undermining and
aggravating.

It? s best to try and focus your efforts on your own work instead of worrying about other people. If
you’re doing the best you can do, your efforts won’t go unnoticed.

6. Office romance
Flirting between two employees can be both annoying and uncomfortable. Therefore, it is important to
recognize that if love does blossom in the office, it should stay outside of work.

If you’re in an office whirlwind romance yourself it? s also important to make a conscious effort to treat
all your colleagues the same.

On the other hand, if you’ve found yourself sitting in the middle of shameless ping-pong of bad flirting,
speak up. It’ll soon open the lovebirds? eyes to the awkwardness it? s causing everyone else.

7. Annual leave

There are rules around when you can take your holiday due to other people booking time off first.

There’s always going to be a popular period to go on holiday, particularly if you have children, and it? s
important to recognize that everyone in the office is just as much entitled to it as you are.

If there is a specific time that you desperately want off, make sure you book it up ASAP to avoid
disappointment and quarrelling with colleagues.

8. Brown-noser

There’s always that one co-worker who is a little bit too chummy with the boss. Every office has
someone who brazenly sucks-up for a promotion, and it? s difficult not to be annoyed when they get
what they want.

The key to combating conflict with a colleague like this is to avoid getting embroiled in their business.
Maybe they actually deserved that raise. Resist the urge to chat with work allies around the water
cooler and instead focus on doing your job to the best of your ability.

9. Inappropriate clothing

 This is a colleague who treats every day as an opportunity to impress with a series of short skirts or low-
cut tops. Or, if they’re male, they turn up with one too many buttons undone.

Appropriate workplace dress is extremely important as it helps employees respect each other. Also, if
you’re meeting clients or business partners it is imperative that you make a good impression.

If you have a colleague who isn’t projecting professionalism in what they wear it? s vital to take action. It
sets a bad example and can cause conflict between those who make the effort day-in-day-out.

10. Not doing the washing-up

It? s hard to believe that this is one of the top ten causes of work conflict, but there always seems to be
one employee who doesn’t do their fair share.

It? s unfair to assume that only the most junior of staff should hold the tea and coffee duty, and it’s
important to make sure you take it in turns.

Try drawing up a Rota, which will ensure everyone knows where they stand and does their fair share.
Failing that, invest in a dishwasher.
 Impacts //consequences of conflicts
Positive impacts of conflicts

Social Change

Conflict contributes to social change ensuring both interpersonal and intergroup dynamics remain fresh
and. reflective of current interests and realities.

Decision Making

Conflict serves to “discourage premature group decision making,” forcing participants in the decision-
making process to explore the issues and interests at stake.

Reconciliation

Conflict allows for the reconciliation of the parties’ concerns, which can lead to an agreement benefiting
both parties’ needs, and often their relationship and organizations.

Group Unity

Conflict strengthens intragroup unity by providing an outlet for group members to discuss and
negotiate their interests within the group. Without intragroup conflict, the health of the group typically
declines.

Group Cooperation

Conflict between groups produces intra-group unity as the conflict provides the opportunity for
increased intra-group cooperation while working towards the group’s common goal for the conflict’s
outcome.

Inspire Creativity

Fortunately, some organization members view conflict as an opportunity for finding creative solutions to
solve problems. Conflict can inspire members to brainstorm ideas while examining problems from
various perspectives.

Share and Respect Opinions

As organization members work together to solve a conflict, they are more willing to share their opinions
with the group. Conflict can also cause members to actively listen to each other as they work to
accomplish the organizations’ goals.

Improve Future Communication

Conflict can bring group members together and help them learn more about each other.

From learning each others’ opinions on topics relevant to the organization’s growth to understanding
each member’s preferred communication style, conflict within an organization can give members the
tools necessary to easily solve conflicts in the future.
Identify New Members

Within organizations members actively participate in each meeting, enjoy serving on multiple
committees and have an opinion on each topic the group discusses. There are also members who
seemingly contribute little to the group and observe more than talk.

Conflict within an organization can inspire typically silent members to step up and demonstrate their
leadership skills by offering meaningful solutions to the problem the group is facing.

Negative Effects of Conflict in an Organization

Mental Health Concerns

Conflict within an organization can cause members to become frustrated if they feel as if there’s no
solution in sight, or if they feel that their opinions go unrecognized by other group members.

As a result, members become stressed, which adversely affects their professional and personal lives.

Organization members may have problems sleeping, loss of appetite or overeating, headaches and
become unapproachable. In some instances, organization members may avoid meetings to prevent
themselves from experiencing stress and stress-related symptoms.

Decrease in Productivity

When an organization spends much of its time dealing with conflict, members take time away from
focusing on the core goals they are tasked with achieving.

Conflict causes members to focus less on the project at hand and more on gossiping about conflict or
venting about frustrations.

As a result, organizations can lose money, donors and access to essential resources.

Members Leave Organization

Organization members who are increasingly frustrated with the level of conflict within an organization
may decide to end their membership. This is especially detrimental when members are a part of the
executive board or heads of committees

Once members begin to leave, the organization has to recruit new members and appoint acting board
members.

In extreme cases, where several members leave or an executive board steps down, organizations risk
dissolution.

Violence

When conflict escalates without mediation, intense situations may arise, between organization
members. It’s unfortunate, but organizational conflicts may cause violence among members,
resulting in legal problems for members and possibly the organization.

Distract Primary Purposes

Conflict can distract individuals and groups from their primary purposes, leaving them with less time and
resources for other activities.

When a conflict involves the use of “heavy contentious tactics,” it can cause the individuals or groups
involved in the conflict as well as individuals or groups not involved in the conflict to divert time and
resources away from other needs.

Psychological Problem

Conflict can have both short term and long term effects on the physical and psychological health of the
individuals involved in or affected by the conflict.

In worst-case scenarios the psychological consequences can include deep trauma and diminished coping
mechanisms.

Conflict Management Technique

Conflicts have both positive and negative sides. The conflict management techniques are divided into
two parts.The first one is conflict resolution technique and the second one is conflict stimulation
techniques, which are given below:

Conflict Resolution Techniques

Problem-solving

Face-to-face meetings of the conflicting parties for the purpose of identifying the problem and resolving
it through open discussion.

Superordinate goals

Creating a shared goal that cannot be attained without the cooperation of each of the conflicting
parties.

Expansion of resources

When a conflict is caused by the society of a resource say, money, promotion opportunities, office
space- expansion of the resource can create a win-win solution.

Avoidance

Withdrawal from, or suppression of the conflict.

Smoothing

Playing down differences while emphasizing common interests between the conflicting parties.

Compromise

Each party to the conflict gives up something of value.

Authoritative command

Management uses its formal authority to resolve the conflict and then communicates its desires to the
parties involved.

Altering the human variable

Using behavioral change techniques such as human relations training to alter attitudes and behaviors
that cause conflict.

Tips for Resolving Conflict Situations

To manage conflict effectively you must be a skilled communicator.

That includes creating an open communication environment in your unit by encouraging employees to talk about
work issues. Listening to employee concerns will foster an open environment.

Make sure you really understand what employees are saying by asking questions and focusing on their perception
of the problem.

Whether you have two employees who are fighting for the desk next to the window or one employee who wants
the heat on and another who doesn’t, your immediate response to conflict situations is essential.

Here are some tips you can use when faced with employees who can’t resolve their own conflicts.

Acknowledge that a difficult situation exists.

Let individuals express their feelings.

Define the problem.

Determine underlying needs.

Find common areas of agreement, no matter how small.

Find solutions to satisfy needs.

Determine what you’ll do if the conflict goes unresolved .

END OF TOPIC

NEW TOPIC 7

ATTITUDE

An attitude is a positive, negative, or mixed evaluation of an object expressed at some level of intensity.
It is an expression of a favorable or unfavorable evaluation of a person, place, thing, or event. These are
fundamental determinants of our perceptions of and actions toward all aspects of our social
environment. Attitudes involve a complex organization of evaluative beliefs, feelings, and tendencies
toward certain actions.
 Key Differences Between Attitude and Behavior

The difference between attitude and behavior can be drawn clearly on the following grounds:

Attitude is defined as a person’s mental tendency, which is responsible for the way he thinks or feels for
someone or something. Behavior implies the actions, moves, conduct or functions or an individual or
group towards other persons.

A person’s attitude is mainly based on the experiences gained by him during the course of his life and
observations. On the other hand, the behavior of a person relies on the situation.

Attitude is a person’s inner thoughts and feelings. As opposed to, behavior expresses a person’s attitude.

The way of thinking or feeling is reflected by a person’s attitude. On the contrary, a person’s conduct is
reflected by his behavior.

 Attitude is defined by the way we perceive things whereas behavior is ruled by social norms.

Attitude is a human trait but behavior is an inborn attribute.

Conclusion

So, with the above discussion, it is clear that whatever you say or do, conveys a message to the world
about what’s going on in your mind. It is universally accepted fact that our emotions, opinions and
thoughts cannot be observed, which shows our attitude. Further, our behavior is ruled by our attitude as
his actions are the reflection of his thoughts.

Attitude formation
Attitude Formation

There are a number of factors that can influence how and why attitudes form. Here is a
closer look at how attitudes form.

1.Experience

Attitudes form directly as a result of experience. They may emerge due to direct personal
experience, or they may result from observation.

2. Social Factors

Social roles and social norms can have a strong influence on attitudes. Social roles relate to
how people are expected to behave in a particular role or context. Social norms involve
society's rules for what behaviors are considered appropriate.

3. Learning

Attitudes can be learned in a variety of ways. Consider how advertisers use classical

conditioning to influence your attitude toward a particular product. In a television
commercial, you see young, beautiful people having fun on a tropical beach while enjoying a
sports drink. This attractive and appealing imagery causes you to develop a positive
association with this particular beverage.

4. Conditioning

Operant conditioning can also be used to influence how attitudes develop. Imagine a young
man who has just started smoking. Whenever he lights up a cigarette, people complain,
chastise him, and ask him to leave their vicinity. This negative feedback from those around
him eventually causes him to develop an unfavorable opinion of smoking and he decides to
give up the habit.

5. Observation

Finally, people also learn attitudes by observing people around them. When someone you
admire greatly espouses a particular attitude, you are more likely to develop the same
beliefs. For example, children spend a great deal of time observing the attitudes of their
parents and usually begin to demonstrate similar outlooks.

theories of attitude
 Consistency Theories

The basic assumption of these theories is the need of the individual for consistency. There must be
consistency between attitudes, between behaviors, and among attitudes and behaviors. A lack of
consistency causes discomforts so that an individual attempts to ease the tension by adjusting attitudes or
behaviors in order to once again achieve balance or consistency. One of the earliest consistency theories
was balance theory (Himmelfarb & Eagly, 1974; Kiesler, Collins & Miller, 1969; O'Keefe, 1990).

Relationships among the perceiver, another person, and an object are the main focus of balance theory
(Heider, 1958). Relationships are either positive or negative, based on the cognitive perceptions of the
perceiver. In this theory, there are eight possible configurations; four balanced and four unbalanced.
Unbalanced states are recognized as being unstable. Under these conditions, perceivers attempt to restore
balance by changing their attitudes toward objects or other persons.

Two extensions of Heider's balance theory include the work of Newcomb (1961) and that of Abelson
(Abelson & Rosenberg, 1958). Newcomb studied interpersonal situations as well as cognitive balancing
and transferred these ideas to research on the pressures for uniformity in groups. Abelson proposed four
additional modes of restoring balance: (a) denial, (b) bolstering, (c) differentiation, and (d) transcendence
(Himmelfarb & Eagly, 1974; Kiesler, Collins & Miller, 1969; Insko, 1967; O'Keefe, 1990). Establishing
balance was critical to individuals. Attitude changes occurred when the individual attempted to
reestablish balance by modifying their attitudes.

Affective-cognitive consistency theory examines the relationship between attitudes and beliefs
(Rosenberg, 1956). An unstable state occurs when an individual's attitudes toward an object and
knowledge about an object are inconsistent. Persuasive communications (see 4.4) attempt to change the
affective component of an attitude system by changing the cognitive component of attitude. In Other
words, providing an individual with new information that changes the cognitive component of attitude
will tend to cause that individual to change overall attitudes toward an object.

Early Learning Theories

This section might more accurately be called behavioral theories of attitude change. These theories were
also developed during the 1950s and 1960s. During this time, learning theories reflected behavioral
psychology (see 2.2). A major commonality of these theories was their emphasis on the stimulus
characteristics of the communication situation.

Learning theories of attitude change received major emphasis by Hovland and his associates in the Yale
Communication Research Program (Hovland, Janis & Kelley, 1953). They proposed that opinions tended
to persist unless the individual underwent some new learning experience. Persuasive communications
that both present a question and suggest an answer serve as learning experiences. Acceptance of the
suggested answer is dependent on the opportunity for mental rehearsal or practice of the attitude
response, and on the number of incentives included in the communication. Hovland and his colleagues
assumed that as people processed persuasive message content, they rehearsed the message's
recommended attitudinal response, as well as their initial attitude. For attitude change to occur, more
than rehearsal and practice had to take place. The Yale researchers emphasized the role of incentives and
the drive - reducing aspects of persuasive messages as mechanisms for reinforcement, thereby creating
acceptance of new beliefs and attitudes.

Social Judgment Theory

Social judgment theory focuses on how people's prior attitudes distort their perceptions of the positions
advocated in persuasive messages, and how such perceptions mediate persuasion. In general terms, the
theory assumes that a person's own attitudes serve as a judgmental standard and anchor that influences
where along a continuum a persuader's advocated position is perceived to lie (Sherif & Hovland, 1961).
Social judgment theory- is an attempt to apply the principles of judgment to the study of attitude change.

Communication that falls within the latitude of acceptance is assimilated, and if judged to be fair and
unbiased will result in a change in attitude, Within the limits of the latitude of acceptance, the greater the
difference between the initial opinion and the communicated opinion, the greater the attitude change.
Though some change is possible when Opinions fall within the latitude of rejection, the greater the
discrepancy the less the change in attitude (Himmelfarb & Eagly, 1974; Kiesler et al., 1.969; Insko, 1.967).

Social judgment theory's core propositions can be summarized as follows (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993):

A person's current attitude serves as a judgmental anchor for new attitude positions.

Latitude widths determine whether a message's position will be assimilated or contrasted (e.g., accepted
or rejected). Positions falling within the latitude of acceptance will be assimilated toward a person's
current attitude. Positions falling within the latitude of rejection will be contrasted away from the person's
own attitude.

Functional Theories

A fundamental question about attitudes concerns their purpose: That is, what functions do attitudes
serve? Understanding the purposes of attitudes is the identifying characteristic of functional theories.
Attitudes serve different functions for different individuals or for the same individual in different settings.
The reasons for attitude changes are individualized and related to personal functions of attitudes.

The utilitarian function acknowledges the behaviorist principle that people are motivated to gain
rewards and avoid punishments from their environment. Utilitarian attitudes are instrumental in
securing positive outcomes or preventing negative ones. For example, parents' opposition to busing might
be based on the utilitarian belief that it would be harmful to their child. Often, utilitarian beliefs are
associations to stimuli. For example, children often acquire a positive feeling about the month of
December because they associate it with holidays, presents, and vacations (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993).

The knowledge function -of attitudes presumes a basic human need to gain a meaningful, stable, and
organized view of the world. Attitudes supply a standard for organizing and simplifying perceptions of a
complex and ambiguous environment. Attitudes provide a way of sizing up objects and events so they can
be reacted to in a meaningful way. If people's attitudes toward school are positive, then when they are
asked about schools they will be likely to say positive things without needing to "think about it too much."

Effects of attitude
Business owners looking for ways to improve worker productivity can start by evaluating the attitude
their employees bring to the job each day. A positive or negative attitude affects how workers approach
their jobs, and attitudes can have a ripple effect on those around them. In general, a positive attitude
with have a positive impact on productivity, while the reverse is also true.

Change Adaptation

Work environments can change frequently as companies update work procedures, introduce improved
technology and add new products and customers. Employees who display a positive attitude toward
change may welcome and even embrace it, as they may view it as a chance to enhance their skills. As a
result, they may adapt to change more quickly than an employee with a negative attitude, reducing the
time it takes to implement change in a productive manner.

Teamwork

An employee's attitude has an impact on how she functions as part of a team. For instance, as many
companies attempt to create a more diverse workplace, employees may need to work with people of a
different race, nationality or gender than they have in the past. Employees who embrace these diverse
workers and are willing to assimilate them into their team can foster a spirit of cooperation, making the
team more productive in the process.

Innovation

Workplace attitude can affect the presence of innovation and creativity, which can lead to increased
productivity. Workers with a positive attitude toward their job and the company are more likely to make
helpful suggestions or ideas that help the business grow. On the other hand, workers with a negative
attitude may only be concerned with producing enough to get by while having little interest in
innovation.

Turnover

Companies that experience high employee turnover levels not only incur the high costs associated with
hiring workers, they also experience reduced productivity until the new workers are up to speed.
Employees who feel good about their jobs and workplace may be less likely to leave for greener
pastures, helping companies to minimize the productivity gap associated with turnover. Employees with
negative attitudes may eventually seek an improved work situation and decide to leave the company.
END OF TOPIC

NEW TOPIC 8

GROUPS DEVELOPMENT
Definition

Groups where people get along, feel die desire to contribute to the team, and are capable of
coordinating their efforts may have high-performance levels. Group can be defined as a collection of
individuals who have regular contact and frequent interaction, mutual influence, the common feeling of
camaraderie, and who work together to achieve a common set of goals.

The definition of a group can be given by some other simple ways like:

Several people or things that are together or in the same place.

Several people who are connected by some shared activity, interest, or quality.

Several individuals assembled or having some unifying relationship.

A set of people who meet or do something together because they share the same purpose or ideas.

The term group can be defined in several different ways, depending on the perspective that is taken.

A comprehensive definition would say that is a group exists in an organization, its members:

Are motivated to join.

Perceive the group as a unified unit of interacting with people.

Contribute in various amounts to the group processes (that is, some people contribute more time or
energy to the group than do Others).

Reach agreements and have disagreements through various forms of interaction.

Functions of Groups

The organizational functions of groups help to realize an organization’s goals.

Such functions include the following:

Working on a complex and independent task that is too complex for an individual to perform and that
cannot be easily broken down into independent tasks.

Generating new ideas or creative solutions to solve problems that require inputs from several people.

Serving liaison or coordinating functions among several workgroups whose work is to some extent
independent.

Facilitating the implementation of complex decisions. A group composed of representatives from

various working groups can coordinate the activities of these interrelated groups.

Serving as a vehicle for training new employees, groups teach new members methods of operations and
group norms.
The list is not comprehensive. The importance of groups in organizations cannot be overemphasized
because most of the organizational activities are carried out by groups.

Since jobs in organizations are becoming more complex and interdependent, the use of groups in
performing task functions will become increasingly important.

One of the most common findings from the research on groups in organizations is that most groups turn
out to have both formal and informal functions, they serve the needs of both organizational and
individual members.

Psychological groups, therefore, may well be the key unit for facilitating the integration of organizational
goals and personal needs.

For example, a formal workgroup in an industrial establishment often evolves into a psychological group
that meets a variety of its members’ psychological needs.

If this process occurs, the group often becomes the source of much higher levels of loyalty,
commitment, and energy in the service of organizational goals that would be possible if the members’
psychological needs had to be met elsewhere.

Types of Groups

Groups may be classified according to many dimensions, including function, the degree of personal
involvement and degree of organization.

Types of Groups are;

Formal Group.

Informal Group.

Managed Group.

Process Group.

Semi-Formal Groups.

Goal Group.

Learning Group.

Problem-Solving Group

Friendship Group.

Interest Group.
Formal Groups

Formal groups are created to achieve specific organizational objectives. Usually, they are concerned
with the coordination of work activities.

People are brought together based on different roles within the structure of the organization. The
nature of the task to be undertaken is a predominant feature of the formal groups.

Goals are identified by management and short and rules relationships and norms of behavior
established. Formal groups chain to be related to permanent although there may be changes in actual
membership.

However temporary formal groups may also be created by management, for example, the use of project
teams in a matrix organization.

Informal Groups

Within the formal structure of the organization, there will always be an informal structure.

The formal structure of the organization and system of role relationship, rule, and procedures, will be
augmented by interpretation and development at the informal level.

Informal groups are based more on personal relationships and agreement of group’s members than on
defined role relationships. They serve to Satisfy psychological and social needs not related necessarily to
the tasks to be undertaken.

Groups may devise ways of attempting to satisfy members’ affiliations and other social motivations that
are lacing in the work situation, especially in industrial organizations.

Managed Group

Groups may be formed under a named manager, even though they may not necessarily work together
with a great deal. The main thing they have in common, at least the manager and perhaps a similar type
of work.

Process Group

The process group acts together to enact a process, going through a relatively fixed set of instructions.
The classic environment is a manufacturing production line, where every movement is prescribed.

There may either be little interaction within process groups or else it’ is largely prescribed, for example
where one person hands something over to another.

Semi-Formal Groups
Many groups act with less formality, in particular where power is distributed across the group, forcing a
more collaborative approach that includes- negotiation rather than command and control.

Families, communities and tribal groups often act as semi-formal ways as they both have nominal
leaders yet members can have a high degree of autonomy.

Goal Group

The goal group acts together to achieve a shared objective or desired outcome. Unlike the process
groups, there is no clear instruction on how they should achieve this, although they may use some
processes and methods along the way.

As there is no detailed instruction, the members of the goal group need to bring more intelligence,
knowledge, and experience to the task.

Learning Group

The learning group comes together to increase their net knowledge. They may act collaboratively with
discussion and exploration, or they may be a taught class, with a teacher and a syllabus.

Problem-Solving Group

Problem-solving groups come together to address issues that have arisen. They have a common purpose
in understanding and resolving their issue, although their different perspectives can lead to particular
disagreements.

Problem-solving may range along a spectrum from highly logical and deterministic, to uncertain and
dynamic situations there creativity and instinct may be better ways of resolving the situation.

Friendship Group

Groups often develop because individual members have one or more common characteristics. We call
these formations of friendship groups.

Social alliances, which frequently extend outside the work situation, can be based on similar age or
ethnic heritage, support for Kolkata Knight Riders cricket, or the holding of similar political views, to
name just a few such characteristics.

Interest Group

People who may or may not be aligned into a common command or task groups may affiliate to attain a
specific objective with which each is concerned. This is an interest group.
Employees who band together to have their vacation schedules altered, to support a peer who has been
fired, or to seek improved working conditions represent the formation of a united body to further their
common interest.

Differences between Formal Group and Informal Group

Basis for Comparison Formal Group Informal Group

Groups created by the

Groups created by the employees
organization, to accomplish a
Meaning themselves, for their own sake are
specific task, are known as Formal
known as Informal Groups.
Groups.

Formation Deliberately. Voluntarily

Size Large. Comparatively small.

Life It depends on the type of group. It depends on the members.

Structure Well Defined. Not well defined.

The importance is given to Position. Person.

Relationship Professional. Personal.

Communication Moves in a defined direction. Stretches in all the directions.

Skills for a Healthy Group Climate

To work together successfully, group members must demonstrate a sense of cohesion. Cohesion
emerges as group members exhibit the following skills:

Openness.

Trust and Self-Disclosure.

Support.

Respect.

Individual Responsibility and Accountability.

Constructive Feedback.

Openness
Group members are willing to get to know one another, particularly those with different interests and
backgrounds. They are open to new ideas, diverse viewpoints, and the variety of individuals present
within the group.

They listen to others and elicit their ideas. They know how to balance the need for cohesion within a
group with the need for individual expression.

Trust and Self-Disclosure

Group members trust one another enough to share their ideas and feelings.

A sense of mutual trust develops only to the extent that everyone is willing to self-disclose and be
honest yet respectful. Trust also grows as a group the members demonstrate personal accountability for
the tasks they have been assigned.

Support

Group members demonstrate support for one another as they accomplish their goals. They exemplify a
sense of team loyalty and both cheer on the group as a whole and help members who are experiencing
difficulties.

They view one another not as competitors (which is common within a typically individualistic
educational system) but as collaborators.

Respect

Group members communicate their opinions in a way that respects others, focusing on “What can we
learn?” rather than “Who is to blame?”

Individual Responsibility and Accountability

All group members agree on what needs to be done and by whom. Each member determines what he or
she needs to do and takes responsibility to complete the task(s).

They can be held accountable for their tasks, and they hold others accountable for theirs.

Constructive Feedback

Group members can give and receive feedback about group ideas. Giving constructive feedback requires
focusing on ideas and behaviors, instead of individuals, being as positive as possible and offering
suggestions for improvement.

Receiving feedback requires listening well, asking for clarification if the comment is unclear, and being
open to change and other ideas.

Reasons Why Individuals Join Groups

A small group is a combination of more than two people who are interdependent on one another.

So communication among the members of a group consisting of a small number of members is known as
small group communication.

Every organization employs small groups to collect, process, and produce information, solve problems
and make decisions.

Group communication helps to get a synergistic benefit. Synergy means combined efforts of a group
result in greater output than the sum of the individual output.

That is, groups can do more for individuals than individuals can do for themselves. People join groups for
many reasons.

Some group members are motivated by working in a group and others are motivated by creating
interpersonal relationships with other members of the group.

Great OB scholar K. Aswathappa said there is no single reason why individuals join groups.

Since most people belong to many groups, it is obvious that different groups offer different attractions
and benefits to their members.

The most popular reasons for joining a group are related to our needs for security, esteem, affiliation,
power, identity, huddling, and task functions.

Security.

Esteem.

Affiliation.

Power.

Identity.

Huddling.

Security

Probably the strongest reason for group formation is the people’s need for security. By joining a group
we can reduce our insecurity – we feel stronger, have fewer self-doubts, and are more resistant to
threats.

Security

Probably the strongest reason for group formation is the people’s need for security. By joining a group
we can reduce our insecurity – we feel stronger, have fewer self-doubts, and are more resistant to
threats.

Esteem

An individual can increase his self-esteem through group membership.

First, one may gain esteem by becoming a member of a high-status group. Associating with high-status
people is reinforcing, and one who belongs to such a group is usually accorded a high status by
outsiders.

Second, the close relationship an individual can develop as a group member provides opportunities for
recognition and praise that are not available outside of the group.

Affiliation

Another reason why people join groups is that they enjoy the regular company of other people,
particularly those who possess common interests. Individuals may seek out others at work who shares
common hobbies or common backgrounds.

Power

Membership of groups offers power to members in at least two ways.

First, there are sayings such as “united we stand, divided we fall” and there is strength in numbers.”
These are driving forces behind unionizations. Workers enjoy much greater power collectively than they
do as individuals.

Second, the leadership of an informal group enables an individual to exercise power over group
members, even if he does not enjoy the formal position of authority in the organization.

Identity

Group membership contributes to the individual’s eternal quest for an answer to the question “who am
I”. It is common knowledge that’ tries to understand ourselves through the behavior of others towards
us.

If others praise us, we feel we are great, if others enjoy our jokes, we see ourselves as funny persons,
and so on. Groups provide several “others” who will laugh, praise or admire us.

Huddling

One more reason why individuals want to join groups is for huddling.

Because of the way bureaucracies work, individuals, particularly executives, make use of informal get-
togethers called huddles. There are intimate task-oriented encounters of executives trying to get
something done. Huddling enables executives to deal with emerging matters and minimize the amount
of surprise.

It also serves to reduce red tape by cutting through hierarchical channels of communication and
minimizing misunderstandings.

Because organization charts represent real duties, huddling can compensate for a lack of leadership by
taking collective and unofficial responsibility for getting things done.

END OF TOPIC
NEW TOPIC 9

LEADERSHIP

Leadership is the art of motivating a group of people to act toward achieving a common goal. In a
business setting, this can mean directing workers and colleagues with a strategy to meet the company's
needs.

Theories of leadership
1. Contingency Theory

This theory proposes that no one way or style of leadership may be applicable to all situations. In other
words, it recognizes that there might be variables influencing any particular situation, and a leader must
choose the right course of action, taking into account those variables.  

In this regard, leadership researchers White and Hodgson state, "Effective leadership is about striking
the right balance between needs, context, and behavior." The best leaders have not only the right traits
but also the ability to assess the needs of their followers, analyze the situation at hand, and act
accordingly.

2. Situational Leadership Theory

Like the Contingency Theory, the Situational Theory stresses the importance of situational variables and
doesn't consider anyone's leadership style to be better than the others. 

Put forward by US professor, Paul Hersey and leadership guru, Ken Blanchard, the situational theory is a
combination of two factors — the leadership style and the maturity levels of the followers. According to
this theory, different situations demand different styles of leadership and decision-making. Leaders must
act by judging the situation they are facing. 

3. Transformational Leadership Theory

The Transformational Leadership theory, also known as Relationship theories, focuses on the
relationship between the leaders and followers. This theory talks about the kind of leader who is
inspirational and charismatic, encouraging their followers to transform and become better at a task. 

Transformational leaders typically motivated by their ability to show their followers the significance of
the task and the higher good involved in performing it. These leaders are not only focused on the team's
performance but also give individual team members the required push to reach his or her potential. This
leadership theories will help you to sharp your Skill.

4. Transactional Theories

Transactional Theories, also referred to as Management theories or exchange theories of leadership,

revolve around the role of supervision, organization, and teamwork. These theories consider rewards
and punishments as the basis for leadership actions. This is one of the oft-used theories in business, and
the proponents of this leadership style use rewards and punishments to motivate employees.
Learn new trends, emerging practices, tailoring considerations, and core competencies required of a
Project Management professional with the PMP Certification course.

5. Behavioral Theory

In the Behavioral Theory, the emphasis shifts from the traits or qualities of leaders to their behaviors
and actions. In sharp contrast to the Great Man Theory and the trait approach to leadership, this theory
considers effective leadership to be the result of many learned or acquired skills. It proposes that an
individual can learn to become a good leader. This is one of best leadership theories.

6. Great Man Theory of Leadership

This is one of the earliest leadership theories and is based on the assumption that leadership is an
inborn phenomenon and that leaders are "born" rather than "made." According to this theory, a person
capable of leading has the personality traits of a leader — charm, confidence, intellect, communication
skills, and social aptitude — from birth, which set them apart. This theory emphasizes leadership as a
quality that you either possess or you don't; it isn't something that you can learn. 

While the theory sounds pretty discouraging to those wanting to learn the ropes of leadership, you
might take heart in the fact that most modern theorists dismiss it and even by some leaders themselves.
It's still an interesting take on leadership and one that highlights the qualities of great leaders, which
have more or less remained unchanged over time.    

7. Trait Theory of Leadership

This theory walks in the footsteps of the Great Man theory in assuming that leaders are born with traits
that make them more suitable for the role of a leader than others who lack those natural-born traits. As
such, the theory pinpoints certain qualities such as intelligence, accountability, sense of responsibility,
and creativity, among others, that lets an individual excel at leadership. 

One major flaw in the trait approach to leadership is that it doesn't offer a conclusive list of leadership
traits. However, the credibility of the theory lies in the fact that the significance of personality traits in
leadership is well supported by research. Trait Theory of Leadership will help you to improve your
leadership theories .

Leadership styles
1. Autocratic Style

The phrase most illustrative of an autocratic leadership style is "Do as I say." Generally, an autocratic
leader believes that he or she is the smartest person at the table and knows more than others. They
make all the decisions with little input from team members.

This command-and-control approach is typical of leadership styles of the past, but it doesn't hold much
water with today's talent.
That's not to say that the style may not be appropriate in certain situations. For example, you can dip
into an autocratic leadership style when crucial decisions need to be made on the spot, and you have
the most knowledge about the situation, or when you're dealing with inexperienced and new team
members and there's no time to wait for team members to gain familiarity with their role.

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2. Authoritative Style

The phrase most indicative of this style of leadership (also known as "visionary") is "Follow me." The
authoritative leadership style is the mark of confident leaders who map the way and set expectations,
while engaging and energizing followers along the way.

In a climate of uncertainty, these leaders lift the fog for people. They help them see where the company
is going and what's going to happen when they get there.

Unlike autocratic leaders, authoritative leaders take the time to explain their thinking: They don't just
issue orders. Most of all, they allow people choice and latitude on how to achieve common goals.

3. Pacesetting Style

"Do as I do!" is the phrase most indicative of leaders who utilize the pacesetting style. This style
describes a very driven leader who sets the pace as in racing. Pacesetters set the bar high and push their
team members to run hard and fast to the finish line.

While the pacesetter style of leadership is effective in getting things done and driving for results, it's a
style that can hurt team members. For one thing, even the most driven employees may become
stressed working under this style of leadership in the long run.

An agile leadership style may be the ultimate leadership style required for leading today's talent.

Should you avoid the pacesetting style altogether? Not so fast. If you're an energetic entrepreneur
working with a like-minded team on developing and announcing a new product or service, this style may
serve you well. However, this is not a style that can be kept up for the long term. A pacesetting leader
needs to let the air out of the tires once in a while to avoid causing team burnout.

4. Democratic Style

Democratic leaders are more likely to ask "What do you think?" They share information with employees
about anything that affects their work responsibilities. They also seek employees' opinions before
approving a final decision.
There are numerous benefits to this participative leadership style. It can engender trust and promote
team spirit and cooperation from employees. It allows for creativity and helps employees grow and
develop. A democratic leadership style gets people to do what you want to be done but in a way that
they want to do it.

5. Coaching Style

When you having a coaching leadership style, you tend to have a "Consider this" approach. A leader who
coaches views people as a reservoir of talent to be developed. The leader who uses a coach approach
seeks to unlock people's potential.

Leaders who use a coaching style open their hearts and doors for people. They believe that everyone
has power within themselves. A coaching leader gives people a little direction to help them tap into their
ability to achieve all that they're capable of.

6. Affiliative Style

A phrase often used to describe this type of leadership is "People come first." Of all the leadership
styles, the affiliative leadership approach is one where the leader gets up close and personal with
people. A leader practicing this style pays attention to and supports the emotional needs of team
members. The leader strives to open up a pipeline that connects him or her to the team.

Ultimately, this style is all about encouraging harmony and forming collaborative relationships within
teams. It's particularly useful, for example, in smoothing conflicts among team members or reassuring
people during times of stress.

7. Laissez-Faire Style

The laissez-faire leadership style is at the opposite end of the autocratic style. Of all the leadership
styles, this one involves the least amount of oversight. You could say that the autocratic style leader
stands as firm as a rock on issues, while the laissez-faire leader lets people swim with the current.

On the surface, a laissez-faire leader may appear to trust people to know what to do, but taken to the
extreme, an uninvolved leader may end up appearing aloof. While it's beneficial to give people
opportunities to spread their wings, with a total lack of direction, people may unwittingly drift in the
wrong direction—away from the critical goals of the organization.

Qualities of a good leader

Here are the seven most identified qualities of great leaders and executives:
1. Vision

“Good business leaders create a vision, articulate the vision, passionately own the vision,
and relentlessly drive it to completion.”  – Jack Welch

Great leaders have a vision… They can see into the future.

They have a clear, exciting idea of where they are going and what they are trying to accomplish and
are excellent at strategic planning.

This quality separates them from managers. Having a clear vision turns the individual into a special
type of person. This quality of vision changes a “transactional manager”  into a “transformational
leader.”

While a manager gets the job done, great leaders tap into the emotions of their employees.

2. Courage

“Courage is rightly considered the foremost of the virtues, for upon it, all others depend.”   –
Winston Churchill

One of the more important qualities of a good leader is courage. Having the quality of courage means
that you are willing to take risks in the achievement of your goals with no assurance of success.
Because there is no certainty in life or business, every commitment you make and every action you
take entails a risk of some kind.

Among the seven leadership qualities, courage is the most identifiable outward trait.

3. Integrity

“With integrity, you have nothing to fear, since you have nothing to hide. With integrity, you
will do the right thing, so you will have no guilt.”  – Zig Ziglar

In every strategic planning session that I have conducted for large and small corporations, the first value
that all the gathered executives agree upon for their company is integrity. They all agree on the
importance of complete honesty in everything they do, both internally and externally.

The core of integrity is truthfulness.

Integrity requires that you always tell the truth, to all people, in every situation. Truthfulness is the
foundation quality of the trust that is necessary for the success of any business.
4. Humility

Humility gets results. Larry Bossidy, the former CEO of Honeywell and author of the book Execution,
explained why leadership characteristics, such as humility, make you a more effective leader:
“The more you can contain your ego, the more realistic you are about your problems.   You
learn how to listen, and admit that you don’t know all the answers.  You exhibit the attitude
that you can learn from anyone at any time. Your pride doesn’t get in the way of gathering the
information you need to achieve the best results. It doesn’t keep you from sharing the credit
that needs to be shared. Humility allows you to acknowledge your mistakes.” –  Larry Bossidy

Great leaders are those who are strong and decisive but also humble.

Humility doesn’t mean that you’re weak or unsure of yourself. It means that you have the self-
confidence and self-awareness to recognize the value of others without feeling threatened.

This is one of the rarer attributes – or traits – of good leaders because it requires containment of one’s
ego.

It means that you are willing to admit you could be wrong, that you recognize you may not have all the
answers. And it means that you give credit where credit is due – – which many people struggle to do.

5. Strategic Planning

“Strategy is not the consequence of planning, but the opposite: it’s the starting point.”   – Henry
Mintzberg

Great leaders are outstanding at strategic planning . It’s another one of the more important leadership
strengths. They have the ability to look ahead, to anticipate with some accuracy where the industry and
the markets are going.

Leaders have the ability to anticipate trends, well in advance of their competitors. They continually
ask, “Based on what is happening today, where is the market going? Where is it likely to be in three
months, six months, one year, and two years?”  They do this through thoughtful strategic planning.

Because of increasing competitiveness, only the leaders and organizations that can accurately anticipate
future markets can possibly survive. Only leaders with foresight can gain the “first mover advantage.”

6. Focus

“Successful people maintain a positive focus in life no matter what is going on around them. They
stay focused on their past successes rather than their past failures, and on the next action steps they
need to take to get them closer to the fulfillment of their goals rather than all the other distractions
that life presents to them.  – Jack Canfield

Leaders always focus on the needs of the company and the situation. Leaders focus on results, on what
must be achieved by themselves, by others, and by the company. Great leaders focus on strengths, in
themselves and in others.

They focus on the strengths of the organization, on the things that the company does best in satisfying
demanding customers in a competitive marketplace.
Your ability as a leader to call the shots and make sure that everyone is focused and concentrated on the
most valuable use of their time is essential to the excellent performance of the enterprise.

7. Cooperation

“If your imagination leads you to understand how quickly people grant your requests when those
requests appeal to their self-interest, you can have practically anything you go after.”   – Napoleon Hill

Your ability to get everyone working and pulling together is essential to your success. Leadership is the
ability to get people to work for you because they want to.

The 80/20 rule  applies here:

Twenty percent of your people contribute 80 percent of your results.

Your ability to select these people and then to work well with them on a daily basis is essential to the
smooth functioning of the organization.

Gain the cooperation of others by making a commitment to get along well with each key person every
single day. You always have a choice when it comes to a task: You can do it yourself, or you can get
someone else to do it for you. Which is it going to be?

END OF TOPIC